A Handbook of Anatomy for Art Students

211

ANATOMY FOR ART STUDENTS

CHAPTER I

THE INFLUENCE OF POSTURE UPON THE FORM OF MAN

‘MAN alone stands erect.’ The least observant amongst us cannot have failed to recognize the fact that man owes much of his dignity to the erect posture. In this respect he differs from all other animals. If we compare him with the man-like apes, his near relations, they suffer much by contrast. The gait of these creatures is shuffling, and the balance of the figure unsteady ; while their whole appearance, when they attempt to walk upright, suggests but a feeble imitation of the grace and dignity of man’s carriage.

The assumption by man of the erect position has led to very remarkable changes in the form of his skeleton and the arrangement and development of his muscles.

In his growth from the ovum to the adult, he passes through many stages. In some of these his ascent from lower forms is clearly demonstrated. This statement holds good not only in regard to structure, but also as regards function.

To take a case in point. The child at birth is feeble and helpless, and the limbs are as yet unsuited to perform the functions they will be called upon to exercise when fully developed. Dr. L. Robinson has clearly proved that the new-born child possesses a remarkable grasping power in its hands. He found that infants, immediately after birth, were able to hang from a stick, for a short time, by clutching it with the hands. With this exception, we may regard the movements of the limbs as ill controlled and imperfect. At first the legs are not strong enough to support the body. It is only after a considerable time has elapsed that the child makes efforts to use them as means of progression. These first attempts are confined to creeping, an act in which the fore limbs play as important a part as the hind. With advancing age, however, the legs become longer and the muscles more powerful. In course of time they are sufficiently strong to support the body-weight. In the earlier stages of the assumption of the erect posture the child assists itself by laying hold of any object which it can conveniently grasp with its hands ; as yet its efforts are ungainly and unsteady, but practice, and the exercise of a better control over the muscles of the legs, soon enable it to stand upright and walk without the aid of its upper limbs.

There are thus three stages in the development of this action : first, the use of ‘ all fours’ ; secondly, the employment of the upper limbs as means to steady and assist the inadequately developed lower limbs—this mode of progression is comparable to that of the man-like apes; and, thirdly, the perfected act wherein the legs are alone sufficient to support and carry the body.

The growth and development of the legs are not the only changes that are associated with the assumption of the erect position. If the back-bone of an infant at birth be examined and compared with that of an adult, other differences than those of size and ossification will be observed. As will be afterwards explained, the adult back-bone is characterized by certain curves, some of which we fail to notice in the child. These latter, therefore, are developed at a period subsequent to birth, and are described as secondary curves, whilst those which exist at birth and are maintained throughout life are called primary curves. The primary curves are those associated with the formation of the walls of the great visceral cavities, whilst the secondary curves are developed coincident with the assumption of the erect position, and are compensatory in their nature. The advantage of this arrangement is that the curves are not all bent in the same direction, but alternate, so that the column is made up of a succession of backward and forward curves. In this way the general direction of the back-bone is vertical, which it could not possibly be if the curves did not so alternate, for then all the curves would be directed forwards, and a vertical line would fall either in front of, across, or behind the bent column in place of cutting it at several points, as happens in the column with the alternating curves. This becomes a matter of much importance when the vertical line coincides with the direction of the force exercised by gravity, as in standing upright.

FIG. 1. Diagram to show the curves in the back-bone of an infant.

FIG. 2 displays the curves in the back-bone of the adult. This figure has been reduced to the same size as Fig. 1 so as to render comparison easier.

These facts may be proved by looking at a baby. The back displays a uniform curve from the shoulders to the hips; as soon as the child begins to walk, however, the development of a forward curve in the region of the loins is observed, a curve which ultimately becomes permanent and is associated with the graceful flowing contours which are characteristic of the back of the adult. This lumbar curve is one of the most remarkable features of man’s back-bone, for, although the curve is exhibited to a slight extent in the columns of the apes, in none does it approach anything like the development met with in man. On the other hand, in four-footed animals, where the column is horizontal in position, there is either no such curve present, or it is only slightly developed.

