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Abstract

This study explored the effects of high-stakestesting and accountability on the fundamental practices associated with middle school philosophy.Participants were middle school educators, includingadministrators and teachers, from Pennsylvaniamiddle schools. An online survey was used tocollect data for this study. The survey addressedthe following middle school practices: grouping for instruction, developmentally appropriate instructional practices, interdisciplinary and integrated curriculum,interdisciplinary teaming and planning, and advisory programs. Participants were also encouraged to addcomments throughout the survey. Findings revealedthat since the implementation of No Child LeftBehind (NCLB) and the associated high-stakes tests,developmentally appropriate practices in middleschools have been altered to provide additional timefor test preparation. In many cases, tested subject

areas (specically reading, writing, and mathematics)

were given more instructional time during theschool day. Furthermore, special area subjects (i.e.,

electives) were often sacriced and, in some cases,

advisory time was used for remediation. Implicationsfor practice focus on the need to maintain a balance between test preparation and practices deemedappropriate for middle school students.

Introduction

Since the middle school concept emerged in the late1950s and early 1960s, proponents have introducedmyriad recommendations and prescriptions for teachingstudents in the middle grades (McEwin, Dickinson, &Jenkins, 2004). Associated with middle grades educationis the commitment to young adolescents and their uniquequalities. National Middle School Association (2003)“seeks to conceptualize and promote successful middlelevel schools that enhance the healthy growth of youngadolescents as lifelong learners, ethical and democratic

citizens, and increasingly competent, self-sufcient

young people who are optimistic about their future”(p. 1). Educating the whole child, including theMicki M. Caskey, Ph.D., Editor Portland State UniversityPortland, Oregon

2010 • Volume 34 • Number 3 ISSN 1940-4476

Inuences of High-Stakes Testing onMiddle School Mission and Practice

Ronald R. Musoleno

Penn State University, Great Valley

Malvern, PAGeorge P. WhiteLehigh UniversityBethlehem, PA

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intellectual, emotional, social, moral, and physicaldomains, is central to the philosophy of middle gradeseducation. “For middle schools to be successful, their students must be successful; for students to be successful,the school’s organization, curriculum, pedagogy, and programs must be based upon the developmentalreadiness, needs, and interests of young adolescents”(NMSA, 2003, p. 1). In

Turning Points 2000

, Jackson andDavis (2000) stated, “The main purpose of middle gradeseducation is to promote young adolescents’ intellectualdevelopment” (p. 10). They added,It is to enable every student to think creatively,to identify and solve meaningful problems, tocommunicate and work well with others, andto develop the base of factual knowledge andskills that is the essential foundation for these‘higher order’ capacities. (Jackson & Davis,2000, pp. 10–11).In

This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents

(NMSA, 2010), NMSA clearly dened

best practice for today’s middle schools. For example,teaming, is a well-documented middle school practice.Teaming not only leads to increased communication between school and home, but also advances more positive student attitudes leading to increased studentachievement (Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 1999;Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 2000a; Flowers,Mertens, & Mulhall, 2000b; NMSA, 2010).

No Child Left Behind

Prominent among the challenges that face middlegrades educators is the issue of high-stakes testing.Teachers and administrators across the country haveexperienced the pressures associated with such testing.Meeting Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) goals has become a factor in the use of instructional time for test preparation. For those schools that cannot meet AYP,the consequences can include potential remediationand/or corrective measures. Nichols and Berliner

(2007) addressed NCLB legislation as follows:

We are concerned here with only one of the provisions of NCLB, the one requiring thatstates adopt a system of accountability wherebystudents, teachers, administrators, and schoolsare evaluated annually on the basis of students’standardized test performance and thatconsequences follow when student scores arelow or annual gains in school achievement are

not made. (p. 7)

Moreover, accountability dominates the discussionon assessment of classroom and school performance.“Because of the pressure to raise test scores, particularly in the urban school districts, teachersare compelled to teach the skills and knowledge thatwill be tested, neglecting more complex aspects of the subjects and, indeed, some subjects altogether”(Hursh, 2008, p. 92). Zhao (2009) captured thissentiment when he stated, “Several studies discoveredthat NCLB caused a large proportion of schools toteach to the test and to reduce instructional time for subjects not required by NCLB” (pp. viii–ix). Hefurther noted, “Some states, schools, and teachershave even been found to cheat on behalf of their students in order to meet the NCLB requirements”(p. ix). Finn (2008) added to the discussion in his book on school reform:Because it’s generally true in educationthat “what gets tested is what gets taught,”too cramped a testing plan may narrow thecurriculum. If only reading and math “count,”for example, school may focus overmuch ondrilling youngsters in those skills and neglecthistory, civics, science, not to mention art, music,and languages. ... If teachers can determinewhich topics will actually appear on the year-endtest, they may further restrict what they cover inclass. (p. 250)In another discussion on standardized tests, Bracey(2009) asserted, “Schools under the gun to raisetest scores increasingly rely on strategies that getimmediate, but short-lived, results” (p. 34). Thistendency is further supported by those noting a shiftin instructional tendency to incorporate test-takingskills. “Schools participate in gaming strategies toavoid adverse consequences, and teachers reshapeinstructional activities to mirror standardized

tests” (Valli, Croninger, Chambliss, Graeber, &

Buese, 2008, p. 51). Thus, NCLB has noticeablyimpacted educators’ content coverage and the use of instructional time.

