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Volume 2 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS April, 2009
On the New Gauge Transformations of Maxwell’s Equations
Arbab I. Arbab
 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, P.O. 321, Khartoum 11115, Sudan Department of Physics and Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Computer,Omdurman Ahlia University, P.O. Box 786, Omdurman, Sudan
E-mail: aiarbab@uofk.edu; arbab ai@yahoo.com
We have found new gauge transformations that are compatible with Maxwell’s equa-tions and Lorentz gauge. With these transformations, we have formulated the electro-dynamic equations that are shown to be invariant. New generalized continuity equa-tions are derived that are also compatible with Maxwell’s equations. Moreover, wehave shown that the electromagnetic wave travels with speed of light in vacuum or amedium with free charge or current if the generalized continuity equations are satisfied.Magnetic monopoles don’t show up in ordinary experiments because the Lorentz forceacting on the magnetic charge is zero.
1 Introduction
Maxwell’s equations describing the electric (
~    E    
) and mag-netic (
~    B    
) fields reveal that when these fields are written interms of a vector and scalar potentials, the equations of mo-tion of these potential are generally solutions of wave equa-tion with a source term. However, there is no unique wayto define these potentials. A set of new potentials satisfyingthe Lorentz gauge can be solutions as well. Thus, Maxwell’sequations are also invariant under these gauge transforma-tions. Maxwell’s equations are invariant under Lorentz trans-formation. Since the motion of charged particles is governedby the continuity equation, Maxwell’s equations determinethe motion of the charged particles in conformity with thisequation.Using quaternions, we have recently shown that Max-well’s equations can be written as a single quaternionic equa-tion (Arbab and Satti, 2009 [1]). It is a wave equation. Thisimmediately shows that the electromagnetic fields are waves.Similarly, by writing the continuity equation in a quaternionicform, we have shown that this equation yields three set of equations. We call these equations the generalized continuityequations (GCEs). Besides, we have found that the magneticfield arised from the charge motion (with speed
~v   
) acted by anelectric field is given by
~    B    
=    
~v   c   
2     
    
~    E    
. Because of this feature,the magnetic monopoles postulated by Dirac (Dirac, 1931[2]) couldn’t show up, because the Lorentz force componentacting on this magnetic charge vanishes (Moulin, 2001 [3],Wolfgang, 1989 [4]). Hence, magnetic monopole can only bedetected indirectly.In the present paper, we have introduced new gauge trans-formations that leave Maxwell’s equations, Lorentz gaugeand the continuity equations invariant. Moreover, we knowthat according to Maxwell’s theory the electromagnetic fieldstravel with speed of light in vacuum, i.e., when no free chargeor current exists. However, in our present formulation, wehave shown that the electromagnetic fields travel with speedof light in vacuum or free charged medium if the GCEs aresatisfied.
2 Continuity equation
The flow of any continuous medium is governed by the con-tinuity equation. The quaternionic continuity equation reads,(Arbab and Satti, 2009 [1]),
e 
r    
e 
J   
=    
" 
    
 
~    
r 
~    J   
+    
@   @t  
 
i  c   
  
@   ~    J   @t  
+    
~    
r    
c   
2    
! 
+    
~    
r    
~    J   
# 
=0   
;  
(1)where
e 
r    
=    
 
i  c   @   @t  ;  ~    
r    
 
;  
e 
J   
=    
 
ic;  ~    J   
 
: 
(2)This implies that
~    
r 
~    J   
+    
@   @t  
=0   
;  
(3)
~    
r    
   
+    1   
c   
2    
@   ~    J   @t  
=0   
;  
(4)and
~    
r    
~    J   
=0   
: 
(5)We call Eqs.(3)–(5) the
generalized continuity equations
(GCEs). Equation (5) states the current density
~    J   
is irrota-tional.In a covariant form, Eqs.(3)–(5) read
@   
    
J   
    
=0   
;N     
   
    
@   
    
J   
   
    
@   
   
J   
    
=0   
: 
(6)Notice that the tensor
N     
   
is an antisymmetric tensor. Itis evident from Eq.(6) that Eqs.(3)–(6) are Lorentz invariant.Now di
ff 
erentiate Eq.(3) partially with respect to time anduse Eq.(4), we obtain
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
   @t  
2    
r    
2    
   
=0   
: 
(7)
14 Arbab I. Arbab. On The New Gauge Transformations Of Maxwell’s Equations
 
April, 2009 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 2Similarly, take the divergence of Eq.(4) and use Eq.(3),we obtain
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
~    J   @t  
2    
r    
2    
~    J   
=0   
;  
(8)where
   
=    
   
(  
~r;t  
)  
and
~    J   
=    
~    J   
(  
~r;t  
)  
. Therefore, both the cur-rent density and charge density satisfy a wave equation prop-agating with speed of light. In covariant form, Eqs.(7) and(8) now read
2    
J   
   
