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College Chemistry
College Chemistry
College Chemistry
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College Chemistry

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The Collins College Outline for College Chemistry is a comprehensive guide to the fundamental concepts behind chemical reactions, bonding, equilibria, and thermodynamics, with topics ranging from simple chemical measurements and the basics of atoms and molecules to entropy, electrochemistry, and nuclear chemistry. Fully revised and updated by Dr. Steven Boone, College Chemistry includes practical "test yourself" sections with answers and complete explanations at the end of each chapter. Also included are essential vocabulary definitions and sample exercises, as well as detailed images, charts, and diagrams.

The Collins College Outlines are a completely revised, in-depth series of study guides for all areas of study, including the Humanities, Social Sciences, Mathematics, Science, Language, History, and Business. Featuring the most up-to-date information, each book is written by a seasoned professor in the field and focuses on a simplified and general overview of the subject for college students and, where appropriate, Advanced Placement students. Each Collins College Outline is fully integrated with the major curriculum for its subject and is a perfect supplement for any standard textbook.

LanguageEnglish
PublisherHarperCollins
Release dateNov 1, 2011
ISBN9780062116741
College Chemistry

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College Chemistry - Steven Boone

Preface

This second edition of College Chemistry is written for the beginning college chemistry student and may be used as a supplement to any comprehensive general chemistry textbook. The content is nearly the same as that found for a typical two-semester general chemistry sequence. Many students will find that the alternate explanations, the complete solutions to many exercises, and the Test Yourself problems pro-vided herein will enhance the learning process.

This book begins with an introduction to chemistry (chapter 1) and how measurements are used in scientific inquiry (chapter 2). These chapters are followed by discussions of chemical substances (chapter 3), stoichiometry (chapter 4), and chemical reactions (chapter 5). The first of the physical states of matter is gases (chapter 6) and liquids and solids (chapter 12) are discussed later in the book. Chemical thermodynamics is split into thermochemistry (chapter 7) and free energy, entropy, and equilibria (chapter 18). The atomic structure of the atom and quantum theory (chapter 8), periodic properties of atoms (chapter 9), is followed by two chapters on bonding: ionic and covalent bonding (chapter 10) and the bonding theories and molecular shape (chapter 11). The next five chapters develop an understanding of the physical properties of solutions (chapter 13), chemical kinetics (chapter 14), chemical equilibria (chapter 15), and aqueous equilibria (chapters 16 & 17). The final two chapters comprise a discussion of electrochemistry (chapter 19) and nuclear chemistry (chapter 20).

I appreciate the contributions and suggestions of Professor Drew Wolf and Professor Christopher Exstrom. A sincere and special thanks to Ms. Tere Stouffer and Mr. Fred N. Grayson, of American Book Works Corporation. Finally, there was considerable love and support from Sadie, my wife, and Rachel, my daughter.

Steven R. Boone, Ph.D.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Chemistry

Chemistry is one of the three major areas in science, along with biology and physics. In this chapter, we will first propose a definition for chemistry and discuss its scope. Then, we will turn our attention to the principal concern of chemistry: matter.

1.1 WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

It is important to understand the definition of chemistry in its historical context.

Chemistry—Definition, Practitioners, and History

Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The main focus of chemistry is matter. All objects in the world are types of matter.

A chemist is a person who studies the composition, structure, and properties of matter and seeks to explain the changes that matter undergoes.

Modern chemistry grew out of the pseudoscience called alchemy. Alchemists searched for methods to convert base metals to gold. Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was one of the first scientists to suggest that ideas and thoughts about matter must be supported by reproducible experiments. Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) is credited with being the father of modern chemistry because of his pioneering experiments on the properties of matter.

Matter, Mass, and Energy

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter it has. Closely related to matter is energy. Thus, chemistry also considers the relationship of matter and energy.

Energy is the capacity to do work, or more simply, the capacity to change something.

1.2 MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

This section focuses on the definition of chemistry, which involves matter and the changes matter undergoes.

Composition and Structure

Composition refers to the identity and amount of the components of matter. Structure describes the physical arrangement of its particles (atoms, ions, or molecules). Some types of matter have a highly organized structure, while others are random.

Physical Properties and Changes

Chemists distinguish one type of matter from another by identifying their properties, just as people are differentiated by observing their physical appearance and personality traits. Properties are classified as being either physical or chemical. Physical properties are characteristics of a particular type of matter that can be measured without changing its composition. Density, color, melting point, boiling point, physical state, heat conductivity, and electrical conductivity are examples of physical properties of matter.

If a change occurs in the physical properties of a sample of matter without a change in composition, a physical change occurs. After such a change, the same type of matter is present but has a different set of physical properties. Changes in shape, size, and physical state are other examples of physical changes.

Chemical Properties and Changes

A chemical property describes what happens to one type of matter when it changes composition. When the matter changes its composition, a chemical reaction or chemical change occurs. Therefore, chemical properties describe the chemical reactions that matter undergoes. For example, a chemical property of gasoline is that it burns (undergoes oxidation) when ignited. Gasoline is a liquid mixture of carbon-hydrogen compounds.

Exercise 1.1

Classify each of the following as a physical property, physical change, chemical property, or chemical change: (a) A blue solid, (b) an explosive liquid, and (c) a solid changes directly to a vapor without becoming a liquid.

Solution 1.1

(a) A physical property, because it is a characteristic of a solid without reference to any other substance. (b) A chemical property, because explosive describes a chemical change that the liquid undergoes. (c) A physical change, because the solid does not change composition.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Samples of matter can be classified as being either pure substances or mixtures.

Pure Substances

Pure substances (or, simply, substances) have a constant composition, cannot be separated into simpler components by physical methods, and undergo state changes at a constant temperature. Examples of pure substances include gold, copper, and carbon dioxide. Pure substances can be further subdivided into elements or compounds.