The assumption of the erect posture necessarily involves the growth of powerful muscles along the back to uphold and support the back-bone and trunk in the vertical position, as is proved by the changes which take place in old age. At that time of life the muscular system becomes enfeebled, and is no longer strong enough to hold the figure erect; the consequence of which is the bent back and tottering gait of the aged, who, in their efforts to avail themselves of every advantage, seek the assistance which the use of a staff affords. Thus history repeats itself within the span of our own existence. It has been seen how the young child avails itself of the assistance of its upper limbs in its first attempts to walk ; and it is noteworthy how, in that ‘ second childhood’, the weak and aged seek additional support by the use of their arms and hands.

It is, however, to neither of these types that our attention must be especially directed, but rather to the examination of man in the full exercise of his strength, after he has outgrown the softness and roundness of youth, and before he has acquired any of the weakness dependent on advancing years.

Starting, then, with the fundamental idea that the erect posture is essentially a characteristic of man, it is necessary to study in some detail the various modifications in his bony framework and muscular system which are associated with this posture.

As a vertebrate animal, man possesses a back-bone or spinal column made up of a series of bones placed one above the other. Around this central column are grouped the parts of the skeleton which protect and support the trunk. On the upper end of this axis is poised the head, and connected with the trunk are the two pairs of limbs—the arms and legs.

For convenience of description it will be necessary to consider the body in its several parts:

The trunk.

The lower limbs.

The upper limbs.

The head and neck.

In regard to the trunk, as has been already stated, the vertebral column, so called because it is composed of a number of separate bones or vertebrae, forms the central axis around which the other parts are grouped. Comparing the position of this chain of bones in man with that observed in a four-footed animal, it will be noted that in man its axis is vertical, whilst in a quadruped it is more or less horizontal; moreover, the column in man is curved in a more complex manner than is the case in animals. It is on these curves that the column is mainly dependent for its elasticity. It would, however, be unable to sustain the weight of the trunk unless some provision had been made whereby it could be held erect. This is supplied by the powerful groups of muscles which lie in the grooves on either side of, and behind, the back-bone. An inspection of the back of a model will enable the student to recognize these fleshy masses on either side of the middle line, particularly in the lower part of the back, in the region of the loins. These groups of muscles are called the erectores spinae, a name which sufficiently explains their action, and may well be compared to the ‘stays’ which hold a mast upright. How much depends on the action of these muscles is, as has been said, amply demonstrated in the case of the feeble and aged, in whom the muscles are no longer able properly to perform their function, with the result that the persons so affected are unable to hold themselves erect for any time without fatigue.

FIGS. 3, 4 (after Goodsir) show the characteristic differences in the arrangement of the parts of the skeleton in man and a quadruped.

The column supports the weight of the head, and by its connexion with the ribs, enters into the formation of the chest-wall. The upper limbs are connected with the chest-wall in a way which will be subsequently described. It is thus evident that this central axis is a most important factor in the formation of the skeleton of the trunk. Through it the entire weight of the head, upper limbs, and trunk is transmitted to the lower limbs, which necessarily have to support their combined weight in the erect position.

It is to the structure of these limbs that our attention must next be directed. In considering them it must be borne in mind that the legs serve two purposes: first, they afford efficient support, and, secondly, they are adapted for the purposes of progression. The limbs are connected with the trunk by means of bones arranged in a particular way. These are termed the limb girdles. There are two such girdles—the shoulder-girdle, connecting the upper limbs with the trunk, and the pelvic girdle, connecting the lower limbs with the trunk. As the latter is concerned in transmitting the weight of the trunk to the lower limbs, it is well first to examine it.

FIG. 5. A diagram to show the arrangement of the muscles which support the back-bone. The muscles, which are represented in solid black, are seen to be thick in the regions of the loins and neck, and comparatively thin in the mid-dorsal region.

