HarperCollins Bible Dictionary

THE

HARPERCOLLINS

BIBLE

DICTIONARY

REVISED AND UPDATED

GENERAL EDITOR

MARK ALLAN POWELL

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Barry L. Bandstra

†Lawrence E. Boadt

Joel S. Kaminsky

Amy-Jill Levine

Eric M. Meyers

Jonathan L. Reed

Marianne Meye Thompson

with the Society of Biblical Literature

PREVIOUS EDITIONS

General Editor: Paul J. Achtemeier

Associate Editors: Roger S. Boraas; Michael Fishbane; Pheme Perkins; William O. Walker Jr.

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Editorial Board

Contributors

Abbreviations

Books of the Bible

Pseudepigrapha and Early Christian Literature

Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts

Targumic Material

Mishnaic and Related Literature

Other Rabbinic Works

Nag Hammadi Tractates

Preface

Pronunciation Key

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q R

S

T

U V W

X Y Z

Credits

Copyright

About the Publisher

Editorial Board

General Editor

Mark Allan Powell

Robert and Phyllis Leatherman Professor of New Testament Studies

Trinity Lutheran Seminary, Columbus, Ohio

Associate Editors

Barry L. Bandstra

Evert J. and Hattie E. Blekkink Professor of Religion

Hope College, Holland, Michigan

† Lawrence E. Boadt

Professor Emeritus of Sacred Scriptures

Washington Theological Union, Washington, D.C.

Joel S. Kaminsky

Professor of Religion and Director of Program in Jewish Studies

Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts

Amy-Jill Levine

E. Rhodes and Leona B. Carpenter Professor of New Testament Studies

Vanderbilt Divinity School, Nashville, Tennessee

Eric M. Meyers

Bernice and Morton Lerner Professor of Judaic Studies

Duke University, Durham, North Carolina

Jonathan L. Reed

Professor of New Testament

University of La Verne, La Verne, California

Marianne Meye Thompson

George Eldon Ladd Professor of New Testament

Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California

Contributors

Abbreviations

Books of the Bible

Old Testament

Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical Books

New Testament

Pseudepigrapha and Early Christian Literature

Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts

Targumic Material

Mishnaic and Related Literature

Other Rabbinic Works

Nag Hammadi Tractates

Preface

The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary is widely regarded as the most authoritative work of its kind, not least because of the involvement of the Society of Biblical Literature in the production and continual evaluation of its content. This third edition continues in the tradition of excellence of its predecessors, but has been thoroughly updated and revised by a new editorial team. About 50 percent of the content is new, and several dozen charts, tables, and other graphics have been added.

The editorial process has been guided by some key commitments. First, the purpose of the dictionary is to make the results of biblical scholarship available to a wide audience that includes nonspecialists. The individual entries have been written by academic experts, but the material is presented in as nontechnical and reader-friendly a fashion as possible. In many cases, the author of a particular entry is a scholar who has written entire books or monographs on the subject at hand; still, most of the material will be both intelligible and enlightening for general readers who need only a quick summary of basic information.

Second, the focus of the dictionary is on understanding the biblical text itself. For this reason, the number of textual references has been greatly increased in this edition of the dictionary; more examples have been added to the entries, indicating the passages or instances in which particular words, persons, or concepts are featured. Of course, many entries also present background information, including data relevant for understanding the Bible within its historical and literary context. Even then, however, the goal is, not to report everything that can be known about topics pertinent to the ancient world, but to summarize the information scholars find most pertinent for understanding the Bible.

Third, the tone of the dictionary is intended to be descriptive, not argumentative. The field of biblical studies encompasses many schools of thought about which methods of research are most reliable, what sorts of evidence are most conclusive, and so on. Nevertheless, the authors and editors of this dictionary recognize that this book is not the proper forum for advocacy of particular positions or presentation of pet theories. The entries summarize data and, when appropriate, provide some indication of different ways in which that data has been interpreted. There is no attempt to persuade readers to accept one view or reject another.

Finally, this dictionary is an academic reference work that presupposes a scholarly interest in the Bible that transcends devotional or spiritual concerns. That said, it does strive to be considerate of those whose interest in the Bible is informed by religious perspectives. We recognize that faith commitments are often—though not always—what propel people to study the Bible. Our intention has been to avoid privileging skepticism, on the one hand, or promoting any particular religious views, on the other. The editors themselves are a diverse lot, representing different confessional and ideological positions (e.g., Roman Catholic, Jewish, mainline Protestant, evangelical). We identify ourselves as liberals, moderates, and conservatives, and we have often checked each other’s work to ensure that material is presented fairly and accurately.

