• Embed Doc
  • Copy Link
  • Readcast
  • Collections
  • CommentGo Back
Download
 
Astrophys Space SciDOI 10.1007/s10509-009-0058-y
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
On the gravitational radiation of gravitating objects
Arbab I. Arbab
Received: 12 May 2009 / Accepted: 9 June 2009© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
Abstract
In the framework of unifying gravity and electro-magnetism, we have shown that accelerating objects emitgravitational wave as those determined by Larmor formulafor the accelerating charged particle. We have found newformulae for the power of Gravitational waves radiated byspinning and orbiting objects. The minimum wavelength of the gravitational wave emitted by an object of mass
m
andradius
R
is
λ
min
.
=
4
323
π
2
GmRc
2
.
Keywords
Gravitational waves
·
Unification of forces
·
Electromagnetism
·
Larmor radiation
1 Introduction
In 1916 Albert Einstein predicted based on General Relativ-ity that vibrating (accelerated) masses should create gravi-tational waves. But because of the weak strength of grav-ity, only enormous masses undergoing huge accelerationswould form gravitational waves with strong enough effectsto be barely detectable. Gravity waves have not yet been de-tected directly. However, the predicted influence of gravi-tational waves on a binary pulsar was measured by Hulseand Taylor (1975). A rapidly spinning neutron star emitstwo beams of radio waves along its magnetic axes. When
A.I. Arbab (
)Department of Physics, Faculty of Science,University of Khartoum, P.O. Box 321, Khartoum 11115, Sudane-mail:aiarbab@uofk.eduA.I. ArbabDepartment of Physics and Applied Mathematics,Faculty of Applied Sciences and Computer,Omdurman Ahlia University, P.O. Box 786, Omdurman, Sudan
the spin axis and magnetic axis are not identical, the radiobeams are swept in two arches around the sky. If a beampath occasionally sweeps towards the Earth, a radio pulsecan be detected, in this case with a period between pulses of 0.05903 sec. Thus, the star which is composed exclusivelyof neutrons is called a pulsar. This pulse period would beextremely stable except the observed period actually variesby several tens of microseconds as result of a Doppler shiftindicating that the neutron star orbits a binary partner. Tay-lor and Hulse found that the orbit period is declining byabout 75 millionths of a second per year (Hulse and Taylor1975). These two stars are orbiting each other in a graduallysmaller (therefore faster) orbit. The explanation is that thesetwo massive stars are strongly accelerated by their circularorbits and thus required to lose energy in the form of gravitywavesaspredictedbygeneralrelativity.Penghasshownthatthe linearized general relativity equations produce equationssimilar to Maxwell’s equations (Peng1990). This will giverise to gravitational waves emission. It is believed that cur-rent technology now enables the direct detection of gravitywaves. Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of spaceand time produced by violent events in the distant universe,such as the collision of two black holes or shockwaves fromthe cores of supernova explosions. Such gravity waves couldbring with them information about their cataclysmic origins,as well as invaluable clues as to the nature of gravity.We have recently found an analogy between electromag-netism and gravitation. According to this analogy electro-magnetic phenomena are governed by analogous formulaas gravitational phenomena (Arbab2009a). This analogy ismanifested in the formulae existing between the two para-digms. Gravitation is like electromagnetism, both are longrange interactions. Coulomb and Newton law of gravitationare similar. However they are dissimilar since gravity at-tracts always while electricity can attract or repel. Accord-
 