MALE SKELETON, FRONT VIEW

FEMALE SKELETON, FRONT VIEW

From its function it is essential that the pelvic girdle should be firmly united to the vertebral column or central axis by means of an immovable joint. In order to effect this union the segments or vertebrae, of which the column is made up, undergo certain modifications in the region where the girdle-bones of the lower limb are attached. This modification consists in the fusion of a number of these vertebrae, which are separate in the infant, and their conversion into one large wedge-shaped bone called the sacrum. This bone, built up by the union of five vertebrae, is, in man, remarkable for its width and stoutness. It acts not only as a strong connecting link between the vertebral column and the bones of the pelvic girdle with which it articulates, but also provides a fixed base on which the upper and movable segments of the central axis are placed. The posterior aspect of the sacrum also furnishes an extensive surface for the attachment of the erector muscles of the spine, which assist so materially in maintaining the column in its erect position. The bones of the pelvic girdle, though separate at an early period of life, are in the process of growth fused together to form a large stout irregular bone called the haunch-bone (os innominatum ). There are two such bones—one for either limb—and these are united behind to each side of the sacrum by means of an immovable joint. The girdle is further strengthened by the union of the two bones with each other in the middle line in front, where they are bound together by an immovable joint called the synaphysis pubis. A bony basin, called the pelvis, is thus formed by the articulation of these two haunch-bones in front, and their union with the sacrum behind. There is no movement between the several parts of this osseous girdle, and it is firmly united with the lower part of the vertebral column. It helps to form the lower part of the trunk, and, by its expanded surfaces, assists materially in supporting the abdominal contents. This form of pelvis is very characteristic of man. As a result of the assumption of the erect posture the abdominal viscera are no longer supported entirely by the abdominal walls, as in four-footed animals, but rest to a very considerable extent on the expanded wings of the pelvic bones. In addition, the outer surfaces of these expanded plates of bone are utilized to provide attachment for the powerful muscles which pass from and connect this pelvic girdle with the thigh-bone, a group of muscles which in man attains a remarkable development.

FIG. 6. The back-bone and pelvis.

The fact must be emphasized that no movement is possible between the pelvic girdle and the sacrum, and that all the weight transmitted down the vertebral column through the sacrum is equally distributed between the two haunch-bones.

FiG.7. A diagrammatic representation of the pelvic girdle.

If the outer surface of each of these bones be examined, a deep cup-shaped cavity will be noticed, into which the rounded head of the thigh-bone or femur fits, thus forming the movable articulation called the hip-joint. The bones of the thigh and leg are remarkable for their length¹. Combined they equal in length the measurement of the head and trunk. This relative development is not attained by any other animal. In addition, the thigh.bone of man possesses an extremely long and well-marked neck. The neck is that part of the bone which supports the rounded articular head, and connects it in an oblique direction with the upper end of the shaft. The length of the neck of the femur is peculiar to man, and permits a freedom of action of the limb not attainable by any other animal, the movements in the lower animals being more or less limited to a backward and forward direction. By means of the neck of the thigh-bone we have in man an arrangement which fulfils all the conditions necessary to ensure stability, and permits a more extended range of movement, not only from before backwards and from side to side, but also in an inward and outward direction. This latter is the movement of rotation, whereby we are enabled to turn the front of the limb inwards or outwards as desired.

The muscles to which reference has been already made in connexion with the outer surfaces of the haunch-bones are inserted into the upper part of the thigh-bone. As they are immediately concerned in the control of certain important movements of the hip-joints, through which the entire weight of the trunk is transmitted to the lower limbs, they necessarily acquire a very great development, a development on which is dependent the prominence of the buttocks. This appearance was justly regarded by Aristotle as eminently characteristic of man.

The thigh-bones, separated above by the width of the pelvis, are placed obliquely so that they lie side by side in the region of the knees.

The bones of the leg are two in number. They are immovably united to each other, since any movement between them would interfere with their stability and thus weaken the limb as a means of support. One only of these bones, the shin-bone or tibia, enters into the formation of the knee-joint ; by its expanded upper extremity it affords a broad surface not only for the support but also for the movements of the condyles, or articular surfaces, of the thigh-bone. The slender outer bone, the fibula, furnishes extensive attachments for numerous muscles.