Key features of the dictionary include the following:

• Entries on almost every name (person or place) mentioned in the Bible; the only names of persons or places not accorded entries are those for which no substantive information can be provided (e.g., a name found in a list of names without any additional information).

• Entries on every book of the Bible, with outlines, content summaries, historical background information, and discussion of the major themes and interpretive issues relevant for academic study of the book; all of these entries have been newly written for this edition.

• Entries on every one of the deuterocanonical books, which Protestant Christians call the Apocrypha; this edition of the dictionary also pays full attention to these apocryphal/deuterocanonical works throughout, citing appropriate passages from these books whenever they are relevant for any particular entry.

• Entries on all the plants (fig) and animals (sheep) mentioned in the Bible.

• Entries on units of money (denarius) and weights and measures (cubit).

• Entries on important theological terms used in the Bible (e.g., justification, faith).

• Entries on words that are used in the Bible in a distinctive or significant way (e.g., hallow, minister).

• Entries on hundreds of everyday phenomena significant for understanding life in the biblical world (bowl, lamp, door, snare, phylactery).

• Almost 100 maps.

• Over 50 graphic charts and tables.

• Over 500 photos and drawings.

As noted, this is the only Bible dictionary published in cooperation with the Society of Biblical Literature, a learned academic guild to which most respected and renowned biblical scholars belong. About two hundred members of that society contributed to the entries in this book. Most of the authors offered their time and expertise without financial compensation, so that the book could be offered to the public as inexpensively as possible. All royalties for the sale of this dictionary go to the Society of Biblical Literature to promote continued research and the advancement of biblical scholarship.

Both HarperCollins and the Society of Biblical Literature have a solid track record of commitment to responsible scholarship that allows readers of all persuasions to engage and understand the Bible better. In the case of this book, the cooperative efforts of two persons must be acknowledged: Eric Brandt, Senior Editor at HarperOne, and Bob Buller, Editorial Director for the Society of Biblical Literature. Kent Richards, Executive Director of the Society of Biblical Literature until 2010, also provided wise counsel and significant supervision. Trinity Lutheran Seminary (Columbus, Ohio) granted the General Editor a sabbatical leave to give the project the attention it warranted. Three students helped with a number of potentially thankless tasks, except that we do thank them here, now, and in some sense every time this book is opened: Brennan Breed, graduate assistant at Emory University; Jerry O’Neal, graduate assistant at Trinity Lutheran Seminary; and Stephen Shaffer, research assistant at Hope College.

Most of all, however, this book continues to serve as a monument to the massive achievement of Paul J. Achtemeier, General Editor of the original dictionary, and to the work of the numerous Society of Biblical Literature scholars who contributed their time and expertise to researching and writing the various entries.

—Mark Allan Powell

Pronunciation Key

Stress accents are printed after stressed syllables:

