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The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar
Joan C. Henderson 
Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 
The relationship between politics and tourism is complex and multi-faceted, and asubjectwhichisassumingahigherpriorityintheresearchliterature.Thisarticleexam-inesthepoliticsoftourisminMyanmarwheretourismhasbeenshapedbyinternalandexternal political forces while also becoming a highly visible and contested politicalissue.The politicalbackground anditseffecton Myanmar’s tourismareexplainedandthe standpoints of the principal groups involved are discussed, with particular atten-tiongiventothatofthegovernment anditspolicies.Referenceisalsomadetodemandsfor a boycott and the ensuing debate about its value. The various parties are seen tointerpret and make use of tourism as a political tool in contrasting ways which reflecttheirowninterestsandagendas.Finally,somegeneralconclusionsarepresentedaboutthe linkagesconnectingthecentralconceptsunderreviewandtheneedtoconsidertour-ism within the framework of prevailing national and internationalpolitical systems inorder to fully appreciate its significance.
Keywords
Myanmar, politics, tourism
Introduction
This article explores aspects of the inter-connectedness of politics and tour-ism, basedonthe caseof Myanmarwhere tourismacquired aheightened politi-cal significance in the closing decades of the 20th century. Myanmar is aparticularly appropriate laboratory in which to study the politicisation of tour-ismbecauseofthenatureoftheregimeandtherangeinformsofpoliticalappro-priation of its tourism, discussion of which affords wider insights into thedynamics of the linkages between the two concepts under review in theory andpractice. A reassessment of the politics of tourism in Myanmar is also timelygivensignsofashiftinthepoliticallandscapeandnewsoftalksbetweenthemili-tary rulers and opposition which have implications for its future prospects as adestination.The aim is to illuminate the political processes underpinning and central totourism,showing how political ideologies and events affect touristarrivalsandthetourismindustryandhowtourismmayfunctionasaninstrumentofreform.After an opening summary of the literature pertaining to the relationship between politics and tourism,an accountis provided of conditionsin Myanmargenerallyandintermsofitstourisminordertosetthescene.Thepositionsofthevariouspartiesinvolvedarethen assessedwithemphasisonthemilitaryregimeanditspolicies which demonstratetheappealoftourismtothoseholdingpoliti-calpower,evenformerlyxenophobic militarydictatorships.Myanmar’sjunta isshown to havechosen to develop tourismin pursuit of a political agenda incor-porating economic and hegemonic goals, a decision strongly challenged byadversaries at home and overseas. These have invested tourism with different
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political meanings and purposes, some seeking to secure their own aims ofdemocratisationby calling for a tourism ban. Such demands havebeen resisted by certain sections of the travel industry and more friendly nations whichcontendthattourismisamechanismforpositivechange.Thearticleends withadiscussion of the effectiveness of the attempted boycott.The taskof researchingconditionsin Myanmar is hindered by the unreliabil-ity of official statistics, especially relating to economic matters (The EconomistIntelligence Unit (EIU), 2002a) and tourist arrivals (Bailey, 1998). Internationalagencies have produced a series of reports which contain empirical data,although there is some variation with regard to controversial topics such asnumbers affected by forced labour and relocation. Parts of the country are alsostilloutof bounds forthe visitor,notablyneardisputed borderareas.The studyisderivedfromanalysisoftheinformationavailable,includingthatproducedbythe regime in Myanmar itself,andobservationsmadeduring avisittothe coun-try.While acknowledging the limitationsof the material,it does allow a pictureto be presented of the politics of tourism in Myanmar and makes it possible todraw somewider conclusionsabout the manner in which tourismcanbe politi-cised both inside and outside institutions of government. Overall, the findingsillustrate the ways in which politics impacts on tourism and how tourism itselfcan become a critical political issue with global dimensions. Tourism is, there-fore,bestunderstoodwithina frameworkofpolitics andinternationalrelations,althoughpractitionersmaychoosetoignoreordistortpoliticalrealitiesinaccor-dance with their own commercial priorities.