Mixtures

A mixture results when pure substances that do not react are combined. Mixtures have a variable composition, can usually be separated by physical methods, and undergo state change over range of temperatures. Mixtures can either be homogenous (those with one phase) or heterogeneous (those with two or more phases). Ocean water, concrete, air, and asphalt are four examples of mixtures.

Elements

Elements are the basic units of matter. All of the types of matter contain elements. About 115 different elements have been identified. Of these elements, 92 occur in nature, and the remaining elements are synthetic. At 25°C, 102 elements are solids, 2 are liquids, and 11 are gases.

Periodic Table of Elements

The symbols of the elements are found in the Periodic Table. This table is one of the most important tables in chemistry. Each element is located in a horizontal row called a period and in a vertical column called a group (sometimes called a family). Each period is numbered consecutively from 1 to 7. Each group of elements is assigned a Roman numeral and a letter. It has been recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemists (IUPAC) that the groups be numbered consecutively from 1 to 18. Thus, two numbering systems are now used.

Symbols of the Elements

Chemists often use symbols to represent elements. The use of symbols for elements dates back to the ancient Greeks, who originally suggested that matter was composed of elements. Symbols can be one, two, or three letters. Usually, they are the first letters of the English or Latin names. It is important to learn the symbols of the elements in the beginning of your study of chemistry.

Exercise 1.2

Name the following elements: (a) B, (b) Cu, (c) Mn, (d) Ag (from the Latin argentums), (e) Au (from the Latin aurum), (f) Pb (from the Latin plumbum).

Solution 1.2

(a) boron, (b) copper, (c) manganese, (d) silver, (e) gold, (f) lead

Exercise 1.3

What are the symbols for the following elements: (a) cobalt, (b) manganese, (c) fluorine, (d) tin, (e) mercury, (f) potassium?

Solution 1.3

(a) Co, (b) Mn, (c) F, (d) Sn (from the Latin stannum), (e) Hg (from the Latin hydrargyrum), (f) K (from the Latin kalium)

Compounds

Compounds are substances that may be broken down chemically to two or more elements. Many compounds are composed of small particles called molecules; others are composed of formula units of positive and negative ions called formula units. Molecules and formula units result when atoms combine chemically. Water is a familiar compound that results when the element hydrogen combines chemically with the element oxygen. During this reaction, two H atoms bond with one O atom to form one molecule of water.

A chemical formula is used to show the number of atoms of each element in a molecule. To the right of each symbol that has more than one atom in the formula, a subscript is written that shows the number of atoms in the molecule. Thus, the formula for water is H2O. Other examples of compounds are carbon dioxide, CO2; table salt, NaCl; table sugar, C12H22O11; calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2; and aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3.

Exercise 1.4

How many atoms of each type are found in a formula unit of calcium acetate, Ca(C2H3O2)2?

Solutions 1.4

One formula unit of calcium acetate contains one Ca atom, four C atoms, six H atoms, and four O atoms. The number of atoms within parentheses is multiplied by the value of the subscript immediately following the right parenthesis.

Types of Mixtures: Homogenous and Heterogeneous

Mixtures are divided into two classes: homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homogenous is a word derived from homo, which means the same or equal, and genus, which means kind or structure. Hetero is a prefix that means different.

Homogenous mixtures are also called solutions. Only one phase is found in homogenous mixtures. For example, consider a sugar-water solution. It is prepared by mixing solid sugar and liquid water. After the sugar dissolves, a homogenous mixture results. When looking at sugar water, you cannot tell whether it is pure water or a solution. Other examples of solutions are alcohol and water, air, and most alloys.

A heterogeneous mixture is one that exhibits more than one phase. A phase is an observable region of matter with a composition different from the surrounding regions. Each phase can be distinguished from bordering regions by its properties. For example, when sand is added to water, the sand does not dissolve. Instead, it falls to the bottom of the water. When observing sand and water, you see the solid sand phase and the liquid water phase. Oil and water, salt and sand, and granite are all examples of heterogeneous mixtures.

Exercise 1.5

Classify each of the following as an element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous mixture: (a) brass, (b) nitrogen dioxide, NO2, (c) uranium metal.

Solution 1.5

(a) Brass is a solution of copper and zinc. Thus, brass is a homogenous mixture. (b) Nitrogen dioxide is a compound because it is a chemical combination of nitrogen and oxygen. (c) Uranium metal is one of the elements.

Separation of Mixtures

Mixtures, whether homogenous or heterogeneous, may be separated into their components by physical methods. For example, a solution of salt and water can be separated by heating. During heating, water changes to a vapor, which is condensed, leaving the salt behind. This is the basis of the process called distillation.

Filtration is a method used to separate some heterogeneous mixtures. Such mixtures are poured into a funnel that contains a filter paper, which is paper containing small, uniform openings or pores. Sand and water are separated by pouring the mixture into a filter.

Exercise 1.6

How can a mixture of sand and salt be separated?

Solution 1.6

A combination of sand and salt is a heterogeneous mixture. A convenient separation takes into account the difference in the solubility of sand and salt in water. Salt is soluble in water, but sand is not. If water is added to the mixture, the salt dissolves, leaving the sand undissolved. The salt-water solution that results is then filtered. Sand is trapped by the filter paper while the salt water passes through. To recover the salt, the water is evaporated.

1.4 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

On earth, matter exists in three physical states: solids, liquids, and gases. Each physical state has its own general set of properties.

Solids

Solids are usually the most compact state of matter. They have a fixed shape, have a constant volume, and do not flow to any appreciable extent. The particles that compose solids are closely packed and bonded by fairly strong forces of attraction. The structure of most solids is an organized patter of atoms, molecules, or ions. Solids have the most organized structure of the three physical states.

Liquids

The structure of liquids is more disorganized than that of solids because the forces among the liquid particles are generally weaker than those in solids. Thus, liquids are usually less compact (less dense) and more fluid than solids. Like solids, liquids have a constant volume. Liquids take the shapes of their containers to the level they fill.