Developmental Needs

Many middle schools and programs have beendesigned to address the wide range of developmentalneeds of the emerging adolescent. Among these needsare those associated with the physical development of the young person, such as providing opportunities tomove around the classroom. Young adolescents arelearning about themselves and their physical growth.It is during this stage of development that their needto socialize increases. Rather than sit in rows withlimited opportunity for interaction among peers,instruction in the middle school typically allows

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for movement and peer interaction. Cooperative

learning and other exible grouping strategies are

among the instructional practices that address theyoung adolescent’s need for physical movement andsocial interaction. Pitton (2001) stated, “If teachersdo not recognize the impact of these developmentaldifferences, then they will not be able to respondaccordingly” (p. 24). Emotional development tiesinto this as well. For example, the middle schoolstudent yearns to be accepted by peers. Instructional practices such as grouping, that take into account thedevelopmental characteristics of young adolescentsmay be more supportive of the emerging adolescent, but may be less conducive to an environment focusedon test preparation. Nonetheless, pressure to increase test scores is a prominent component of the instructional process.While a body of literature ties increased achievementto accepted middle school practices (Backes, Ralston,& Ingwalson, 1999; Lee & Smith, 1993; Mertens &Flowers, 2003), other studies have demonstrated thedeparture from best practice in the wake of recentassessment demands.In their study of accountability and the changing practice of middle school educators, Green andassociates (2008) expressed their concern that best practices for students in the middle grades may, in fact, be at risk. They pointed to the increased emphasis onthe requirements of NCLB and the attainment of AYPas major factors. “This study indicates that pressureto prepare students for annual tests is leaving teacherswith less support and motivation to pursue teachingwithin the framework of the middle school model”(p. 60). In a separate study, Faulkner and Cook (2006)reported on the demands of assessments as they pertainto middle school instructional practice. Teachers were

asked about the inuence of state-mandated tests on

their instructional practice and choice of teachingstrategies. “There was an overwhelming sense thatthe state assessment dictated their practice and, in asense, forced them to use ineffective, teacher-focused

instructional strategies” (p. 7).

Mastery and Performance Orientations

Goal theory, in the educational psychology literature,offers clear distinctions between mastery and performance orientations to learning (Brophy,2004). Students with a performance orientationare motivated to get good grades. For it is theachievement of good grades that gives the students personal satisfaction. Deep understanding of content is valued less than the high grade. Mistakesare viewed as exposing weaknesses, for example,“Rather than ask for help when they need it, they

prefer to conceal their difculties by leaving items

blank, taking wild guesses, or perhaps copying fromneighbors” (Brophy, 2004, p. 91). Rote learning andshort-term recall are a means to an end.Mastery orientation, on the other hand, is associatedwith the student who uses his or her ability to learnto the fullest extent he or she can. Students are moredeeply engaged in the learning task and simply enjoy being part of an environment where learning takes place. For these students, learning from mistakesis expected and acceptable (Brophy, 2004; Schunk,Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Surely, schools that placethe needs of the child as primary fall into this category,although none are mutually exclusive. “Havingstudents learn well is of little value if what they learn

is trivial or unimportant” (Guskey, 1997, p. 20). Withthe pressures of testing, sufcient time for students to

explore and discover are being replaced by carefullyscripted programs—ones that prepare students to perform well on tests. Middle schools are in a dilemmato ensure high scores and AYP, while at the same time,maintaining the middle school concept of educatingthe whole child (socially and emotionally) to ensureindividual growth for all students.

Current Study

The current study describes how middle schools haveadjusted to the pressures of testing and meeting AYP.The purpose of the study was to determine if therehave been changes to operational and philosophical practices in Pennsylvania middle schools as a resultof mandatory high-stakes testing.For those educators with a long-term perspective, thequestion may very well be, “So what happened tothe dream of a middle school where the needs of the

adolescent learner are rst and foremost and where

the pressures of tests do not cause us to compromisethose needs?” For those educators new to themiddle school setting, the issue is whether students’

developmental needs or test results should come rst

when planning instruction.

Research Design and Method

This investigation used an online survey to gather information about effects of high-stakes testing onmiddle school practices. The survey was designed

to target specic practices typically associated with

middle schools. These included (1) grouping for instruction (heterogeneous vs. homogeneous); (2)

of 00

Influences of High-Stakes Testing on Middle School Mission and Practice - RMLE Online Vol. 34, No. 3

This study explored the effects of high-stakes testing and accountability on the fundamental practices associated with middle school philosophy.

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Upload Date:	02/10/2011
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Tags:	Education research teacher white nclb principal middle school No Child Left Behind (more tags) Education research teacher white nclb principal middle school No Child Left Behind middle grades middle level high stakes testing musoleno middle school mission middle school philosophy (fewer)