Bones of the lower limb.

FIG. 8. Front view.

FIG. 9. Side view.

MALE SKELETON, BACK VIEW

The fleshy masses which move the leg on the thigh at the knee-joint clothe both the front and back of the thigh-bone ; in man the extensor group of muscles, viz. that placed on the front of the thigh, which extends or straightens the leg, attains a relatively greater development than the flexor group, which is situated on the back of the limb. This is just the reverse of what is found in animals, and is associated in man with the power he possesses of bringing his leg into a direct line with his thigh, that is to say he can straighten or extend his limb at the knee-joint in a way which no other animal can effect.

Man’s foot is a very characteristic member. It possesses the qualities essential to strength and solidity combined with elasticity and movement. When standing upright the axis of the foot is placed at right angles to the axis of the leg.

The bones which enter into the formation of the foot are disposed so as to form a series of arches. The advantage of this arrangement is that the soft parts on the sole are protected from pressure, while at the same time considerable elasticity is imparted to the foot. The slight play of the bones which form the arches allows the latter to act like a series of curved springs.

The form of the heel-bone, or os calcis, is characteristic: to its posterior part is attached that group of muscles which determines the form of the calf. The development of these muscles is very great; and it is noteworthy that they are quite typical of man, as no animal equals him in this respect. This is explained by the fact that not unfrequently they are called upon to support the entire weight of the body, as in the acts of standing or dancing on tiptoe, while at other times they are required to project the body forward, as in springing or leaping.

The bones of the toes are shorter than those of the fingers. The great toe is united to the others and lies side by side with them ; it has no such power of separation and closing on the other toes as is possessed by the thumb. Thus the stability of the foot is not interfered with by an excess of mobility such as we see in the apes, where this power of movement is necessary. In them the foot is employed as a grasping organ, a modification which greatly assists the animal in its arboreal habits.

From what has been stated it will be apparent that the lower limb of man displays in its structure those modifications which are essential to the combination of support and mobility.

In the upper limb, the same influences lead to modifications in its structure which enhance its usefulness. As already stated, the child dispenses with the use of his arms as aids to progression as soon as his legs become strong enough to support him. This relieves the upper limb of one function, and permits a development of that member rather in the direction of freedom of motion. So extensive is the range of movement of this limb that man can touch any part of’ his body with one or other hand.

An examination of the bones of the shoulder-girdle—the bones by which the upper limbs are connected with the trunk—at once reveals a remarkable difference between their mode of articulation with the skeleton of the trunk and that which has been already described in connexion with the pelvic girdle.

The shoulder-girdle consists of two bones on either side, the collar-bone or clavicle, and the shoulder-blade or scapula. These two bones are united by a small joint which permits limited movement in certain directions, but the girdle is only connected with the skeleton of the trunk by one joint on either side, viz. that between the upper end of the breast-bone or sternum. and the inner extremity of the collar-bone. The range of movement of this joint is not extensive. The shoulder-blade, on the other hand, is not directly connected with the skeleton of the trunk, but only indirectly, through its articulation with the collar-bone. At the same time the blade-bone is attached by numerous muscles to the framework of the chest-wall. By this means, though the range of movement in the two joints just named is limited, the combination of these movements and the looseness of the connexion of the shoulder-blade with the chest-wall impart a very extensive range of movement to the entire girdle. When it is remembered that this girdle is articulated with the bone of the upper arm, the student will recognize how important a part it plays in increasing the freedom of movement of the upper limb.

As has been shown, the shoulder-girdle in man is modified in order to increase the range of movement of a limb used for prehensile purposes, and this is correlated with an alteration in the form of the chest-wall. In animals in which the fore limb is used as a means of support, the form of the chest-wall is laterally compressed, that is to say the depth of the chest cavity is greater than its width. In man, on the other hand, in whom the limb is not habitually made use of to uphold the trunk, the chest-wall, relieved from pressure, expands laterally; hence the thoracic or chest cavity in man is wider from side to side than from before backwards.