Gases

Gases are the least compact (most diffuse) state of matter. The randomly distributed particles in gases are widely separated with only weak attractive forces. Gases have a variable shape, have a variable volume, totally fill their containers, and may be compressed. Of the three physical states, gases have the greatest ability to flow. Stated differently, gases are the most fluid of the three physical states of matter.

Changes of State

The addition or removal of that heat from a substance may cause its physical state to change.

Melting and Freezing

When a solid is heated, its temperature increases until it reaches its melting point. The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes to a liquid. Each substance has its own characteristic melting point. For example, ice, H2O(s), melts at 0°C, but sodium chloride, NaCl(s), melts at 801°C. If heat is removed from a liquid, it cools and changes to a solid at the freezing point. The freezing and melting temperatures of a substance are the same.

Boiling and Condensing

When a liquid is heated, its temperature increases until the boiling point is reached. At the boiling point, bubbles form throughout the liquid, and the liquid changes to a vapor, the gaseous form of a substance that is a liquid or solid at room temperature. Removing heat from the vapor ultimately causes it to cool and condense back to a liquid.

SUMMARY

Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions. Our universe is composed entirely of matter and energy. Matter is anything that has and occupies space. Energy is the capacity to do work.

Physical properties are characteristics of individual substances that can be measured without changing the composition of a substance. Chemical properties describe how the composition of a substance changes when it interacts with other substances or energy forms.

Matter is subdivided into two general classes: pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances are subdivided into elements and compounds. Mixtures are subdivided into homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

Solids, liquids, and gases are the three physical states. Solids are the most dense and most viscous of the physical states. Gases are the least dense and least viscous. The structures of liquids more closely resemble those of solids than gases. Liquids have a relatively high average density and are incompressible. If a solid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, it will change to a liquid. This process is called melting. Cooling a liquid to a sufficiently low temperature will convert it to a solid through the process of freezing. A liquid converts to a vapor when heated to the boiling point. Removing heat from a vapor causes it to change into a liquid through the process of condensation.

Test Yourself

1. Classify each of the following as either a physical or chemical property.

(a) existence in the solid state

(b) magnetic properties

(c) explosiveness

(d) compatibility

(e) flammability

(f) boiling point

2. Classify each as a physical or chemical change.

(a) formation of an ice cube from liquid water

(b) frying an egg

(c) fizzing of an Alka-Seltzer tablet

(d) gasoline evaporating

(e) distillation of alcohol

(f) digesting food

3. Sulfur is a yellow, odorless, brittle solid that melts at 115°C and boils at 445°C. Upon heating above 180°C, sulfur discolors and turns dark brown. Sulfur burns in air to yield poisonous sulfur oxides. Sulfur is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide (CS2). Identify all stated chemical and physical properties of sulfur.

4. Classify each of the following as pure substance or mixtures.

(a) wine

(b) beef

(c) gold jewelry

(d) tap water

(e) carbon dioxide

(f) baking soda

5. Write the name for each of the following elements.

(a) He

(b) Fe

(c) Li

(d) Se

(e) Ne

(f) Zr

6. Write the name for each of the following elements.

(a) Hg

(b) Zn

(c) W

(d) Xe

(e) Sr

(f) Al

7. Write the symbol for each of the following elements.

(a) nickel

(b) nitrogen

(c) neodymium

(d) neon

(e) niobium

(f) nobelium

8. Write the symbol for each of the following elements.

(a) indium

(b) silicon

(c) chlorine

(d) potassium

(e) manganese

(f) beryllium

9. Write the names and symbols for all eight elements in the second period of the Periodic Table.

10. State the name and number of each atom in the following formulas.

(a) RbH2PO4

(b) Al(OH)3

(c) (NH4)2NO3

(d) XePtCl6

(e) CCl2Br2

(f) Li3BO3

11. Classify the following as being homogenous or heterogeneous mixtures.

(a) brass

(b) coffee

(c) concrete

(d) motor oil

(e) carbonated beverage

(f) oil and water

12. What physical state of matter is most commonly found under each of the following conditions?

(a) very high temperatures and low pressures

(b) very low temperatures and high pressures

13. What type(s) of matter possesses the following properties?

(a) has a variable composition with one phase

(b) is inseparable by chemical means

(c) exhibits two or more phases

(d) changes state at constant temperature and has components that can be separated by chemical means

14. (a) How can a mixture of sugar and water be separated?

(b) How can a mixture of iron filings and salt be separated?

15. Some of the names of elements are derived from the names of geographical locations. Write the names and symbols for the elements that describe the following locations.

(a) two continents

(b) a state in the United States

(c) three countries in Europe

(d) a city in California

Test Yourself Answers

1. (a) physical

(b) physical

(c) chemical

(d) chemical

(e) chemical

(f) physical

2. (a) physical

(b) chemical

(c) chemical

(d) physical

(e) physical

(f) chemical

3. Chemical—burns in air, discolors and turns dark brown; physical—yellow, odorless, brittle solid, melts at 115°C, boils at 445°C, insoluble in water, soluble in CS2.