Astrophys Space Sci
ing to Einstein’s theory of gravitation, light is deflected in-ward when intercepted by a gravitating objects, while al-pha particles deflected outward when passing by a nucleus.The two formulae governing these phenomena are shown tobe equivalent in the electrogravity analogy (Arbab2009a;Arbab2004c). At the present time there exists a quantumtheory of electrodynamics, but no quantum theory of gravi-tation. Scientists tried to linearize Einstein’s theory of gravi-tationandcompareitwithMaxwell’sequation.Itisassumedthat both theories are governed by similar set of equations(Peng1990). This method produces a system of equationsimplying a negative energy density of the gravitating sys-tem. This is rather a bizarre feature for gravitation. In ourrecent model, we however did not encounter such problems(Arbab2009a). We have found that the unification of gravitywith electromagnetism requires a prior unification with hy-drodynamics (Arbab2009b). Consequently, the three phe-nomena are self-similar, i.e., the mathematical formulae de-scribing one phenomenon will imply its applicability to theother phenomenon. We aim in this work to apply this anal-ogy to explore gravitational radiation emitted by massiveobjects and compared it with the power calculated from thegeneral theory of relativity.
2 Gravitational radiation
The gravitational wave is a fluctuation in the curvature of space-time which propagates as a wave, traveling outwardfrom a moving object or system of objects. Gravitational ra-diation is the energy transported by these waves. Importantexamples of systems which emit gravitational waves are bi-nary star systems, where the two stars in the binary are whitedwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. Although gravitationalradiation has not yet been directly detected, it has been indi-rectly shown to exist. This was the basis for the 1993 NobelPrize in Physics, awarded for measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary system (Hulse and Taylor1975). The gravito-magnetic field is governed by the equations (Arbab2009a)
∇·
E
g
=
ρ
m
ε
g
,
∇·
B
g
=
0
,
(1)and
∇×
B
g
=
μ
g
J 
+
1
c
2
∂
E
g
∂t ,
∇×
E
g
=−
∂
B
g
∂t ,
(2)where
ε
g
=
14
πG
and
μ
g
=
1
ε
g
c
2
. The gravitomagnetic wavescarries energy and momentum densities given by
u
=
12
ε
g
E
2
g
+
12
μ
g
B
2
g
,
S 
=
E
g
×
B
g
μ
g
.
(3)The gravitomagnetic field
B
g
created by a gravitating objectis given by (Arbab and Satti2009)
B
g
=
v
×
E
g
c
2
.
(4)In electromagnetism, when a spinning charged particle (amagnetic dipole) is placed in a magnetic field (
B
), the dipolewill precess with Larmor frequency,
ω
=
q
2
m
B
. Owing to theexisting analogy between gravitation and electromagnetism,when a gravitating object (dipole) is placed in a gravitomag-netic field the dipole will precess with an analogous Larmorfrequency given by
ω
g
=
B
g
2
, where
q
⇔
m
(Arbab2009a).Noticeherethatunlikethemagneticfield
B
,thegravitomag-netic field,
B
g
is measured in rad/sec. The power delivers bythe electric dipole radiation has a corresponding radiation ingravitation. We call this radiation, the gravitational Larmorradiation. We believe that it is governed by the same rules.We know that the electromagnetic waves are able to carryenergy, momentum, and angular momentum. By carryingthese away from a source, waves are able to rob that sourceof its energy, linear or angular momentum. Gravitationalwaves perform the same function. Thus, for example, a bi-nary system loses angular momentum as the two orbitingobjects spiral towards each other—the angular momentumis radiated away by gravitational waves.According to Larmor theory an accelerating (
a
) chargedparticle emits an electromagnetic radiation with power(Bertschinger and Taylor2006; Larmor1897)
P 
em
=
23
q
2
a
2
4
πε
0
c
3
.
(5)According to our analogy,
k
=
14
πε
0
→
G
,
q
→
m
, one hasa power generated by an accelerating (spinning) mass as(Arbab2009a)
P 
hs
=
23
Gm
2
a
2
c
3
.
(6)This can be casted in the form
P 
hs
=
23
Gm
2
c
3
ω
4
R
2
,
(7)where
E
g
=
a
=
ω
2
R
,
R
is the radius of the body and
ω
isits angular velocity.Equation (7) can be written as
P 
hs
=
23
Gm
2
cR
2
vc
4
=
23
cF 
g
vc
4
,
(8)where
v
=
ωR
is the velocity of the spinning mass at thesurface, and
F 
g
=
Gm
2
R
2
is the self-gravitational force hold-ing the spinning mass. This in fact represents the relativis-tic correction to the Newtonian power. This relation agrees
 