The joint between the shoulder-girdle and the upper extremity of the humerus, or bone of the upper arm, requires a brief description. The union of the limb bone with the girdle is effected by means of a relatively small shallow socket on the shoulder-blade in which the large rounded head of the humerus rests. The fibrous bands, called ligaments, which surround this joint are lax, so that they limit but slightly the range of movement possible. This is in striking contrast to what we have seen in the articulation of the hip, where the hollow for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone is deep and surrounded by a prominent margin. A moment’s consideration will at once explain the difference in the nature of the two joints. The shoulder-joint is adapted to permit very free movement, and is, relatively speaking, a weak joint, as demonstrated by the frequency with which it is dislocated, whilst the hip-joint combines great strength with a more limited range of movement.

FIG. 10. Bones of the right upper limb, front view.

FIG. 11. Bones of the right upper limb, back view

There are two bones in the fore-arm as in the leg, but, whilst in the latter the bones were seen to be immovably united, in the fore-arm the bones are jointed together in such a manner as to move freely on one another in certain definite directions. The resulting movements are termed pronation and supination, and are effected by the rotation of the outer bone or radius over the inner bone or ulna. These movements, not confined to man, but found in those animals whose fore-limbs are used for prehensile purposes, are extremely serviceable and greatly enhance the value of the hand as a grasping and tactile organ.

FIG. 12. Diagrammatic representation of the shoulder-girdle.

The terminal segment of the human upper limb is marvellously adapted for performing the most delicate manipulations. Man has been defined as a ‘tool-using’ animal, and no doubt owes much of his supremacy to the facility which he possesses of ‘ turning his hand ’ to almost anything. This power he owes largely to the freedom of movement and power of opposition of the thumb, the most useful, as it is the most important in regard to size and strength, of all the digits.

The skull must now be considered : this consists of two portions, one which encloses the brain, the other which supports and protects the soft parts of the face. If the human skull be compared with that of a man-like ape, it will be observed that the development of that portion which contains the brain in man is far in excess of the corresponding part in the anthropoid. In the latter the bones of the face are always more prominent, forming the projection which is familiarly known as the muzzle, whilst in man the face underlies the expanded brain-case, and projects but slightly in front. This difference gives rise to modifications in the manner in which the head is supported on the vertebral column. In a dog the skull is slung at the anterior extremity of a more or less horizontal spinal column ; in man the head is poised on the upper end of a vertical column ; whilst in the man-like apes an intermediate condition is observed, the column here being more or less oblique in direction. Owing to the fact that in quadrupeds and apes the muzzle is very large, special provision, in the form of an elastic ligament, is necessary to assist in supporting the head. In man, however, the parts are so distributed, owing to the absence of muzzle and the greater development of the back and upper part of the head, that the skull, when placed upon its articular surfaces on the upper end of the vertebral column, nearly balances itself. The importance of this arrangement is evident, because it enables us to keep the head erect with comparatively slight muscular effort. The contrary would have been the case had we been called upon to support a large and heavy muzzle. The elastic ligament present in other animals is thus rendered unnecessary. At the same time there is proof that some slight muscular effort is required to keep the head upright, for, if a drowsy person be watched, the forward nodding of the head is an indication that the muscles which support it are becoming relaxed. It may be noted that the position of the skull exerts an influence on the plane of vision in man : in the erect position the visual axis is directed towards the horizon, ‘He looks the whole world in the face ’ ; and the occasional remark that one has a ‘hangdog ’ expression has more significance in it than at first appears.

FIG. 13. Skull and cervical vertebrae of a gorilla, showing projecting muzzle, small brain-case, and elongated cervical spines.

FIG. 14. Skull and cervical vertebrae of man, showing small face bones, large brain-case, and short cervical spines.

So far we have dealt generally with the physical attributes of man. It is unnecessary here to dwell upon those higher mental and moral developments which distinguish him from the brutes.