4. (a) mixture

(b) mixture

(c) pure substance

(d) mixture

(e) pure substance

(f) pure substance

5. (a) helium

(b) iron

(c) lithium

(d) selenium

(e) neon

(f) zirconium

6. (a) mercury

(b) zinc

(c) tungsten

(d) xenon

(e) strontium

(f) aluminum

7. (a) Ni

(b) N

(c) Nd

(d) Ne

(e) Nb

(f) No

8. (a) In

(b) Si

(c) CI

(d) K

(e) Mn

(f) Be

9. Lithium, Li; Beryllium, Be; Boron, B; Carbon, C; Nitrogen, N; Oxygen, O; Fluorine, F; and Neon, Ne

10. (a) rubidium, 1; hydrogen, 2; phosphorous, 1; oxygen, 4

(b) aluminum, 1; oxygen, 3; hydrogen, 3

(c) nitrogen, 3; hydrogen, 8, oxygen, 3

(d) xenon, 1; platinum, 1; chlorine, 6

(e) carbon, 1; chlorine, 2; bromine, 2

(f) lithium, 3, boron, 1, oxygen, 3

11. (a) homogenous

(b) homogenous

(c) heterogeneous

(d) homogenous

(e) heterogeneous

(f) heterogeneous

12. (a) gas phase

(b) solid phase

13. (a) homogenous mixtures

(b) elements

(c) heterogeneous mixture

(d) compound

14. (a) evaporate the water

(b) use a magnet to remove the iron filings

15. (a) Europium, Eu; Americium, Am

(b) Californium, Cf

(c) Francium, Fr; Germanium, Ge; Polonium, Po

(d) Berkelium, Bk

CHAPTER 2

Chemical Measurements

In this chapter, we will first discuss the International Standard of Units, the measurement system used by scientists throughout the world. Then, we will consider uncertainty in measurements and significant figures.

2.1 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

Scientists have agreed upon a common set of units and standards, even though the U.S. general public uses a different system.

Measurements

Chemists make both qualitative and quantitative laboratory measurements. Each quantitative measurement expresses the magnitude, the units or label, and the degree of uncertainty.

The SI System—A Metric System

The Systéme International d’Unités, or the International System of Units (SI), is the measurement system used in chemistry. The International System is a metric system. In the metric system, the conversion of a measurement from one unit to another requires only the shifting of the decimal point.

SI Prefixes

To scale a SI unit to the proper size for a measurement, the SI system has a series of prefixes that are appended to units. Exercises 2.1 and 2.2 review some of the more important prefixes.

Exercise 2.1

What is the meaning of each of the following SI prefixes?

(a) micro (μ), (b) mega (M), (c) milli (m), (d) deci (d)

Solution 2.1

(a) 1 × 10-6 ×, (b) 1 × 10⁶ ×, (c) 0.001 ×, (d) 0.1 ×

Exercise 2.2

What prefix is used for each of the following: (a) 0.01 ×, (b) 1 × 10-9 ×, (c) 1,000 ×, (d) 1 × 10-12 ×?

Solution 2.2

(a) centi, c; (b) nano, n; (c) kilo, k; (d) pico, p

Base and Derived SI Units

All SI units may be derived from seven base units. They include the following: meter (m), unit of length; kilogram (kg), unit of mass; second (s), unit of time; Kelvin (K), unit of temperature; mole (mol), unit of amount of substance; ampere (A), unit of current; and candela (cd), unit of luminous intensity.

All other units in the SI system are derived from combinations of seven base units. These are called derived units. Examples of derived SI units include m² (area), m³ (volume), kg/m³ (density), and kg m²/s² (energy).

2.2 IMPORTANT CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS

Mass and volume are the most common measurements made by scientists.

Length Measurements

The SI unit of length is the meter. Other commonly used units of length that are encountered in chemistry are the centimeter, cm, and the millimeter, mm. Centi, c, is the prefix that means one-hundredth. Thus, one centimeter is 1 × 10-2 m. The unit that most closely resembles 1 cm in the U.S. Customary System is the inch. One inch is equivalent to 2.54 cm.

The unit relationships may be written as conversion factors. Thus, one centimeter is 1 × 10-2 m may be written as 1 cm while 100 centimeters is 1 meter and may be written as

Exercise 2.3

Convert 475 mm to nm. One meter, m, is 10⁹ nm.

Solution 2.3

First, convert the millimeters to meters using the conversion factor, 1 m/1,000 mm, and then convert from meters to nanometers using 1 × 10⁹ nm/1 m. Note: The mm units (top and bottom) and m units (top and bottom) cancel, leaving the nm unit in the answer. The conversion equation may be shown as follows.

Alternatively, the conversion may be shown in this manner.

475 mm × 1m/1,000 mm × 1 × 10⁹ nm/1 m = 4.75 × 10⁸ nm

Exercise 2.4

If one meter is 39.37 in, calculate the number of inches in 1.000 nm.

Solution 2.4

Using the conversion factor, 1 m = 39.37 in, and knowing that 1 × 10⁹ nm = 1 m, the number of inches per nanometer is calculated.

1. 000 nm × 1 m/1 × 10⁹ nm × 39.37 in/1 m= 3.937 × 10-8 in

Volume Measurements

Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter. A unit of volume in the SI system can be derived from the base units for length, the meter and its submultiples. To measure the volume of a rectangular box, multiply its length times width times height. If the centimeter is used for the unit of length, then the unit of cubic centimeters, cm³ or cc, is obtained. Cubic centimeters are one of the most commonly used SI units of volume. In addition, the cubic decimeter, dm³, is also used. One decimeter is 10 cm, hence, 1 dm³ has the same volume as 1,000 cm³.

In addition to the SI units of volume, two non-SI units of volume are often encountered. One liter, 1L, is equivalent to one decimeter cubed, 1 dm³, and one milliliter, 1 mL, is the same volume as one cubic centimeter, 1 cm³. Hence, 1L is 1,000 mL, just as 1 dm³ is 1,000 cm³. One liter is equivalent to 1.057 quarts in the U.S. system.

Exercise 2.5

How many cm³ are contained in 1m³?

Solution 2.5

One hundred centimeters equals one meter, 100 cm/1 m. To find the number of cm³ per 1 m³, this relationship should be cubed as follows.

Exercise 2.6

Convert 502 cm³ to mm³.

Solution 2.6

The simplest way to solve this exercise is to realize that 1 cm is 10 mm; thus, 1 cm³ equals 10³ mm³.

502 cm³ × 1 × 10³ mm³/l cm³ = 5.02 × 10⁵ mm³

Exercise 2.7

How many microliters, μL, are contained in 1.00 m³?

Solution 2.7

First, convert m³ to dm³. One dm³ is exactly equivalent to 1 L. To complete the problem, use the conversion factor, 1 × 10⁶ μL/1 L.

