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CHIN.PHYS.LETT. Vol.25,No.10(2008)3834
Viscous Dark Energy Models with Variable
G
and Λ
Arbab I. Arbab
∗∗
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Khartoum, PO Box 321, Khartoum 11115, SudanDepartment of Physics and Applied Mathematics, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Computer, Omdurman Ahlia University, PO Box 786, Omdurman, Sudan
(Received 27 May 2008)
We consider a cosmological model with bulk viscosity 
η
and variable cosmological 
Λ
∝
ρ
−
α
,
alpha
= const
andgravitational 
G
constants. The model exhibits many interesting cosmological features. Inflation proceeds duto the presence of bulk viscosity and dark energy without requiring the equation of state 
p
=
−
ρ
. During the inflationary era the energy density 
ρ
does not remain constant, as in the de-Sitter type. Moreover, the cosmological and gravitational constants increase exponentially with time, whereas the energy density and viscosity decrease exponentially with time. The rate of mass creation during inflation is found to be very huge suggesting that all matter in the universe is created during inflation.
PACS: 98.80.
−
k, 98.80.Es, 98.80.Cq, 04.20.Jb, 04.50.Kd
The present acceleration of the universe asfavoured by the supernovae data can be explained byhypothizing some exotic matter dominated the presentuniverse evolution that breaks the strong energy con-dition, viz.,
p
+ 3
ρ
≥
0.
[1
,
2]
One variant of this exoticmatter is the one violates the null energy condition,viz.,
p
+
ρ >
0. Such exotic matter can be modelledby a scalar field as a dark energy having an equationof state
p >
−
ρ
or a phantom with an equation of state
p <
−
ρ
.
[3]
The phantom scalar field can be mo-tivated by S-brane arising in string theory.
[4
,
5]
More-over, phantom fields are introduced by bulk viscosity(
η
) effects that are equivalent to replacing the pressure
 p
by an effective pressure, viz.,
p
eff 
.
=
p
−
3
ηH 
, where
H 
is the Hubble constant. Viscous effects in an ex-panding universe are connected with dissipations thatare attributed to creation of energy (matter) in theuniverse.Several authors suggested that the bulk viscositycan drive the universe into a period of exponential ex-pansion (inflation).
[6
−
9]
This is really the case, as theeffect of bulk viscosity in an expanding universe is todecrease the pressure making the total pressure neg-ative. Inflation can also be induced by higher ordercorrections.
[10]
In scalar field, inflation stopped by theslow roll-down of the scalar field from the false vacuumto the true vacuum. In this work, we investigate theeffect of coupling of gravity with vacuum and viscos-ity. Provided that a certain conspiracy is maintained,the evolution of the universe can proceed in an attrac-tive way. We have found that such a recipe is possibleand leads to interesting features related to the cosmicevolution. Inflation is triggered by the vacuum energybulk viscosity cooperation. This work generalizes ourrecent model of phantom and dark energy models.
[11]
Consider the Einstein-Hilbert action with a cos-mological constant Λ,
S 
=
−
116
πG
∫ 
d
4
x
√
g
(
R
+ 2Λ) +
S 
matter
.
(1)The variation of the metric with respect to
g
µν
with
f 
(
R
) =
R
−
2Λ gives
[12]
f 
(
R
)
R
µν
−
12
f 
(
R
)
g
µν
=
−
8
πGT 
µν
,
(2)where
T 
µν
is the energy momentum tensor of the cos-mic fluid.For an ideal fluid one has
T 
µν
= (
ρ
+
 p
)
u
µ
u
ν
+
 pg
µν
,
(3)where
u
µ
,
ρ
and
p
are the velocity, density and pres-sure of the cosmic fluid.Contracting Eq.(2), using Eq.(3) and taking its 00components give the equations
Rf 
(
R
)
−
2
f 
(
R
) + 8
πGT 
=0
,
(4)
f 
(
R
)
R
00
+12
f 
(
R
) + 8
πGT 
00
=0
,
(5)with
T 
00
=
ρ
,
T 
=
ρ
−
3
 p
and
T 
ij
=
−
 p
for
i,j
= 1
,
2
,
3.For a flat Friedmann–Lematre–Robertson–Walkermetric,
ds
2
=
dt
2
−
a
2
(
t
)
(
dr
2
+
r
2
(
dθ
2
+ sin
2
θdφ
2
)
)
,
one has
R
00
=
−
3
¨
aa
and
R
=
−
6

˙
aa
2
+¨
aa
, where
a
is the scale factor, so that Eqs.(4) and (5) yield3
˙
aa
2
=8
π Gρ
+ Λ
,
(6)3
¨
aa
=
−
4
π G
(
ρ
+ 3
 p
) + Λ
,
(7)and the energy conservation equation reads˙
ρ
+ 3
˙
aa
(
ρ
+
 p
) = 0
.
(8)
∗∗
Email: aiarbab@uofk.educ
2008 Chinese Physical Society and IOP Publishing Ltd
 