MALE SKELETON, SIDE VIEW

CHAPTER II

GENERAL, DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES AND JOINTS

IN the previous chapter great stress was laid on the influence exerted by posture on the bodily framework of man. The reader must now consider some points connected with the skeleton as a whole, before proceeding to study it in detail. Fortunately for the art student, a minute description of all the bones is unnecessary, as many of them have little or no influence on the surface forms.

The term ‘skeleton’ is applied to the solid framework of the body. This consists largely of bone, but also includes cartilage or gristle, and ligaments. An examination of a skeleton as ordinarily prepared is somewhat misleading. In the process of maceration, to which for the purposes of preparation it is subjected, the cartilaginous and ligamentous elements of this framework have disappeared, being more easily disintegrated than the osseous parts. The result is that the dried bones convey but a poor impression of the delicacy and precision with which the several portions of this skeletal framework are jointed together.

It would appear at first sight almost hopeless to attempt to classify the bones of the body, but a closer examination will prove that there are many points of resemblance between them, not only in regard to structure, but also in regard to function. There are bones which are characterized by their length; these we find in the limbs, for example, the bones of the upper arm, fore-arm, thigh, and leg. Such are clearly associated with movement, for their extremities are moulded into smooth articular surfaces, which fit more or less accurately on the corresponding areas of adjacent bones. Of the joints so formed each is specially adapted for particular movements. To these long bones the muscles are attached, which move them and convert them into levers of different kinds, examples of which will be easily recognized by the student of mechanics. This lever principle is not confined to the long bones. If one of the irregularly-shaped bones of which the vertebral column is built up be examined it will be seen to possess a number of prominent processes. Some of these afford attachment to muscles and act as levers, enabling these muscles to operate with greater mechanical advantage. In addition to the use of’ the long bones as levers, it must also be borne in mind that they act as supports. Having reference to what has been already stated in the previous chapter, we see that the bones of the lower limb are stouter and stronger than those of the upper; moreover, their articular surfaces are more expanded, and, if the range of movement of the joints which unite them be less, there is this advantage, that the articulations are stronger and better fitted to bear the strain to which they are subjected.

Another group of bones are those which are more or less flattened and expanded—plate-like bones they are called. Generally speaking, these serve as protective coverings for the more delicate structures which are lodged beneath them. On examining that part of the skull which contains the brain, it is seen that the oval case which envelops it is made up of a number of such expanded bones firmly united together. So also, in the pelvic region, the bones which constitute the girdle of the lower limb afford protection to the viscera which are lodged within its cavity. But nature takes advantage of these expanded surfaces in other ways; besides protecting the organs which they overlie, they afford extensive surfaces for the attachment of muscles on their outer or exposed surfaces. Thus, in the head, the region of the temple, which in the skeleton is formed of expanded portions of the temporal, parietal, frontal, and sphenoid bones, affords attachment to one of the powerful muscles of mastication—the temporal muscle, which raises the lower jaw. It has been already noted how the outer surface of the pelvic girdle furnishes wide areas for the origin of the muscles which pass to the thigh-bone and control the movements of the hip-joint.

In the examples above cited the protective bones are firmly united to each other, no perceptible movements taking place between them. In the animal economy it is, however, sometimes necessary to provide an arrangement which, whilst protective, will also be capable of certain movements : such, for instance, is the chest-wall. This consists of an osseous framework composed, on either side, of the curved ribs united in front with the breast-bone and connected behind with the vertebral column by a series of movable joints. This bony framework, combined with cartilage, membrane, and muscle, forms a highly elastic, movable, yet relatively strong protecting case for the heart and lungs which are placed within its cavity. Movement in this instance is required in order to provide for the bellows-like action which is necessary to draw in and expel the air from the lungs. Here again, advantage is taken of the extensive outer surface of the chest-wall to provide attachment for the numerous muscles which pass from the trunk to the upper limb, another example of the economy of space and material practised by nature.