′primary stress

′secondary stress

A

Aaron

Ab

Abaddon

Abana

Abarim

Abba

Abdiel

Abdon

Abednego

Abel

Abel-beth-maacah

Abel-maim

Abel-meholah

Abel-shittim

Abiathar

Abib

Abidan

Abiel

Abiezer

Abigail

Abihail

Abihu

Abijah

Abijam

Abilene

Abimael

Abimelech

Abinadab

Abinoam

Abiram

Abishag

Abishai

Abishua

Abner

abomination

abomination that makes desolate

Abraham

Abram

Absalom

abyss

acacia

Accad

Acco

Achaia

Achaicus

Achan

Achbor

Achish

Achor

Achsah

Achshaph

Achzib

Acts of the Apostles

Adah

Adaiah

Adam

Adamah

Adar

adder

Additions to Daniel

Additions to Esther

Adiel

Adin

Adlai

Admah

Adonijah

Adonikam

Adoniram

Adoni-zedek

adoption

Adoraim

Adoram

Adrammelech

Adramyttium

Adria

Adullam

adultery

Adummim

adversary

Advocate

Aeneas

Aenon

Agabus

Agag

Agagite

agap

agate

agora

agrapha

agriculture

Agrippa

Ahab

Ahasuerus

Ahava

Ahaz

Ahaziah

Ahiezer

Ahijah

Ahikam

Ahilud

Ahimaaz

Ahiman

Ahimelech

Ahinoam

Ahio

Ahira

Ahiram

Ahithophel

Ahitub

Ahohi

Ahohite

Ai

Aiah

Aijalon

Ain

Akeldama

Akhenaton

Akkub

alabaster

Alamoth

Alcimus

Alemeth

Alexander

Alexandra

Alexandria

algum

alien

almond

alms

almug

aloes

alpha

alphabet

Alphaeus

altar

Amalek

Amalekites

Amariah

Amarna, Tell el-

Amasa

Amasai

Amaziah

amen

Ami

Ammiel

Ammihud

Amminadab

Ammishaddai

Ammon

Ammonites

Amnon

Amon

Amorites

Amos

Amoz

Amphipolis

Amram

amulet

Anah

Anak

Anakim

Anakites

Anani

Ananiah

Ananias

Anat

anathema

Anathoth

ancestor

Ancient of Days

Ancient One

Andrew

angel

angel of the Lord

anger

animals

Anna

Annas

anoint

ant

antelope

anthropomorphism

antichrist

Anti-Lebanon

Antioch

Antioch of Pisidia

Antiochus

Antipas

Antipater

Antipatris

Antonia

Antonius Felix

Aphek

Apocalypse

apocalyptic literature

Apocrypha

apocryphal Christian writings

Apollonia

Apollos

Apollyon

apostasy

apostle

apothecaries

apparel

Apphia

Appian

Appius

apple

apron

Aqabah

Aquila

Ar

Arab

Arabah

Arabia

Arad

Arah

Aram

Aramaic

Aramean

Ararat

Aratus

Araunah

Archelaus

archers

Archippus

Archite

architecture

Arcturus

Ard

Areopagus

Aretas

Argob

Ariel

Arimathea

Arioch

Aristarchus

ark of the covenant, ark of God

ark of Noah

Armageddon

armory

arms, armor

army

Arnon

Aroer

Arpachshad

Arpad

Arphaxad

Artaxerxes

Artemas

Artemis

Art in the Ancient Near East

Arumah

Arvad

Asa

Asahel

Asaiah

Asaph

ascension of Christ

Asenath

Ashan

Ashbel

Ashdod

Asher

Asherah

ashes

Ashkelon

Ashkenaz

Ashtaroth

Ashtoreth

Ashurbanipal

Ashurnasirpal

Asia

Asiarchs

asp

Asriel

ass

assassins

Asshur

Assir

Assos

assurance

Assyria

Astarte

astrologer

Atad

Ataroth

Ater

Athaliah

Athens

atonement

Atonement, Day of

Attai

Attalia

Augustus

Avaris

Aven

avenger

ax, battle-ax

Azarel

Azariah

Azazel

Azaziah

Azekah

Azel

Azgad

Azmaveth

Azmon

Azotus

Azriel

Azrikam

Azubah

Azzur

Aaron (air′uhn), a descendant of Levi and the brother of Moses and Miriam (Exod. 6:20; Num. 26:59; 1 Chron. 6:3). The name is of uncertain meaning, but may be Egyptian.

In Mic. 6:4, the only reference to him in the prophetic books, Aaron is said to have been sent by God, together with Moses and Miriam, to lead Israel from Egypt (cf. Josh. 24:5; 1 Sam. 12:6, 8; Pss. 77:20; 105:26), and this conforms to the representation of him in the earliest material found in the Pentateuch. There, he appears as Moses’s helper and joint leader in the events of the exodus, and there is no evidence of his having specifically priestly functions. Rather, he is depicted as a prophet (Exod. 7:1), particularly in the sense of one who announces the divine will (4:16; 16:9; Num. 14:26–28). He accompanies Moses and the elders of Israel on important sacrificial occasions (Exod. 18:12; 24:9–11). He and Hur hold up Moses’s hands during the battle with Amalek (Exod. 17:12), and these two also act as judges when Moses is absent (24:14). Along with Moses, Aaron receives the report of the spies (Num. 13:26).

