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C. Röll
Cultural modelsHofstede
Model/TheoryHofstede is a Dutch organisational anthropologist. He developed hisculture dimensions from examining work-related values in employeesof IBM during the 1970s. In his original work he divides culture intofour dimensions at culture-level: power distance (more far-reachingthan workplace alone), individualism /collectivism (most populardimension), masculinity/femininity (clearly distinguished gender roles– gender roles overlap) and uncertainty avoidance.In his later work, Hofstede (1991) introduces a fifth dimension.Hofstede describes long-term orientation as characterised bypersistence, ordering relationships by status and observing thisorder, thrift, and having a sense of shame, whereas short-termorientation is characterised by personal steadiness and stability,protecting your "face”, respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favours, and gifts.(stephan.dahl.at/intercultural/hall.html)Strengths- Empirical research. With the support of IBM, 88,000 managers inover sixty countries had been interviewed. The work of Hofstede is probably the most popular work in the arenaof culture research. Although the work provides a relatively generalframework for analysis, the framework can be applied easily to manyeveryday intercultural encounters. It is particularly useful, as itreduces the complexities of culture and its interactions into fiverelatively easily understood cultural dimensions. (However, often it isnot enough to consider one category and then the system becomesmore complicated.)WeaknessesData derived from questionnaires based on only on a limited numberof questions that then determined underlying values.Data are incomplete (not all countries have been covered)Data are outdated. The dimensions are too abstract to derive practical guidelines on howto behave in an intercultural situation. They only serve as a roughorientation. The model is rather complex because in order to predict a certainbehaviour, for example of a manager, all dimensions have to betaken into account. (IFIM Presse-Service 2/2003)Cultural categories, Hofstede’s index valuesApart from the lack of meaningfulness of the values, the problemposed by proceeding in this way is obvious. On the one hand, theformulation of the categories is based on a Western perspective, andon the other hand, cultures develop in a certain way so that thecategories may not be valid any more. The values rather perpetuate stereotypes instead of overcomingthem. (Bolten, 95) The pattern of action related to the five bipolar scales remain sogeneral that even when knowing where specific values arepositioned, one will not be able to predict the preferences thatinfluence the actions of members of a certain country. Furthermore,it remains unclear of and how the attitudes identified byquestionnaires are relevant in intercultural situations. (Müller, 37)Cultural standards depend on the interaction (interaktionsrelevant).
 
C. Röll
Depending to the intercultural interaction in question certainstandards can be relevant because they arise due to the situation.(Müller, 38)Some conceptual weaknesses (collectivism, individualism)
Edwart T. Hall
Model /TheoryBooks “The Silent Language” (1959) and “The Hidden Dimension”(1969). Hall identified two classic dimensions of culture.- high-context and low-context cultures, where the high and lowcontext concept is primarily concerned with the way in whichinformation is transmitted, that is to say communicated. According toHall, all "information transaction" can be characterised as high-, low –or middle – context. "High context transactions feature pre-programmed information that is in the receiver and in the setting, withonly minimal information in the transmitted message. Low contexttransactions are the reverse. Most of the information must be in thetransmitted message in order to make up for what is missing in thecontext." (Hall, 1976, p.101)AdvantagesThe high/low context concept frequently used in analysing face-to-facecommunication. The implications of this concept are far ranging, andreaching from interpersonal to mass communication. The high/low context concept deals primarily with language, which islocated in the outer layer of the ‘culture onion’, and is one of the mostbasic concepts for any type of intercultural communication, or itsanalysis.DisadvantagesModel lacks empirical data, underlying values are not explainedLittle, if any, statistical data available which identify where givencountries are located on the high-low context dimension, andlinguistically, it is very complex to identify degrees of directness (seeBond et al., 2000)Monochronic and Polychronic CulturesMonochronic CulturePolychronic CultureInterpersonalRelationsInterpersonal relations are subordinateto present schedulePresent schedule issubordinate to interpersonalrelationsActivity Co-ordinationSchedule co-ordinates activity;appointment time is rigid.Interpersonal relations co-ordinate activity;appointment time is flexible Task HandlingOne task at a timeMany tasks are handledsimultaneouslyBreaks andPersonal TimeBreaks and personal time aresacrosanct regardless of personal ties.Breaks and personal timeare subordinate to personalties. TemporalStructure Time is inflexible; time is tangibleTime is flexible; time is fluidWork/personaltime separabilityWork time is clearly separable frompersonal timeWork time is not clearlyseparable from personaltimeOrganisationalPerceptionActivities are isolated from organisationas a whole; tasks are measured byActivities are integrated intoorganisation as a whole;
 
C. Röll
output in time (activity per hour orminute)tasks are measured as partof overall organisational goal(stephan.dahl.at/intercultural/hall.html)
Trompenaars andHampden-Turner
In their book "Riding The Waves of Culture" (1997), Trompenaarsand Hampden-Turner identify seven value orientations. Some of these value orientations are similar to Hofstede's dimensions. The seven value dimensions identified were:
Universalism versus particularismCommunitarianism versus individualismNeutral versus emotionalDefuse versus specific culturesAchievement versus ascriptionHuman-Time relationship andHuman-Nature relationship
 Of these seven value dimensions, two reflect closely the Hofstededimensions of Collectivism/Individualism and to a lesser extentpower distance. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner'scommunitarianism/individualism value orientation seems to bevirtually identical to Hofstede's Collectivism/Individualism. Theirachievement/ascription value orientation, which describes howstatus is accorded, appears to be linked to Hofstede's powerdistance index, at least if one accepts that status is accorded bynature rather than achievement, and that this reflects a greaterwillingness to accept power distances. It is, however, not acomplete match, as Hofstede's power index does not only relate tohow status is accorded, but also to the acceptable power distancewithin a society, an area that is not touched upon by Trompenaarsand Hampden-Turner. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's other dimensions seem tofocus more on some resulting effects of underlying valuedimensions. For example, their neutral/emotional dimensiondescribes the extent to which feelings are openly expressed, i.e. abehavioural aspect rather than a value in itself. The universalism/particularism value orientation distinguishesbetween societal collectivism and in-group collectivism. Their diffuse/specific value orientation, describing the range of involvement, seems to have no direct link to any of Hofstede'sdimensions.Human-Time relationship is closely related, if not identical, toHall’s polychronic and monochronic time perceptions. The Human-Nature relationship appears to be closely related tothe Human-Nature relationship in Strodbeck and Kluckhohn's(1969) Value Orientations.(stephan.dahl.at/intercultural/hall.html)Collection of dataContrary to Hofstede, Trompenaars didn't develop his dimensionsfrom statistical data, but created his own collection instrument forthe data he considered relevant.StrengthsSome important dimensions have been addedWeaknessesData derived from questionnaires is based on a limited number of questions by which underlying values were explained. The data is only selectively documented → it is not to be
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