1.00 m³ × 10³ dm³/1 m³ × 1 L/1 dm³ × 1 × 10⁶ μL/1 L = 1 × 10⁹ μL

Exercise 2.8

What is the volume in cm³ of a solid with the following dimensions: 6.55 cm × 81.2 mm × 0.102 m?

Solution 2.8

First, convert the lengths in mm and m to cm.

81.2 mm × 1 cm/10 mm = 8.12 cm

0.102 m × 100 cm/1 m = 10.2 cm

Then, multiply the three length measures to obtain the volume in cm³.

V = 6.55 cm × 8.12 cm × 10.2 cm = 542 cm³

Exercise 2.9

An automobile engine has a displacement of 3.80 L. What is its displacement in cubic inches?

Solution 2.9

To find the relationships among dm³ and m³, and in³ and m³, cube the conversion factors 1 m/10 dm and 39.37 in/1 m. Then, use these conversion factors to convert L to in³ as follows.

3.80 L × 1 dm³/1 L × 1 (1 m)³/(10 dm)³ × (39.37 in)³/(1 m)³ = 232 in³

Mass Measurements

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. The most commonly used SI units for mass are the kilogram, kg, and gram, g. One kilogram, 1 kg, is equivalent to 1,000 g. For most routine chemistry laboratory measurements, the kilogram is too large. Hence, the gram and its submultiples are the most common units of mass in the lab. One pound, 1 lb, in the U.S. system is equivalent to 454 grams in the metric system.

What is the difference between mass and weight? If equal forces are applied to large and small masses, the small mass accelerates more than the larger mass. The mass of a body is fixed and does not change when moved to another part of the universe. In contrast, the weight of an object depends on both its mass and the gravitational force of attraction. Because the gravitational field of the earth is not uniform, the weight of a body varies, depending on its location. However, in chemistry, it is common practice to use the terms mass and weight interchangeably.

Exercise 2.10

A small object is found to have a mass of 327 mg. What is the mass of the object in pounds?

Solution 2.10

Use the conversion factor 1 g/1,000 mg to convert to grams, and then 1 lb/454 g to convert grams to pounds.

327 mg × 1 g/1,000 mg × 1 lb/454 g = 0.000720 lb

Exercise 2.11

A chemistry student performs an experiment in which the mass of a sample must be determined in mg. The student first measures the mass of an empty beaker and finds that it is 74.111 g. Then, the student measures the combined mass of the sample and beaker and finds that it is 76.984 g. What is the mass of the sample in mg?

Solution 2.11

Subtract the mass of the empty beaker from the mass of the beaker plus the sample to obtain the mass of the sample in grams.

Mass of sample = 76.984 g - 74.111 g = 2.873 g

Then, convert the grams to milligrams using the conversion factor 1,000 mg/1 g.

2.873 g × 1,000 mg/1 g = 2,873 mg

Density Measurements

Density is the ratio of mass to volume of a sample of matter.

Most often the density of an object has the SI units of either g/cm³ or g/dm³, or the non-SI units g/mL and g/L. The density of an object tells you how compact it is. More dense objects have more matter in a given volume than less dense objects.

Intensive and Extensive Properties

Density is classified as an intensive property of matter. An intensive property is independent of the quantity of matter present. For example, the density of an object does not depend on the sample size. Fifty cm³ of water has a mass of 50 g, and 100 cm³ of water has a mass of 100 g. In both cases, the density of water is 1.0 g/cm³. Another intensive property of matter is temperature. The opposite of an intensive property is an extensive property, which depends on the amount or extent of matter present. Two examples of extensive properties are mass and volume.

Exercise 2.12

An empty 25-mL graduated cylinder has a mass of 77.31 g. After it is filled with 25.0 mL of a liquid, the combined mass is 107.81 g. Calculate the density of the unknown liquid.

Solution 2.12

To calculate the density, d, of the liquid, divide the mass of the liquid by its volume.

First, calculate the mass of the liquid.

mass of liquid = (mass of liquid + graduated cylinder) – mass of graduated cylinder mass of liquid = 107.81 g - 77.31 g = 30.50 g

Then, calculate the density of the unknown liquid.

d = mass/volume = 30.50 g/25.0 mL = 1.22 g/mL

Exercise 2.13

What volume in L does 3.5 kg mercury, Hg, occupy? The density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm³.

Solution 2.13

First, convert the mass of Hg to grams, and then use the density, 13.6 g/cm³, to calculate the volume in cm³. Complete the problem by converting cm³ to L.

V = 3.5 kg × 1,000g/kg × 1 cm³/13.6 g × 1 L/1,000 cm³ = 0.26 L Hg

Exercise 2.14

Calculate the mass in kg of air in a room that has the dimensions of 8.50 m by 9.11 m by 2.52 m. The density of air is 1.29 g/dm³.

Solution 2.14

First, calculate the volume of air in the room.

V = 8.50 m × 9.11 m × 2.52 m = 195 m³

Then, convert the volume in m³ to dm³.

195 m³ × 1 × 10³ dm³/1 m³ = 1.95 × 10⁵ dm³

Finally, use the density, 1.29 g/cm³, to calculate the mass in grams, and then convert to kilograms.

1.95 × 10⁵ dm³ × 1.29 g/dm³ × 1 kg/1,000 g = 252 kg

In one equation, the solution would appear as follows.

8.50 m × 9.11 m × 2.52 m × 1 × 10³ dm³/1 m³ × 1.29 g/dm³ × 1 kg/1,000 g = 252 kg

Exercise 2.15

An empty pycnometer (density bottle) has a mass of 37.234 g. It is filled with distilled water and has a combined mass of 57.177 g. The water is removed and is replaced with ethanol (grain alcohol). The mass of the bottle and alcohol is 53.021 g. If the density of water at room temperature, 298 K, is 0.99707 g/cm³, what is the density of ethanol?