These and other references (e.g., Exod. 4:27–31) suggest that Aaron may have played a distinctive, even an independent role in certain exodus traditions; this might also account for the traditions that show Aaron in an unfavorable light, in opposition to Moses (Exod. 32; Num. 12:1–16). In what are thought to be the earliest pentateuchal traditions, however, Aaron is subordinated to Moses and is assimilated to the greater leader. Thus a miraculous rod, which originally belonged to Moses (Exod. 4:2–5, 17), is also attributed to Aaron; with it he causes the Egyptian plagues (7:9–12, 19; 8:5–7, 16–17). Both Aaron and Moses suffer the Israelites’ hostility in the wilderness (Num. 16:1–3; 20:2), both are denied entrance to Canaan for the sin of striking the rock (20:12), and both die on a mountain outside the promised land (Deut. 32:48–52).

In the later Priestly source of the Pentateuch (Exod. 25–31; 35–40; Leviticus; Num. 1–10; 15–19; 25–35), Aaron is given greater prominence, for he is presented as the ancestor of the Aaronic priesthood that emerged at Jerusalem after the exile. Only Aaron and his sons are to serve as priests (Exod. 28:1), to offer sacrifices (Num. 8:1–7), and to bless the people (6:22–27). He fathers an everlasting priesthood (Exod. 40:14; Num. 25:13), and his successors in his office are given supreme authority, even over the secular leader (Num. 27:21). In particular, the priestly concern with atonement centers on Aaron, for he and his high-priestly successors are the only ones who are to officiate on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:32–34). The postexilic view was that the whole priesthood was descended from Aaron. It was divided into twenty-four families, each serving in the temple for a week, sixteen claiming descent from Aaron’s elder son, Eleazar, and eight from his younger son, Ithamar (1 Chron. 24:1–19). The story in the Pentateuch of the budding of Aaron’s rod (Num. 17:1–11) may have been intended to establish the claims of clergy who traced their descent to Aaron over rival claimants.

As an emblem of postexilic high priests, Aaron is ascribed roles associated with preexilic Israelite kings. Thus, Aaron is anointed (Lev. 8:12), as was the Israelite king, and the special vestments he wears are similar to those worn by preexilic monarchs (cf. the breastpiece, Exod. 28:15–30, and the turban with its gold plate, 28:36–38). In Hellenistic texts and deuterocanonical material, the picture of Aaron is developed still further. He appears as the most prominent figure in the list of Israel’s great men, ahead of even Moses (Sir. 44–49), and his high-priestly vesture comes to be endowed with symbolic and cosmic significance (Wis. 18:24).

In the NT, Aaron is said to be an ancestor of Elizabeth and, thus, of John the Baptist (Luke 1:5). Reference is also made to his role in the golden calf incident (Acts 7:40), to his call by God (Heb. 5:4), and to the order of his priesthood (Heb. 7:11). See also Levites; Leviticus, book of; priests; temple, the.

Bibliography

Cody, Aelred. A History of Old Testament Priesthood. Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969.

Nelson, Richard D. Raising Up a Faithful Priest: Community and Priesthood in Biblical Theology. Westminster John Knox, 1993.

Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions. Prentice-Hall, 1972. Pp. 178–82.

J.R.P.

Ab, the fifth month (mid-July to mid-August) in the Jewish religious calendar (equivalent to the eleventh month in the agricultural calendar). The ninth of Ab is the day set aside by tradition for fasting and mourning in commemoration of the destruction of the temple by the Babylonians (587/6 BCE) and the Romans (70 CE). See also calendar.

Abaddon (uh-bad′uhn; Heb., destruction).

1 In the Hebrew Bible, a place of destruction for the dead (Ps. 88:11; Job 26:6; 28:22; 31:12; Prov. 15:11). The term is typically regarded as a synonym for Sheol (cf. Prov. 27:20); if there is any distinction, it might be that people are sometimes said to be brought up or rescued from Sheol, but never from Abaddon. See also abyss; Sheol.

2 In the NT, the Hebrew name for the ruler of the Abyss, whose Greek name was Apollyon, the Destroyer (Rev. 9:11). See also abyss; Apollyon.