The remaining bones may be classed as those of irregular shape: such are the bones of the face, which are very complicated in their structure. These are admirably adapted for the protection of the various delicate organs of special sense which are lodged in this region, while at the same time they afford attachment to the muscles of expression. Further, the bones which form the vertebral column are of irregular shape. When articulated together, they afford complete protection for the delicate nervous centre, the spinal cord, which lies within the osseous canal formed by their neural arches, whilst their outstanding processes not only furnish attachments to the muscles which directly control their movements, but also provide points of origin for many other muscles which act upon the limbs and head and neck. Again, the small bones of the hand and foot are examples of irregularly-shaped bones ; they will be considered when these members are described.

As has been stated, the appearance of the dried skeleton conveys little idea of its perfection in the living body. The bones have been denuded of the soft parts which bind them together and form the joints. It is necessary therefore to say something generally regarding these articulations.

If the bones entering into the formation of the hip-joint be examined, it will be noticed that the rounded head of the thigh-bone fits loosely into the cup-shaped cavity of the haunch-bone ; but, if a recent specimen be inspected, these articular surfaces are seen to be covered by a layer of smooth gristle or cartilage. If these cartilage-covered surfaces be placed in contact with one another they will be found to fit with remarkable accuracy. Moreover, the opposed surfaces are so smooth that the bones can be moved on each other with the least possible amount of friction. So accurate, indeed, is the fit of these articular surfaces that it is possible, in some instances, to keep them in contact by the influence of atmospheric pressure alone.

But some arrangement is necessary whereby the opposed surfaces may be held together. This is provided for by structures called ligaments. These ligaments are bands of fibrous tissue which completely surround the joint forming its capsule. The thickness of this capsule varies on different aspects of the joint; and in some situations the thickening of the capsule forms specialized bands which are described and named as separate ligaments. At other points the capsule is so thin as merely to consist of the layer to be next described. This is a delicate membrane which lines the interior of the capsule, called the synovial membrane. It secretes an oily fluid called synovia, which lubricates the articular surfaces of the joint and so reduces friction to a minimum. Such is the structure of a movable joint: its strength depends on the form of its articular surfaces and the stoutness ot its ligaments ; but, whilst these ligaments are useful in binding together the joint, they also, in many instances, limit or check its movements, especially when such an effect is not produced by the locking of the bones themselves.

FIG. 15. Diagrammatic section through a movable joint.

The accompanying figure may assist in explaining the details above described.

But there are other varieties of movable joints: the type mentioned above possesses a joint cavity, and a wide range of movement. The next class includes those joints in which there is no joint cavity, and in which the movement is limited in its extent. If a fresh vertebral column be examined, the bodies or solid parts of the vertebrae are seen to be united by means of pads of laminated fibrous tissue and pulp matter, which bind them together and permit only a limited movement between any two segments. The movement between the individual bones is small, but if the number of such segments be taken into account the amount of movement possible in the column as a whole is very considerable. The arrangement may be better understood if we compare the back-bone to a number of wooden disks cemented together by pads of india-rubber ; the movement between any two disks will be slight; but, supposing we have a chain of such disks similarly united, the column so formed will acquire a remarkable flexibility. As will be seen hereafter, these intervertebral disks, as they are called, not only allow of movement, but also serve the useful purpose of acting as buffers to reduce the shocks which are from time to time transmitted along the chain of bones which they unite. Fig. 16 represents the general appearance of such a joint.

There are other kinds of joints in which there is no movement. These may be compared to the dove-tailed joints employed in carpentry; they are of little importance from our standpoint, as we are only concerned with the forms produced by their union. A word or two is, however, necessary in regard to these particular forms of joints, because without a knowledge of their structure it would be impossible to account for the growth of certain parts of the body. The most typical examples are met with in the skull. The several bones which cover in and protect the brain are seen to be united at their borders by a series of interlocking teeth. If we examine a fresh specimen, or, better still, the skull of an infant, it will be observed that there is a layer of membrane between the opposed borders of the bones ; so long as this membrane persists growth may take place, but on its disappearance osseous union occurs between the contiguous bones.

FIG. 16. Section through