relative density of 1.85. It melts at 10.36\u00b0 C (50.6\u00b0 F), boils at 340\u00b0
C (644\u00b0 F), and is soluble in all proportions in water. When
sulphuric acid is mixed with water, considerable heat is
released. Unless the mixture is well stirred, the added water

may be heated beyond its boiling point and the sudden
formation of steam may blow the acid out of its container (see Acids and Bases).
The concentrated a cid destroys skin and flesh, and can cause blindness if it gets
into the eyes. The best treatment is to flush away the acid with large amounts of
water. Despite the dangers created by careless handling, sulphuric acid has been
commercially important for many years. The early alchemists prepared it in large
quantities by heating naturally occurring sulphates to a high temperature and
dissolving in water the sulphur trioxide thus formed. About the 15th century a
method was developed for obtaining the acid by distilling hydrated ferrous
sulphate, or iron vitriol, with sand. In 1740 the acid was produced successfully
on a commercial scale by burning sulphur and potassium nitrate in a ladle
suspended in a large glass globe partially filled with water.

Sulfuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the contact process.
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide.
(1) S(s) + O2(g)\u2192 SO2(g)
This is then oxidised to sulfur trioxide using oxygen in the presence of a
vanadium(V) oxide catalyst at 400\u00b0 C - 450\u00b0 C
(2) 2 SO2 + O2(g)\u2192 2 SO3(g) (in presence of V2O5)
Finally the sulfur trioxide is treated with water (usually as 97-98% H2SO4
containing 2-3% water) to produce 98-99% sulfuric acid.
(3) SO3(g) + H2O(l)\u2192 H2SO4(l)
Note that directly dissolving SO3 in water is impractical due to the highly
exothermic nature of the reaction. Mists are formed instead of a liquid.
Alternatively, SO3 can be absorbed into H2SO4 to produce oleum (H2S2O7), which
may then be mixed with water to form sulfuric acid.
(3) H2SO4(l) + SO3\u2192 H2S2O7(l)
Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4.
(4) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)\u2192 2 H2SO4(l)

The 98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is
described as concentrated sulfuric acid. Other concentrations are used for different
purposes. Some common concentrations are

Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry. For
example, it is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion of cyclohexanoneoxime to
caprolactam, used for making nylon. It is used for making hydrochloric acid
from salt via the Mannheim process. Much H2SO4 is used in petroleum refining,
for example as a catalyst for the reaction of isobutane with isobutylene to give
isooctane, a compound that raises the octane rating of gasoline (petrol). Sulfuric
acid is also important in the manufacture of dyestuffs solutions.
Sulfuric acid is also used as a general dehydrating agent in its concentrated form.

Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from Britain and other
industrialized countries of Western and Central Europe are causing acid rain in
Norway and Sweden. The pH level, or relative acidity, of many freshwater lakes
has been altered so dramatically by acid rain that entire fish populations have
been destroyed. Sulphur dioxide emissions and the subsequent formation of
sulphuric acid can also be responsible for the attack on limestone and marble at
large distances from the source. There are also claims that acid rain is causing
widespread damage to forests in Europe, but the precise role is unclear and
earlier predictions of large-scale forest death are unfounded.

encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Although ammonia contributes significantly to the
nutritional needs of Earth, the gas itself is caustic and can
cause serious health damage. The United States

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a
15-minute exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the
environmental air and an 8-hour exposure limit of 25 ppm by volume.[5]
Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia can result in lung
damage and death.[5] Although ammonia is regulated in the United States as a
non-flammable gas, it still meets the definition of a material that is toxic by
inhalation and requires a hazardous safety permit when transported in quantities
greater than 13,248 L (3,500 gallons).[6]

In the Haber Process, nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) gases are reacted over an
iron catalyst (Fe3+) in which aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and potassium oxide (K2O)
are used as promoters. The reaction is carried out under conditions of 250
atmospheres (atm), 450-500 \u00b0C; resulting in a yield of 10-20%:

N2(g) + 3H2(g)\u2192 2NH3(g) \u0394Ho = -92.4 kJ/mol
(Where \u0394Ho is the standard heat of reaction or standard enthalpy change)
These conditions are chosen due to the high reaction rate which they foster,
despite the poor relative amount of ammonia produced.

H2S + ZnO\u2192 ZnS + H2O
The clean methane is then reacted with steam over a catalyst of nickel oxide. This
is called steam reforming and occurs in two steps:
First step: (one mole of methane in)