Solution 2.15

To calculate the density, d, of ethanol, divide the mass by the volume.

First, calculate the mass of ethanol.

mass of ethanol = (mass of pycnometer + ethanol) - mass of pycnometer

mass of ethanol = 53.021 g - 37.234 g = 15.787 g ethanol

Next, calculate the volume of the pycnometer. To accomplish this, calculate the mass of the water that fills the pycnometer. Then, use the density of water to obtain its volume.

mass of water = (mass of bottle + water) - mass of bottle

mass of water = 57.177 g – 37.234 g = 19.943 g water

volume of water = 19.943 g H2O × 1.0000 cm³ H2O/0.99707 g H2O = 20.002 cm³

Then, calculate the density of ethanol.

d = mass/volume = 15.787 g/20.002 cm³ = 0.78929 g/cm³

Exercise 2.16

What volume of gold, Au, has the same mass as 15.0 cm³ of lead, Pb? The densities of Au and Pb are 19.3 and 11.4 g/cm³, respectively.

Solution 2.16

First, calculate the mass of lead, Pb, using its density, 11.4 g/cm³. This mass of Pb equals that of Au (i.e. 1 g Pb = 1 g Au).

15.0 cm³ × 11.4 g Pb/1 cm³ = 171 g Pb = 171 g Au

Then, calculate the volume of gold, Au, using its density 19.3 g/cm³.

171 g Au × 1 cm³/19.3 g Au = 8.86 cm³

Temperature and Heat

Temperature is a measure of the average amount of heat contained by an object per atom or molecule. We perceive this as the hotness or coldness of the object. If a warmer object contacts a colder one, the temperature of the warmer object decreases, and the temperature of the colder one increases spontaneously until the temperatures equalize. Heat flows or transfers from the hotter object to the colder one. Heat is a form of kinetic energy detected when objects of different temperatures contact each other. Thus, another way to define temperature is the property of a body that determines the direction of heat flow. Temperature is an intensive property of matter, while heat is an extensive property.

Celsius and Kelvin Temperature Scales

Most laboratory thermometers have calibration marks in degrees Celsius, °C, a non-SI temperature unit. The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin, K. The magnitude of one Celsius degree is equivalent to that of one Kelvin. However, the zero points of these scales differ. The zero point of the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, the lowest possible temperature. On the Celsius scale, absolute zero is -273.15°C.

K = °C + 273.15

Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales

The relationship of the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius scale is as follows.

°C = 5/9(°F - 32)

Rearranging and solving the equation for °F gives the following equation.

°F = (9/5 )°C + 32 = 1.8°C + 32

Exercise 2.17

Convert -57°F to °C and K.

Solution 2.17

First, convert °F to °C.

°C = 5/9(°F - 32) = 5/9(-57°F 32) = −49.4°C

Then, convert °C to K.

K = °C + 273.15 = -49.4°C +273.15 = 223.7 K

Exercise 2.18

Standard temperature for chemical reactions is 298 K. What temperature is this in °C and °F?

Solution 2.18

K = °C + 273.15, which may be simplified to °C = K − 273 for most calculations involving temperature. First, convert K to °C.

°C = K − 273 = 298 K − 273 = 25°C

Then, convert °C to °F.

°F = (9/5 )°C + 32 = (9/5)25°C + 32 = 77°F

Exercise 2.19

One temperature is the same on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Calculate this temperature.

Solution 2.19

Because °C = °F, substitute °C for °F in the following temperature conversion equation. Then, solve for °C.

°C = 5/9(°F - 32); °C = 5/9(°C - 32); (9/5)°C = °C - 32; (4/5)°C = -32; °C = -40

Therefore, -40°C = -40°F.

Energy Measurements

Energy changes accompany chemical change.

Potential and Kinetic Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work. All different types of energy can be divided into two broad categories: potential and kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored energy. Kinetic energy is energy of motion. Energy may be stored because of its position or addition, but most important to chemists is the energy stored in matter: chemical potential energy.

Calculating Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy possessed by a body depends on both its mass and velocity. Bodies that have equal masses possess the same kinetic energy if they travel at the same velocity, but have different kinetic energies if they travel at different velocities. The kinetic energy of a body can be calculated from the following equation:

in which Ek is kinetic energy in J, m is the mass of the body in kg, and v is its velocity in m/s.

The Joule

The SI unit for energy is the joule, J. One joule is 1 kg m²/s². A 1 kg mass that has a velocity of 1 m/s has a kinetic energy of 1 kg(m/s)² or 1 J. A joule is a rather small unit of energy for chemical reactions. Therefore, the kilojoule, kJ, is most often encountered.

Exercise 2.20

What is the kinetic energy in joules of a 5.0-kg body that has a velocity of 25 m/s?

Solution 2.20

The Calorie

The non-SI unit for energy is the calorie, cal. One calorie is exactly equivalent to 4.184 J. Historically, one calorie was defined as the amount of heat needed to raise one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

Exercise 2.21

Calculate the energy in J and cal of a 2.00-kg body that moves with a constant velocity of 15.0 m/s.

Solution 2.21

2.3 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS

All measurements involve some degree of uncertainty. The quality of measurements is described in terms accuracy and precision, and involves random or systematic errors.

Accuracy

Whenever chemical measurements are made, both precision and accuracy are considered. The accuracy of a measurement is how close the measured value is to a standard or true value. A more accurate measurement is one closer to the standard value than a less accurate measurement. Accuracy is measured in terms of the deviation of the measurement(s), called the error, from the true value.

Exercise 2.22

A student performs an experiment to find the density of a pure sample of chromium, Cr. The results of the experiment indicated that the density of the Cr was 7.00 g/cm³. If the actual value of the density of Cr is 7.19 g/cm³, calculate the percent deviation of this measurement.

Solution 2.22

To calculate the percent deviation, divide the deviation by the true value and multiply by 100 to get a percent.