    
@   
    
@   
    
J   
   
=0   
: 
(9)We remark that the GCEs are applicable to any flowwhether created by charged particles or neutral ones.
3 Maxwell’s equations
We have recently shown that quaternion equation (Arbab andSatti, 2009 [1])
e 
2    
e 
A    
=    
   
0    
e 
J;  
e 
A    
=    
 
i  '    c   ;  ~    A    
 
(10)yields the Maxwell’s equations (Arbab and Satti, 2009 [1])
~    
r 
~    E    
=    
   "   
0    
;  
(11)
~    
r    
~    E    
+    
@   ~    B    @t  
=0   
;  
(12)
~    
r    
~    B    
    
1   
c   
2    
@   ~    E    @t  
=    
   
0    
~    J;  
(13)and
~    
r 
~    B    
=0   
: 
(14)The electric and magnetic fields are defined by the vectorpotential (
A    
) and the scalar potential (
'    
) as follows
~    E    
=    
    
~    
r    
'    
    
@   ~    A    @t  ;  ~    B    
=    
~    
r    
~    A;  
(15)such that the Lorentz gauge
~    
r 
~    A    
+    1   
c   
2    
@'    @t  
=0   
;  
(16)is satisfied. We know that the electric and magnetic fields areinvariant under the following gauge transformations
~    A    
0 
=    
~    A    
    
~    
r    
;'    
0 
=    
'    
+    
@    @t  : 
(17)The invariance of the Lorentz gauge implies that
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
    @t  
2    
r    
2    
    
=0   
: 
(18)The 4-vector potential,
A    
    
, can be written as
A    
    
=    
 
'    c   ;  
    
~    A    
 
: 
(19)In a covariant form, Eq.(17) becomes
A    
0 
    
=    
A    
    
+    
@   
    
: 
(20)Eq.(15) can be written in a covariant form as
F    
   
=    
@   
    
A    
   
    
@   
   
A    
    
: 
(21)In a covariant form, Maxwell’s equations, Eqs.(11)–(14),read
@   
    
F    
   
=    
   
0    
J   
   
;@   
    
F    
    
+    
@   
   
F    
    
+    
@   
    
F    
   
=0   
: 
(22)Notice however that if we take
@    @t  
of Eq.(12) and applyEqs.(13) and (14), we get
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
~    B    @t  
2    
r    
2    
~    B    
=    
   
0    
 
~    
r    
~    J   
 
: 
(23)Now take the curl of both sides of Eq.(12) and applyEqs.(11) and (13), we get
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
~    E    @t  
2    
r    
2    
~    E    
=    
    
1   
"   
0    
 
~    
r    
   
+    1   
c   
2    
@   ~    J   @t  
 
: 
(24)We remark that, according to our GCEs, the electric andmagnetic waves propagate with speed of light whether
~    J   
=    
   
=0   
or not, as long as Eqs.(4) and (5) are satisfied.In a covariant form, Eqs.(23) and (24) read
2    
F    
   
=    
   
0    
(  
@   
    
J   
   
    
@   
   
J   
    
)  
: 
(25)This can be casted in the form
@   
    
 
   
   
1    0    
@   
    
F    
   
+    
g   
    
J   
    
    
g   
    
J   
   
 
    
@   
    
C   
   
=0   
;  
(26)where
C   
   
=    
   
   
1    0    
@   
    
F    
   
+    
g   
    
J   
    
    
g   
    
J   
   
;  
(27)where
g   
   
is the metric tensor. Notice that the current tensor
C   
   
is antisymmetric in the indices
;   
and is a conservedquantity. Likewise the total momentum and energy of theelectrodynamics system (fields
+
particles) is conserved, wefound here that the total current of the system, one arisingfrom the electromagnetic fields and the other from the parti-cles motion, is conserved. The first term in Eq.(27) repre-sents the electromagnetic current, the second term representsthe electronic current and the last term represents the vacuumcurrent (with negative sign) as suggested by Eq.(28).
4 New gauge transformations
Now we introduce the current density transformations(CDTs) for
~    J   
and
   
, viz.,
   
0 
=    
   
+    1   
c   
2    
@   
    
@t  ;  ~    J   
0 
=    
~    J   
    
~    
r    
    
;  
(28)
Arbab I. Arbab. On the New Gauge Transformations of Maxwell’s Equations 15
 
Volume 2 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS April, 2009leaving the generalized continuity equations (GCEs) invari-ant. In a covariant form, Eq.(28) reads
J   
    
0 
=    
J   
    
+    
@   
    
    
: 
(29)Applying this transformation in Eq.(6), one finds that
@   
    
(  
J   
    
+    
@   
    
)=    
@   
    
J   
    
0 
=0   
;N     
0 
   
=    
N     
   
: 
(30)It is thus evident that the GCEs are invariant under theCDTs. Moreover, the application of the current transforma-tion in the continuity equation, Eq.(3), yields
1   
c   
2    
@   
2    
    