Astrophys Space Sci
with the luminosity of a galaxy found by the Tully Fisherlaw (Tully and Fisher1977).The power radiated by the Earth due to its spin, where
R
=
6378 km,
ω
=
7
.
27
×
10
−
5
rads
−
1
, is
P 
hs
=
6
.
7
×
10
10
W. This energy can be compared with the dissipationenergy of the Earth due to its despinning, because of tidalforces raised by the Moon which is 3
.
0
×
10
12
W. For theSun one finds,
P 
hs
=
2
.
26
×
10
20
W, while the Sun luminos-ity is 3
.
8
×
10
26
W. It can be compared with Jupiter whichgenerates a power of 
P 
hs
=
2
.
5
×
10
19
W.It is an amazing coincidence that the power radiated bythe Universe during its initial expansion (Planckian period)and at the present time is the same and is equal to
P 
hs
=
10
52
W. That is so because the Planckian acceleration andthe present accelerations are respectively,
a
0
=
10
−
10
ms
−
2
and
a
Pl
=
10
51
ms
−
2
Arbab (2004,2005). Notice how- ever that
a
=
ω
2
R
=
H 
2
R
, where
H 
=
10
−
18
rads
−
1
isthe Hubble constant and
R
=
10
26
m is the universe radius.This present acceleration can be obtained from the relation
a
=
GmR
2
=
10
−
10
ms
−
2
, where
m
=
10
53
kg is the universemass. We remark that this coincidence is embedded in thatfact that the maximal power is attained by the universe only.This implies that the force holding the universe at Planck time is the same as the one holding it now. The value of thisforce is 10
43
N.The centripetal acceleration of an orbiting body of mass
m
about a massive body of mass
M 
is given
a
=
GM r
2
(9)sothatthegravitationalpowerradiatedbytheorbitingobjectis given by
P 
ho
=
23
G
3
c
3
m
2
M 
2
r
4
, P 
ho
=
23
Gc
3
F 
2
g
,F 
g
=
GmM r
2
.
(10)In terms of the orbital velocity, (12) yields
P 
ho
=
23
G
mM 
2
vc
3
v
5
.
(11)Accordingly, the gravitational orbital power radiated by theEarth–Sun system is equal to 2
.
05
×
10
9
W. The power de-livers by the Sun, owing to (8), is 1
.
8
×
10
17
W. This can becompared with the gravitational power radiated by the Earthdue to spin which is 6
.
7
×
10
10
W. The orbital gravitationalpower radiated by Jupiter, owing to (11), is 1
.
14
×
10
12
W.For the binary pulsar PSR 1913
+
16 which is a system of two neutron stars having an orbital period of 7.75 hours at adistance of 1
.
95
×
10
9
m, one has a power of 4
.
1
×
10
28
W,which is the typical value for x-ray luminosity of an x-raypulsar (Hulse and Taylor1975). This huge power is radi-ated away (lost) in a form of a gravitational radiation. Con-sequently, the orbital distance and the period of the systemwill decay with time.Consider two masses
m
1
and
m
2
, and they are separatedby a distance
r
. According to the general theory of rela-tivity, the power radiated off by this system is given byBertschinger and Taylor (2006)
P 
=
dEdt 
=−
325
G
4
c
5
(m
1
m
2
)
2
(m
1
+
m
2
)r
5
.
(12)Due to this energy loss the orbital distance will decay by(Arbab2009b)
drdt 
=−
645
G
3
c
5
(m
1
m
2
)(m
1
+
m
2
)r
3
.
(13)According to the above formula, the gravitational energy ra-diated by the Earth-Sun system is about 313 W.The maximal power delivered by a gravitating object isgiven by (Arbab2004; Arbab2005)
P 
max
=
c
5
G.
(14)If spinning gravitational objects emits the gravitational en-ergy with the maximum power, then (7) and (9) yield
ω
max
=
4
32
c
2
√ 
GmR
(15)so that the minimum wavelength of the emitted energy is
λ
min
=
4
232
πc
√ 
GmR.
(16)Using (7), that the intensity of the radiated energy is givenby
I 
h
=
Gm
2
6
π c
3
ω
4
.
(17)This formula resembles the Rayleigh-Jeans law for theblack-body radiation at low frequency. For this reason weexpect that (17) might not give the correct value for fastspinning objects (e.g., pulsars). Planck formula may be theappropriate intensity distribution of the gravitational waveradiated by all spinning masses. Equation (17) can be com-pared with Stefan law, where
ω
∝
1
λ
∝
T 
, or
T 
=
a
2
πcω, a
=
2
.
898
×
10
−
3
m K
,
(18)which is the Wien-displacement law. If we assume that thisintensity is radiated like a black body at a temperature
T 
(inkelvin), then one has
I 
h
=
σ 
g
T 
4
, σ 
g
=
8
π
3
cGm
2
3
a
4
=
2
.
345
×
10
10
m
2
,
(19)
of 00

Leave a Comment

You must be to leave a comment.
Submit
Characters: ...
You must be to leave a comment.
Submit
Characters: ...