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TheMesopotamianSoulofWesternCulture
SIMOPARPOLAInstituteforAsianandAfricanStudies,UniversityofHelsinkiTheworn-outphrase,"AlreadytheancientGreeks...,"involvesattitudesandviewsthatmakeanAssyriologiststiruneasily.ItsbasicmessageisthatWesternculturewasborninancientGreece.Thelittleword"already"betrays,ontheonehand,admirationoftheachievementsoftheGreeks,andontheotherhanddisparagementofpreviouscultures,asifnothingworthmentioninghadbeenaccomplishedbeforetheGreeks.SuchattitudesarerootedinremoteantiquityandderivefromGreekantagonismtowards"thebarbarians"afterthePersianWars,aswellasfromnotionsofGreeksuperiorityover"thebarbarians"aftertheconquestsofAlexander.TodayweknowthatGreecealreadyinthethirdmillenniumBewasaninseparablepartoftheancientNearEasternculturalsphere.Thelocalculture,whichtheGreeksadoptedwhentheyinvadedthecountryintheearlysecondmillenniumBe,hadlonghadclosetieswithAnatolia,MesopotamiaandtheLevant.ThisorientalconnectioncontinuedandgainedinstrengthintheearlypartofthefirstmillenniumBe,whentheNeo-Assyrian,Neo-BabylonianandAchaemenidempiresextendedtheirspheresofinfluencefartherandfarthertowardstheWest.Irrespectiveofpoliticalboundaries,theGreeksandIoniansatthistimeacceptedinfluencesfromtheEastinallareasofculture:religion,science,arts,fashion,andevenpoliticalandadministrativesystems.Thegeneraleast-to-westdirectionoftheinfluencesiseasytodocument,andtheirquantityandvarietyisimpressive.Nonetheless,thenotionoftheuniquenessandsuperiorityofGreekculturelivesontenaciously.EvenwhentherealityofNearEasterninfluenceisadmitted,itssignificanceisgenerallymarginalized,andtheGreeks'owncontributiontothebirthofWesterncultureisconsideredessentiallymoresignificant.TheshiftfromclassicalGreekculturetoHellenisticworldcultureseemsnaturalandself-evident,whilethecultureoftheancientNearEastseemstobelongtoatotallydifferentworld.ItisasiftheentireOldWorld,wingedbythe"Greekgenius,"hadsuddenlychangedafterthefourthcenturyBeandtakenadramaticleapforwardtowardsamodernkindofsociety,philosophy,scienceandarts.TheprogressofancientNearEasternstudiesis,however,slowlychallengingthisview.ItisbecomingincreasinglyclearthatthepredominantlyGreekstampofHellenisticculturelargelyisan"opticalillusion"causedbythedominantpositiongainedbytheGreeklanguageintheEastasaresultofAlexandertheGreat'sconquests.
In
reality,Hellenisticculturewithitsphilosophies,religions,sciences,artsandinstitutionswasessentiallybasedonancientNearEasternculturaltraditions,whoseoriginscan,withthehelpofMesopotamiansources,betracedbacktothebeginningofthethirdmillenniumBe,andevenearlier.Thisfactisnotatallevident:incomparisonwithGreekandHellenisticcultures,Mesopotamiancultureatfirstsight,undeniably,seemsalienandstrange.Thebetteronehaslearnedtounderstandit,however,themoreithascometoresembleourownculture.Itsstrangeandexoticfeaturesconcealwithinthemselvesaninvisibleworldofideasmorefamiliartous,whichresurfacesinnewgarmentsbutlargelyidenticalincontentinclassicalantiquity.
In
Mesopotamia,thevisibleandinvisibleworldswereconnectedwitheachotherthroughacomplexsystemofsymbols,images,metaphors,allegoriesand
1
 
mentalassociations.UnravelingthissymboliccodeopensthewaytotheverycoreofMesopotamianculture,theworldofideashiddenitsconventionalandaliensurface.ThestudyofMesopotamianintellectualculturehasprogressedrapidlyinrecentyears.