% deviation = (7.00 g/cm³ 7.19 g/cm³)/7.19 g/cm³ × 100 = 2.6%

The percent deviation is a negative number because the measured value is below the true value. Sometimes, percent deviations are expressed as the absolute value, and the minus sign is dropped.

Precision

Precision is how closely repeated measures are grouped; that is, how reproducible the measurements are. The smaller the range of values obtained when measuring the same quantity, the greater the precision. In measurements, precision can also be reflected by the number of digits to which the measurement can be made. For example, a mass measurement of 12.25 g would be considered more precise than a 12.0 g mass measurement. Most often, but not always, good precision is an indication of high accuracy.

Errors in Measurement

Measurement errors account for the range of different values that are obtained when making the same measurement repeatedly. Two types of errors are generally found in chemical measurements: systematic and random errors. Systematic errors result from poor procedures and methods, malfunctioning and uncalibrated instruments, human error, impulse samples, and some unrecognized factors that influence the results. Systematic errors are reduced by finding their causes and eliminating them. Random errors occur in all chemical measurements. Even if every precaution is taken to avoid systematic errors, small deviations or random errors arise due to human judgment involved in reading the measurement and/or calibrating the measuring device.

Errors and Measurement Uncertainty

Collectively, systematic and random errors introduce uncertainty, or lack of confidence, in all measured values. Thus, all reported measurements should indicate the degree of uncertainty of the measurement. In chemistry, this is most frequently accomplished using significant figures, which is described in the following section.

Range of Uncertainty of Measurements

Measurement uncertainty can be expressed by showing the range of uncertainty. Measuring devices that are more precise give a smaller range of uncertainty than less precise ones.

Exercise 2.23

The mass of an unknown metal was found to be 68.33 ± 0.05 g. The volume of this metal was 8.3 ± 0.2 cm³. (a) Calculate the maximum limit of density by dividing the maximum mass by the minimum volume. (b) Calculate the minimum limit of density by dividing the minimum mass by the maximum volume. (c) Calculate the average of these two densities. (d) Subtract the average from the maximum density and determine the range of uncertainty in the calculated density.

Solution 2.23

(a) To obtain the maximum limit of density, divide the maximum mass, m, by the minimum volume, V.

dmax = mmax/Vmin

dmax = 68.38 g/8.1 cm³ = 8.4 g/cm³

(b) To obtain the minimum limit of density, divide the minimum mass by the maximum volume.

dmin= mmin/Vmax

dmin/Vmax = 68.28 g/8.5 cm³ = 8.0 g/cm³

(c) Next, calculate the average of these two densities.

davg = (8.0 g/cm³ + 8.4 g/cm³)/2 = 8.2 g/cm³

(d) Finally, subtract the average from the maximum density and determine the range of uncertainty in the calculated density (d = 8.2 ± 0.2 g/cm³).

2.4 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The number of significant figures in a measurement depends on the measuring device, while the number of significant figures after a calculation is determined from a set of rules.

What Are Significant Figures?

Significant figures, also called significant digits, are measured digits in a number that are known with certainty plus one uncertain digit. Stated differently, significant figures are all known digits plus the first estimated digit. It is important to note that significant figures apply only to measured values and do not apply to exact numbers. Significant figures apply only to measurements that are to some degree uncertain.

Significant Figures and Uncertainty

Usually, the last significant figure is thought to be uncertain by ± 1. For example, stating that the volume of a liquid is 35.5 mL indicates that the measured volume is at most 35.6 mL (+0.1) and at least 35.4 mL (-0.1). If the same liquid is totally transferred to a more precise volumetric instrument, let’s say one that has a scale with 0.1-mL marks etched accurately on the side, it is possible to obtain an additional significant figure.

The Number of Significant Figures

Whenever a measurement is encountered, always remember that besides the numerical value and units, the number also indicates the precision with which the measurement was made, by the number of significant figures in the measurement. Consider the following three measurements and the indicated number of significant figures.

1.25 m indicates three significant figures (1, 2, 5) (range 1.26 m to 1.24 m).

434.56 K indicates five significant figures (4, 3, 4, 5, 6) (range 434.57 K to 434.55 K).

0.0704 g indicates two place holders (0, 0) and three significant figures (7, 0, 4) (range 0.0703 to 0.0705).

Zeros and Significant Figures

All nonzero numbers in measurements are always significant, but zeros pose a special problem because a zero in a number that acts as a placeholder is not significant. Placeholders are not measured quantities; therefore, they are not significant figures.

The following rules summarize all possible cases in which zeros are found in measurements:

Rule 1: Zeros located in the middle of a number.

In all cases, zeros in the middle of a number are significant. Zeros in the middle of measured quantities are measured digits and are not placeholders; accordingly, they are significant in all cases. For example, 74,003 m contains five significant figures.

Rule 2: Zeros located in front of a number.

Zeros in front of numbers are usually to the right of the decimal point. These zeros act as placeholders (they are not measured), so they are not significant figures. Sometimes a zero is placed in front of the decimal point to show that no digit is present. Similarly, this zero is not significant. For example, 0.0074003 Mm contains five significant figures.

Rule 3: Zeros located after a number to the right of the decimal point.

For this specific case, the zero is either a measured quantity (certain) or a good estimate (the first uncertain digit); consequently, zeros after a number and to the right of the decimal point are all significant. For example, 7.40030 cm contains six significant figures. For this measurement, the zeros were measured by some instrument. All the zeros are certain except the last zero, which is uncertain but still significant.

Rule 4: Zeros located after a number to the left of the decimal point.

Zeros found after a number and to the left of the decimal point are significant if they are measured, and are not significant if they are placeholders.