Abana (ab′un-nuh), a river in ancient Syria. When Elisha told the Syrian commander Naaman that he could be cured of leprosy by washing in the muddy Jordan, he angrily replied, Are not Abana and Pharpar, the rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel? (2 Kings 5:12). The Abana (modern Barada, Hellenistic Chrysorrhoas) is a swift, clean, abundant stream descending from Mount Hermon in the mountainous region called the peaks of Amana (cf. Song of Sol. 4:8). It supplies Damascus through seven branches before finally disappearing in a desert marsh. See also Damascus; Elisha; Hermon, Mount; Naaman; Pharpar. D.B.

Abarim (ab′uh-rim; Heb., parts beyond), a mountain range to the east of the Jordan River that probably includes Mount Nebo (Deut. 32:49). The Israelites camped here before descending to the plains of Moab in order to enter the promised land (Num. 33:47–48). Jeremiah later referred to Abarim along with Lebanon and Bashan as places from which the people cry in vain to God for rescue (22:20).

Abba (ah′buh, ab′uh), the definite form of the Aramaic word for father, typically used in direct address. The word suggests familial intimacy and was used by Jesus and early Christians for addressing God (Mark 14:36; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). See also father; names of God in the New Testament.

Abdiel (ab′dee-uhl; Heb., servant of El [God]), the father of Ahi, a leader from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:15).

Abdon (ab′duhn).

1 A levitical city in Asherite territory (Josh. 21:30; 1 Chron. 6:74), probably modern Khirbet ‘Abdeh, nineteen miles south of Tyre and about three miles east of the Mediterranean coast at Achzib.

2 One of the minor judges of Israel (Judg. 12:13–15). The details of his eight-year term are unknown, but his family is described as large and rich: he had forty sons and thirty grandsons who rode on seventy donkeys.

3 A Benjaminite son of Shashak (1 Chron. 8:23–24).

4 The firstborn son of the Gibeonite Jeiel and his wife Maacah, and an ancestor of Saul (1 Chron. 8:30; 9:36).

5 A servant of King Josiah who was commanded to seek the validity of the book of the law found in the temple (2 Chron. 34:20; called Achbor in 2 Kings 22:12).

R.S.B.

Abednego (uh-bed′ni-goh), the new name given to Azariah, one of Daniel’s three companions (Dan. 1:7) who were appointed over the province of Babylon (2:40). The name is probably a Hebraic version of an Akkadian name identifying the young man as a servant of Nebo, a Babylonian god of wisdom. According to the book of Daniel, Abednego and his companions remained faithful to the God of Israel and, when they refused to worship an image set up by Nebuchadnezzar, they were thrown into a fiery furnace. They were rescued by a divine deliverer. A lengthy prayer is ascribed to Abednego in the Greek version of Dan. 3. See also Azariah; Daniel, Additions to; Meshach; Shadrach.

Abel (ay′buhl; Heb., breath, vapor), the second son of Adam and Eve (Gen. 4:1–16). In the biblical narrative, Abel is a shepherd who offers an acceptable sacrifice to God and is thereafter murdered by his jealous brother, Cain. The meaning of his name suggests the fragile quality of his life. In the Hebrew Bible, Abel is not mentioned outside of the Genesis narrative. In the NT, however, there is continuing interest in Abel’s innocent blood (Matt. 23:35; Luke 11:51; Heb. 12:24; cf. Gen. 4:9–10), and Abel is listed as an exemplar of faith (Heb. 11:4). See also Cain. W.B.

Abel-beth-maacah (ay′buhl-beth-may′uh-kah), a town in northern Israel probably to be identified with Tell Abil el-Qamh, five miles west of Dan. In 2 Sam. 20:14–15 it is referred to as Abel of Beth-maacah and is associated with Joab’s pursuit of Sheba, son of Bichri, through the territory (cf. 1 Sam. 20:18). Later the town (called Abel-beth-maacah in 1 Kings 15:20, but Abel-maim in 2 Chron. 16:4) is listed as one of the cities of Israel conquered by Ben-hadad; still later it is said to have been conquered by Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (2 Kings 15:29).

Abel-maim (ay′buhl-may′im). See Abel-beth-maacah.

Abel-meholah (ay′buhl-mi-hoh′luh), a settlement in the Jordan Valley to the south or southeast of Beth-shan. The town’s exact location has not been determined, but it is listed as part of Solomon’s fifth administrative district, in which Megiddo, Taanach, and Beth-shan were the chief towns (1 Kings 4:12). Abel-meholah was one of the destinations of the Midianites fleeing from the hill of Moreh, where Gideon and his small band had routed them (Judg. 7:22). Saul’s daughter Merab was married to a man from Abel-meholah, Adriel the Meholathite (1 Sam. 18:19; cf. 2 Sam. 21:8). According to 1 Kings 19:16, Abel-meholah was the hometown of Elisha, and it was here that Elisha was anointed by Elijah to be the latter’s successor.