Tourism and Politics
Tourism is, without doubt, a highly political phenomenon which extends beyond the sphere of formal government structures and processes if politics isconceivedasbeingessentiallyaboutpowerrelations,anditisthusanunderlyingand indirect theme in much tourism research. Although Brown (1998) agreeswithearliercriticismsaboutneglectofthetopicwithinbothtourismandpoliticalscience disciplines (Matthews,1975;Richter,1983),there hasbeen anincreasingnumber of studies devoted specifically to it (Hall, 1994)and Cheong and Miller(2000)argue thatthe politicsoftourismisnow adistinctacademicsubfield. Oneprincipalstrandispublicpolicyandplanning(Elliott,1997;Murphy,1985;Reed,1997) and Jenkins (2001) describes a growing interest in this question since hisearlier introductory text (Hall & Jenkins, 1995). Political economy and develop-mentisasecondmajortopic(Britton,1982;deKadt,1979;Jenkins&Henry,1982;Lea,1988)andThirdWorldtourismhasgenerated asubstantialvolumeofworkwhich has evolved in line with development theories (Broham, 1996).Another criticalarea of exploration, of heightened relevance since the eventsof 11 September 2001 in the USA, is that of political instability and its conse-quences for tourism (Pizam & Mansfield, 1996; Richter, 1992, 1999; Richter &Waugh, 1986;Seddighi
et al.
, 2000;Sonmez,1998);examinationof the Americanterrorist attacks is already underway (WTO, 2002). Related to this discussion isthe debate about tourism’s contribution to world peace and improved interna-tional understanding (Brown, 1989; D’Amore, 1994; Litvin, 1998). However,despite theexpanding literature,the interactionbetween politicsandtourismin
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its multipleformsstillappearsunder-researched in comparisonto otherdimen-sions with scope for further scrutiny in pursuit of a better understanding.Research completed to date reveals that contrasts in political ideologies,cultures and practices help to determine the prominence given to tourism inplanning,resourceallocationanddecision-making.Mostgovernments,whetherin the West or East, support tourism primarily because of its economic rewards(Go & Jenkins, 1997;Williams & Shaw, 1998)and countries which once avoidedcontactwiththeoutsideworldhaveembracedtheindustry;forthese,the prom-iseoffinancialreturnsisseentooffsettherisksofexposuretopotentiallysubver-sive influences (Sofield & Li, 1998). Tourism has become an accepted, albeitcontested,economic development tool that also allows governments to demon-stratetheir legitimacyandauthority(Hall&Page, 2000;Richter,1994).Itmaybeemployed in nation-building, touristrepresentations helping to define nationaland cultural identities and to meet other sociocultural objectives (Carter, 1996;Peleggi, 1996).Many politicalusesaremadeoftourism,someofwhichmightbemore accurately termed abuse when it is harnessed to hegemonic imperatives.Tourismisthusexposed toandshapedby politicalforcesanditsdependenceon security and stability has been well documented. Actual conditions andperceptions of these inform travel decisions made by consumers, as well as theindustry and investors, who generally look for settled locations where there islittlethreattopersonalsafetyandminimalcommercialrisk(EIU,1994)Thesearenotnecessarilyfoundin liberal democraciesandauthoritariangovernmentscan‘provideextremelystablepoliticalenvironmentsinwhichtourismmayflourish’(Hall&Oehlers,2000:79),althoughthisislesslikely inviolenttotalitarianstates(Hall & Ringer, 2000). Tourism’s capacity to stimulate political change in theseextreme circumstances is unproven and there is little evidence of it acting as apeacemaker in general, although peace must usually exist for it to prosper.South East Asia affords many interesting illustrations of the connections betweenpoliticsandtourism(Richter,1989),thelatteroften‘elitedriven…chosen by the powerful for political and economic advantage on both personal andregime levels’ (Richter, 1993: 193) with vigorous promotion. Success has beenmixed, however, and the Indochinese countries have been relatively slow todevelop partly because of a turbulent recent past; their performance comparesstrikingly with the advancesof the morestableThailand and Singapore. Differ-ences in political systems have also created distinct policy environments andcontrastingpatterns of tourismdevelopment, but tourismis frequently citedbyofficials as a means of improving international understanding of a country andits peoples. It is not only a vision of world harmony which inspires the latterstatementsbutalsoanawarenessoftourismasachanneltodisseminateformallysanctionedimagesandidentities which castaflatteringlight onthosein author-ityandearnmuch needed revenue. Such motivationsareapparentinthe caseofMyanmar which is actively encouraging its tourism after a period of isolationresulting from the dictates of political ideologies and structures.
Changing Political Conditions in Myanmar
Myanmar’shistorydatesbackover5000yearsbutperhapsmodernBurmahasits origins in the 19th century; this was a period of immense change and paved
The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar 
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