@t  
2    
r    
2    
=    
    
 
~    
r 
~    J   
+    
@   @t  
 
: 
(31)We thus that
~    J   
and
   
in the GCEs are not unique and anynew set of 
~    J   
0 
and
   
0 
will lead to the same GCEs provided that
    
is gauged by Eq.(31). Since the right hand side of Eq.(31)vanishes,
    
is a solution of a wave equation traveling withspeed of light in vacuum. This equation is similar to Eq.(18).Notice also that Eqs.(23) and (24) are invariant under the fol-lowing CDTs
   
0 
=    
   
+    1   
c   
2    
@   
    
@t  ;  ~    J   
0 
=    
~    J   
    
~    
r    
    
;  ~    E    
0 
=    
~    E;  ~    B    
0 
=    
~    B: 
(32)In a covariant form, these read
J   
0 
    
=    
J   
    
+    
@   
    
    
;F    
0 
   
=    
F    
   
: 
(33)Now let us introduce new gauge transformations (NGTs)as follows
~    A    
0 
=    
~    A    
+    
   ~    J;'    
0 
=    
'    
+    
c   
2    
;   
=    
   
0    
   
2    
;   
=    
const
: 
(34)In a covariant form, Eq.(34) reads
A    
0 
    
=    
A    
    
+    
J   
    
;  
(35)so that the electromagnetic tensor
F    
0 
   
=    
F    
   
+    
   
(  
@   
    
J   
   
    
@   
   
J   
    
)  
;  
(36)using Eq.(6), is invariant under the NGTs and hence, Max-well’s equations are invariant too. Moreover, notice that theLorentz gauge
~    
r 
~    A    
+    1   
c   
2    
@'    @t  
=0   
;  
or  
@   
    
A    
    
=0   
;  
(37)is also invariant under the NGTs provided that the continu-ity equation, Eq.(3), is satisfied. The covariant derivative isdefined by
D    
    
=    
@   
    
    
ie   
A    
    
: 
(38)The quantum electrodynamics Lagrangian of a particle of spinor
    
is given by
L    
=    
    
(  
i  
c   
    
D    
    
    
mc   
2    
)  
    
    
1   4   
   
0    
F    
   
F    
   
: 
(39)so that the Eq.(39) is invariant under the local gauge transfor-mation of the spinor
    
(Bjorken, 1964 [5]). In terms of thisderivative, one has
F    
   
=    
D    
    
A    
   
    
D    
   
A    
    
;  
(40)and Maxwell’s equations become
D    
    
F    
   
=    
   
0    
J   
   
;D    
    
F    
    
+    
D    
   
F    
    
+    
D    
    
F    
   
=0   
: 
(41)Upon using Eq.(6), Eq.(41) is invariant under NGTs.Applying the NGTs into the above Lagrangian yields
L    
0 
=    
L    
+    
J   
    
J   
    
: 
(42)The current density is defined by
J   
    
=    
ec   
    
    
. Thisextra interaction term has already appeared in the Fermi the-ory of beta decay. It is written in the form
G     
F       
p    
2    
J   
    
J   
    
, i.e.,
   
=    
G     
F       
p    
2    
, where
G    
F     
is the Fermi constant. We anticipate thatthis term is related to the mass of the photon (propagator).This term term couldn’t be added to the initial Lagrangianbecause, it breaks the ordinary gauge invariance. However,the NGTs could rise to the mass of the photon. It is some-thing like Higg’s mechanism that gives the elementary parti-clestheirmasses. Suchatermmayberelatedtoaninteractionof two electrons closed to each other like in Cooper pairs insuperconductivity. The behavior of superconductors suggeststhat electron pairs are coupling over a range of hundreds of nanometers, three orders of magnitude larger than the latticespacing. These coupled electrons can take the character of aboson and condense into the ground state.
5 Symmetrized Maxwell’s equation
Dirac was the first to suggest the possibility of a particle thatcarries magnetic charge. At the present time there is no ex-perimental evidence for the existence of magnetic charges ormonopoles. This can be formulated in the context of Max-well’s equations. Maxwell’s equations can be written in asymmetric form by invoking the idea of monopole. Let usdenote the magnetic charge by
q   
m      
and its density and currentby
   
m      
and
J   
m      
, so that symmetrized Maxwell’s equations arewritten as follows
~    
r 
~    E    
=    
   
e   
"   
0    
;  
(43)
~    
r    
~    E    
=    
    
   
0    
~    J   
m      
    
@   ~    B    @t  ;  
(44)
~    
r    
~    B    
=    
   
0    
~    J   
e   
+    1   
c   
2    
@   ~    E    @t  ;  
(45)and
~    
r 
~    B    
=    
   
0    
   
m      
: 
(46)Lorentz force will have the form (Moulin, 2001 [3])
F    
=    
q   
e   
(  
~    E    
+    
~v   
    
~    B    
)+    
q   
m      
(  
~    B    
    
~v   c   
2    
    
~    E    
)  
: 
(47)
16 Arbab I. Arbab. On The New Gauge Transformations Of Maxwell’s Equations
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