Introduction22.1General characteristics22.2Digital transducer technology22.3Analogue transducer technology22.4Transducer selection22.5Measurement centres22.6Tariff metering22.7Synchronisers22.8Disturbance recorders22.9
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22.1 INTRODUCTION
The accurate measurement of the voltage, current orother parameter of a power system is a prerequisite toany form of control, ranging from automatic closed-loopcontrol to the recording of data for statistical purposes.Measurement of these parameters can be accomplishedin a variety of ways, including the use of direct-readinginstruments as well as electrical measuring transducers.Transducers produce an accurate d.c. analogue output,usually a current, which corresponds to the parameterbeing measured (the measurand). They provide electricalisolation by transformers, sometimes referred to as‘Galvanic Isolation’, between the input and the output.This is primarily a safety feature, but also means that thecabling from the output terminals to any receivingequipment can be lightweight and have a lowerinsulation specification. The advantages over discretemeasuring instruments are as follows:
a.
mounted close to the source of the measurement,reducing instrument transformer burdens andincreasing safety through elimination of longwiring runs
b.
ability to mount display equipment remote fromtransducer
c.
ability to use multiple display elements per transducer
d.
the burden on CT’s/VT’s is considerably lessOutputs from transducers may be used in many ways –from simple presentation of measured values for anoperator, to being utilised by a network automationscheme to determine the control strategy.
22.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Transducers may have single or multiple inputs and/oroutputs. The inputs, outputs and any auxiliary circuitswill all be isolated from each other. There may be morethan one input quantity and the measurand may be afunction of one or more of them.
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Whatever measurement transducer is being used, therewill usually be a choice between discrete and modulartypes, the latter being plug-in units to a standard rack.The location and user-preferences will dictate the choiceof transducer type.
22.2.1 Transducer Inputs
The input of a transducer is often taken fromtransformers and these may be of many different types.Ideally, to obtain the best overall accuracy, metering-class instrument transformers should be used, since thetransformer errors will be added, albeit algebraically, tothe transducer errors. However, it is common to applytransducers to protection-class instrument transformersand that is why transducers are usually characterised tobe able to withstand significant short-term overloads ontheir current inputs. A typical specification for thecurrent input circuits of a transducer suitable forconnection to protection-class instrument transformersis to withstand:
a.
300% of full-load current continuously
b.
2500% for three seconds
c.
5000% for one secondThe input impedance of any current input circuit will bekept as low as possible, and that for voltage inputs willbe kept as high as possible. This reduces errors due toimpedance mismatch.
22.2.2 Transducer Outputs
The output of a transducer is usually a current source.This means that, within the output voltage range(compliance voltage) of the transducer, additionaldisplay devices can be added without limit and withoutany need for adjustment of the transducer. The value of the compliance voltage determines the maximum loopimpedance of the output circuit, so a high value of compliance voltage facilitates remote location of anindicating instrument.Where the output loop is used for control purposes,appropriately rated Zener diodes are sometimes fittedacross the terminals of each of the devices in the seriesloop to guard against the possibility of their internalcircuitry becoming open circuit. This ensures that afaulty device in the loop does not cause complete failureof the output loop. The constant-current nature of thetransducer output simply raises the voltage andcontinues to force the correct output signal round theloop.
22.2.3 Transducer Accuracy
Accuracy is usually of prime importance, but in makingcomparisons, it should be noted that accuracy can bedefined in several ways and may only apply under veryclosely defined conditions of use. The followingattempts to clarify some of the more common terms andrelate them to practical situations, using the terminologygiven in IEC 60688.The accuracy of a transducer will be affected, to agreater or lesser extent, by many factors, known asinfluence quantities, over which the user has little, or no,control. Table 22.1 provides a complete list of influencequantities. The accuracy is checked under an agreed setof conditions known as reference conditions. Thereference conditions for each of the influence quantitiescan be quoted as a single value (e.g. 20°C) or a range (e.g.10-40°C).The error determined under reference conditions isreferred to as the intrinsic error. All transducers havingthe same intrinsic error are grouped into a particularaccuracy class, denoted by the class index. The classindex is the same as the intrinsic error expressed as apercentage (e.g. a transducer with an intrinsic accuracyof 0.1% of full scale has a class index of 0.1). The classindex system used in IEC 60688 requires that thevariation for each of the influence quantities be strictlyrelated to the intrinsic error. This means that the higherthe accuracy claimed by the manufacturer, the lowermust be all of the variations.Because there are many influence quantities, thevariations are assessed individually, whilst maintainingall the other influence quantities at reference conditions.The nominal range of use of a transducer is the normaloperating range of the transducer as specified by themanufacturer. The nominal range of use will naturally bewider than the reference value or range. Within thenominal range of use of a transducer, additional errorsaccumulate resulting in an additional error. Thisadditional error is limited for any individual influencequantity to, at most, the value of the class index. Table22.2 gives performance details of a typical range of transducers according to the standard.
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Input currentInput voltageInput quantity distortionInput quantity frequencyPower factorUnbalanced currentsContinuous operationOutput loadInteraction between measuring elementsAmbient temperatureAuxiliary supply voltageAuxiliary supply frequencyExternal magnetic fieldsSelf heatingSeries mode interferenceCommon mode interferenceExternal heat
Table 22.1: Transducer influence quantities
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22-Power Systems Measurements
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