No.10 Arbab I. Arbab 3835
The pressure
p
and energy density
ρ
of an ideal fluidare related by the equation of state,
 p
=
ωρ, ω
= const
.
(9)The Einstein field equation, with time-dependent
G
and Λ, then yields two independent equations (6) and(7) having the same form as in the standard model.Hence, we can now allow Λ and
G
to vary with time,i.e., Λ = Λ(
t
) and
G
=
G
(
t
). Thought such ansatzbreaks Lorentz invariance, energy and momentum areformally conserved. In an expanding isotropic and ho-mogenous universe, such ansatz is admissible, since allcosmic variables are time-dependent only.The Bianchi identity(
R
µν
−
12
Rg
µν
)
;
µ
=
−
(8
πGT 
µν
+Λ
g
µν
)
;
µ
= 0
,
(10)with Eqs.(2) and (3) implying that
G
˙
ρ
+ 3(
 p
+
ρ
)
G
˙
aa
+
ρ
˙
G
+˙Λ8
π
= 0
.
(11)Bulk viscosity can be introduced in a uniform perfectfluid by replacing the pressure term
p
by an effectivepressure,
p
eff 
defined by
 p
eff 
.
=
p
−
3
ηH,
(12)where
η
is the coefficient of bulk viscosity. This isnormally modelled by the relation
η
=
η
0
ρ
n
, n, η
0
= const
.
(13)Applying Eq.(12) into Eq.(11) and using Eq.(8), oneobtains
[7]
8
π
˙
Gρ
+˙Λ = 9
η
(8
πG
)
H 
2
.
(14)We consider here the ansatzΛ = 3
β/ρ
α
β, α
= const
.
(15)Integrating Eq.(11), using Eq.(12), we obtain
ρ
=
Aa
−
3(1+
ω
)
, A
= const
.
(16)Using Eqs.(6) and (15), Eq.(14) reads˙
GG
−
3
αβ 
8
πGρ
(
α
+1)
˙
ρρ
= 3
η
0
ρ
n
(8
πGρ
+ 3
βρ
−
α
)
.
(17)Now consider the following functional dependence of the gravitational constant8
πG
=
Cρ
−
(
α
+1)
, C 
= const
.
(18)Eqs.(17) and (18) imply that˙
ρ
=
Nρ
n
−
α
+1
, N 
=
−
3
Cη
0
(
C 
+ 3
β 
)
C 
(1 +
α
) + 3
αβ ,
(19)so that˙
aa
=
Ka
−
3(1+
ω
)(
n
−
α
)
,
(20)where
K 
=
−
N 
3
A
(
n
−
α
)
(1 +
ω
),
ω
=
−
1. Substituting it inEq.(13) and using Eq.(14), one reaches
a
=
Dt
1
/
3(1+
ω
)(
n
−
α
)
,
(21)where
D
=
A
1
/
3(1+
ω
)
[
−
N 
(
n
−
α
)]
1
/
3(1+
ω
)(
n
−
α
)
,
n
=
α
.Substituting the above equation into Eq.(16), onefinds
ρ
= [
−
N 
(
n
−
α
)]
−
1
/
(
n
−
α
)
t
−
1
/
(
n
−
α
)
, n
=
α
(22)so Eq.(15) becomesΛ = 3
β 
[
−
N 
(
n
−
α
)]
α/
(
n
−
α
)
t
α/
(
n
−
α
)
, n
=
α.
(23)Eq.(18) now reads
G
=
C 
8
π
[
−
N 
(
n
−
α
)]
(1+
α
)
/
(
n
−
α
)
·
t
(1+
α
)
/
(
n
−
α
)
, n
=
α.
(24)Our present model can be compared with the Brans–Dicke (BD) theory in which the gravitational constantis related to the scalar function
φ
as
G
=4 + 2
ω
D
3 + 2
ω
D
1
φ
,where
ω
D
defines a coupling between the scalar fieldand gravity.
[13]
Accordingly, one has
a
∝
t
2+2
ω
D
4+3
ω
D
and
G
∝
t
−
24+3
ω
D
. Notice that a comparison with BDmodel reveals that
α
=
−
[
1 +(2
n
+ 2)2 + 3
ω
D
]
.
This means that the BD model is equivalent to a bulkviscous model with a cosmological constant varyingas Λ
∝
ρ
−
α
. Or conversely, our model is equivalentto the BD model where the scalar field is given by
φ
=3 + 2
ω
D
4 + 2
ω
D
1
G
, where
G
is given by Eq.(24). Noticealso that one can write Λ
∝
φ
−
α
1+
α
. It is thereforeinteresting to see that our model is equivalent to theBD model with a cosmological constant of the formshown above.Now we consider the following cases:
Case 1.
Now let
n
=
α/
2 where
−
1
< α <
0 and1 +
ω >
0. In this case, Eqs.(21) and (22) reduce to
a
∝
t
−
2
/
3
α
(1+
ω
)
, ρ
∝
t
2
/α
,
(25)and Eqs.(23), (24) and (13) yield
G
∝
t
−
2(1+
α
)
/α
,
Λ
∝
t
−
2
, η
∝
t,
(26)where
C >
3
β >
0, i.e.,
G >
0. These representthe viscous analogue of the dark energy model.
[11]
. Inparticular, a viscous cosmological model with Λ
∝
H 
2
is equivalent to a viscous dark energy model with
of 00

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