An object with a measured mass of 500 g has a questionable number of significant figures because more information is required to determine the correct number. The measurement, 500 g, contains three significant figures only if the second zero (units place) is the first uncertain figure. It contains two significant figures if the first zero (tens place) is the first uncertain figure. Lastly, the 5 could be the uncertain digit; if this is the case, the measurement only has one significant figure. In each case, the number of significant figures is determined by the precision of the measuring device. To avoid the confusion generated by the ambiguous nature of zeros to the left of decimal points, such measurements are often expressed in scientific notation in which the decimal factor represents the correct number of significant figures. Thus, 500 grams is expressed as 5 × 10² g (one significant figure) or 5.0 × 10² g (two significant figures) or 5.00 × 10² g (three significant figures), depending on the precision of the measuring device.

Exercise 2.24

Write the number of significant figures indicated by each of the following measurements: (a) 559,977 g, (b) 0.2937 cm, (c) 1,000.0200 L, (d) 0.0000500 kg, (e) 2.001010 × 10¹²mg.

Solution 2.24

(a) six significant figures, (b) four significant figures, (c) eight significant figures, (d) three significant figures, (e) seven significant figures

Exercise 2.25

A college chemistry professor counts the number of students in his laboratory class. The count indicates the presence of 21 students. How many significant figures does this represent?

Solution 2.25

Significant figures do not apply in this case because there is no uncertainty in counting students.

Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures

When measured quantities are added and subtracted, the answer can have no more digits to the right of the decimal point than does the measured quantity with the least number of decimal places.

Exercise 2.26

Add the masses 2.0965 g and 1.41 g and express the answer to the correct number of significant figures.

Solution 2.26

The answer is limited to two decimal places by the 1.41 g measurement. First, calculate the sum of the two numbers:

2.0965 g

+ 1.41 g

3.5065 g = 3.51 g

Next; round off the answer to the correct number of decimal places. Because the second mass was measured only to two decimal places, the correct answer can have only two decimal places. The answer to this problem is 3.51 g.

Rules for Rounding Off Measurements

When rounding off, look at the first nonsignificant figure, which is one place to the right of the least significant figure. The least significant figure is the last figure in the number retained after rounding off. Then, apply the following two rounding rules.

Rule 1: If the value of the first nonsignificant figure is less than 5, retain the least significant figure and drop all nonsignificant digits.

Rule 2: If the value of the first nonsignificant figure is 5 or greater, add 1 to the least significant figure and drop all nonsignificant digits. (Note: An additional rule is available for dealing with the digit 5 should it be the first nonsignificant digit; however, it is generally not applied at this level.)

Exercise 2.27

What is the sum of 10.0043 mL + 5.5 mL + 9.250 mL?

Solution 2.27

First, calculate the sum of the three numbers:

The answer, 24.7543 mL, must be rounded to one decimal place because the second measured quantity, 5.5 mL, contains only one decimal place. Because the first nonsignificant figure is 5 and the least significant figure is 7, add one to the least significant figure and drop all nonsignificant digits. This gives a final answer of 24.8 mL.

Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures

When measurements are multiplied and divided, the answer can have no more significant figures than the measurement with the least number of significant figures. If two numbers are multiplied, one with six and the other with three significant figures, the answer may only have three significant figures. Exercise 2.28 illustrates such a problem.

Exercise 2.28

Find the area of a surface that is 5.82131 cm by 4.11 cm.

Solution 2.28

To find the area, multiply the length times with width.

The answer, 23.9255841 cm², must be rounded to three significant figures because the second measured quantity, 4.11 cm, contains only three significant figures. Because the first nonsignificant digit in the answer is 2, the answer is rounded off to 23.9 cm² (three significant figures).

Exercise 2.29

Perform the indicated arithmetic operations and express the answer to the correct number of significant figures.

(7.290 m × 2.0400 m)/0.95 m =?

Solution 2.29

The denominator contains a measurement with only two significant figures; hence, this limits the answer to two significant figures. Perform the indicated math operations and round off the resulting answer to two significant figures.

(7.290 m × 2.0400 m)/0.95 m = 15.6543157895 m = 16 m

The first nonsignificant figure is 6; hence, the answer is rounded off by adding 1 to 5 and dropping the nonsignificant figures, which leaves 16 m as the answer.

Multiplication and Addition of Significant Figures

It is not uncommon to perform calculations in which both addition and multiplication are required. Exercise 2.30 shows how to solve such problems.

Exercise 2.30

Perform the indicated arithmetic operations and express the answer to the correct number of significant figures.

(11.2050 mm - 10.322 mm) × 6.030000 mm = ?

Solution 2.30

Each operation limits, and therefore may change, the number of significant figures in the final answer. From the subtraction step, that intermediate answer may have only three decimal places because 10.322 mm only contains three decimal places.

11.2050 mm - 10.322 mm = 0.8830 mm = 0.883 mm

After multiplying 0.883 mm (three significant figures) by 6.030000 mm (seven significant figures), the answer may only have three significant figures.

0.883 mm × 6.030000 mm = 5.32449 mm²

Do not use rounded numbers (intermediate answers) in subsequent calculations; instead, carry all significant figures and decimal digits into the final answer, and then round according to the least number of significant figures (if the final operation is multiplication or division), or round according to the least number of decimal places (if the final operation is addition or subtraction).

Exercise 2.31

A student collected the following data as she carried out an experiment to determine the density of an unknown metal that does not react with water. The experiment involves the displacement of water. Determine the density of the metal and report the density to the correct number of significant figures.

Solution 2.31

The density of the metal may be found by determining the ratio of the mass of the metal and the volume of the metal. The number of significant figures is determined from the two intermediate subtraction steps and the final division operation. First, calculate the mass of the metal.

8.301 g - 0.4526 g = 7.8484 g, which is limited to three decimal places (7.848 g)

Next, calculate the volume of the metal.

49.3 mL - 42.117 mL = 7.183 mL, which is limited to one decimal place (7.1 mL)

Finally, use the density formula, d = mass/volume, to find the density of the metal.

density = 7.8484 g/7.183 mL = 1.09263538911 g/mL = 1.1 g/mL

The answer is limited to two significant figures from the volume calculation.

SUMMARY

The International System of Units, SI, has seven base units from which

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