In
particular,chartinganddecodingitsverbalandvisualimageryhasopenedvistasthatcanwithgoodreasonbecalledrevolutionary.Itakeatellingexamplefrommyownfieldofexpertise.Thereliefshownin
(Fig.1)
takesustotheheartoftheAssyrianempire,thegovernmentalpalaceofKingAshurnasirpalIIinCalahatthebeginningoftheninthcenturyBC.Havingwalkedthroughendlesscorridorspaneledwithcolorfulbasreliefs,wefinallyenterthethroneroomofthepalace.Totheleftoftheentrance,atthefarendofthehall,surgestheroyalthrone;thewallsoftheroomarelinedwithreliefsrecallingthetempleofJerusalemdecoratedwithcherubsandpalmtrees,asdescribedintheprophecyofEzekiel.Wingedgeniesandastylizedpalmtreealsodominatethereliefshowninthepicture,whichcoveredthewallspacebehindtheroyalthrone.Whilereliefswithtreesandgeniesoccuringreatnumbersalsoelsewhereinthepalace,thisparticularreliefanditsduplicatefacingtheentrancetothethroneroomareuniqueinthattheyaretheonlyonesinwhichthetreeistoppedbya
wingeddisk
andsurroundedbytwomirror-imagedroyalfigures.
Figure1
SlabB-23ofthethroneroomofAshurnasirpalII'sPalaceatCalah(AfterA.H.Layard,
MonumentsofNineveh
I[London,1849],PI.25)
Thevisualeffectofthismagnificentlycarvedrelief(towhichthelinedrawingreproducedheredoeslittlejustice)isindisputable,andforoverahundredyearsithasbeenoneoftheprizedattractionsoftheAssyrianGalleriesoftheBritishMuseum.Itslocationbehindtheroyalthroneemphasizesitsideologicalsignificance,andevenanoutsidercaninstinctivelyfeelthesenseofmajesty,holinessandsupernaturalpoweremanatingfromit.Itsexactmeaninghas,however,untilrecently,remainedanenigma.Thenoncommittalcaptionattachedtoitintheexhibitionhallisrevealing:"Kingsandwingedfiguresofferingsbesideasacredtree."Asweshallseeshortly,thewingedfiguresdonotcarryofferings:thereis,infact,onlyoneking,nottwo,ontherelief,andnobodyactuallystandsbesidethetree.
In
ordertounderstandthereliefcorrectlyitisessentialtorealizethatitdoesnotdepictphysicalbut
metaphysical
reality.Eachofitsfourmainelements-thewingeddisk,thetree,thewingedfigure,the2
 
king-representsafigurativelyexpressedabstractideaormetaphysicalconcept.Eachmainelementagainconsistsofseveralsymbolicsub-elements,whichwithinvisiblebondsassociatetheideologicalmessageofthereliefwithotherstructuresofthoughtbuiltuponthesamesymbolism,:philosophy,mythology,cult,magic,rituals,andreligiousdoctrines.
In
thissensethereliefisasortoffigurativehypertextstudiedwithlinkstotheentireMesopotamianintellectualculture.Thewingedfigurestandingbehindthekingrepresentstheculminationofman'sspiritualdevelopment,amythicalsagewhothankstohiswisdomandpietyhaswonforhimselfaplaceinheaven.Thewisdomofthefigureisofamysticalkind,anabilitytounderstandandmastersupernaturalpowersoperativeintheworld.
In
thiscapacityitfunctionsastheking'sguardianagainstsin,culticimpurityandevilspirits.Thecrownonitsheadisthecrownof
heaven;
thegarmentsitisdressedinarethe
white
garmentsofasaint;thebucketinitslefthandisfilledwithwaterof
life,
andtheconeinitsrighthandhas
purificatory
power.Thefigurehasthewingsofaguardianangel;fromitsbeltprotrudeweaponsagainstforcesofdarkness;itsmuscularfeetsymbolizevictoriousstrivingtowardsheaven.Apartfromthebucketandthecone-thedistinctivemarksofanantediluviansage-thefigureinallitsdetailsresemblesNinurta,theslayerofAnzu(amonstersymbolizingdarknessandsin)exaltedinheavenlygloryafterhisvictory,asdepictedinacontemporaryrelief
(Fig.
2).
Figure2
NinurtaslaysAnzu.RelieffromthetempleofNinurtaatCalah(After
A.
H.Layard,
MonumentsofNineveh
II[London,1853],PI.5)
Thefigurativelanguageofthereliefisnotlimitedtothesymbolicmeaningofitsconstituentelements;italsohasasyntaxofitsown.Itscompositionisdominatedbycentripetalbalance,harmonyandsymmetry.Thefiguresturnedtowardsthecentersupportthebalanceofthewholeandunderlinethesignificanceofthemysterioustreeinthemiddle.Thetree'slocationonthemiddleaxisoftherelief,inthecenterofpower,
exactlybehind
thekingseatedonthethrone,isnotaccidental.Threeconspicuousfeaturescatchtheeyeinitscomplicatedstructure:thegarlandsurroundingthetree,thebalanceandharmonyofthewhole,andthethreenodesofthetrunk,fromwhichfruit-bearingbranchesemerge.Thenodesandthefruitsontherightandleftsideofthetree,linkedtooneanotherby3
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