S.B.P.

Abel-shittim (ay′buhl-shi′tim; Heb., brook of the acacias), a place of encampment mentioned in Num. 33:49. It is probably to be identified with Shittim. See also Shittim.

Abiathar (uh-bi′uh-thahr), the son of Ahimelech who escaped the slaughter of the priests of Nob and joined David’s outlaw band (1 Sam. 22:2–23; 23:6–11). After Absalom’s revolt, he and Zadok carried the ark back to Jerusalem at David’s command (2 Sam. 15:24–29), and he would later be listed as serving with Zadok as a priest under David (20:25). Abiathar was banished by King Solomon, however, for his part in supporting Adonijah, Solomon’s rival to the throne (1 Kings 2:26–27). The prophet Jeremiah may have been a descendant of the family of Abiathar (1:1). In the NT, Abiathar is identified as high priest at the time David ate consecrated bread (Mark 2:26), though 1 Sam. 21:1–6 indicates that his father, Ahimelech, was the priest at that time. See also priests; Zadok.

M.C.

Abib (ay′bib), the original Canaanite name of the first month (mid-March to mid-April) in the Hebrew religious calendar. It is the month during which the exodus occurred and the Passover was celebrated (Exod. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:1). After the exile, it was called Nisan (Neh. 2:1; Esther 3:7). See also calendar; Nisan.

Abidan (uh-bi′duhn), a Benjaminite leader, son of Gideoni, who made offerings for the tabernacle and led his people under Moses in the wilderness (Num. 1:11; 2:22; 7:60, 65; 10:24).

Abiel (ay′bee-uhl; Heb., El [God] is my father).

1 A Benjaminite, the grandfather of both King Saul (1 Sam. 9:1) and Abner, the captain of Saul’s army (1 Sam. 14:50–51).

2 One of the group of David’s elite warriors known as the Thirty (1 Chron. 11:32; he is called Abialbon in 2 Sam. 23:31).

Abiezer (ay′bi-ee′zuhr; Heb., my father is help).

1 A son of Manasseh who received an inheritance in Canaan (Josh. 17:2); his descendants were the Abiezerites, to which Gideon belonged (Judg. 6:11). The name also occurs as Iezer (Num. 26:30).

2 A Benjaminite from Anathoth; one of the group of David’s elite warriors known as the Thirty. He commanded a division of twenty-four thousand men (2 Sam. 23:27; 1 Chron. 27:12).

3 A Manassite, the son of Gilead’s sister (1 Chron. 7:18).

Abigail (ab′uh-gayl).

1 The wife of Nabal, a rancher in Carmel. According to 1 Sam. 25:3, she was clever and beautiful, but her husband was surly and mean. Nabal refused to acknowledge David’s authority, and as a result David determined to have Nabal killed. Abigail arranged a meeting with David, unbeknownst to her husband, and persuaded him not to harm Nabal. Shortly afterward, Nabal died suddenly, and David married Abigail (25:39–42). She and Ahinoam, another wife of David, accompanied him when he sought refuge in the Philistine territories (27:3), and the two were later captured by raiding Amalekites. David tracked down the raiders and rescued his wives (1 Sam. 30). Later, in Hebron, Abigail bore David a son named Chileab (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:1 records the son’s name as Daniel).

2 The daughter of Jesse and sister of David (1 Chron. 2:16). According to 2 Sam. 17:25, she was the mother of Amasa, whom Absalom appointed commander in place of Joab (cf. also 2 Sam. 19:13). She was also the wife of Ithra the Ishmaelite (called Jether the Ishmaelite in 1 Chron. 2:17), the daughter of Nahash, and the sister of Joab’s mother, Zeruiah. A.B.

Abihail (ab′uh-hayl).

1 The father of Zuriel who is called head of the ancestral house of the Merari family groups (Num. 3:35).

2 Abishur’s wife, mother of Ahban and Molid (1 Chron. 2:29).

3 A Gadite, the son of Huri (1 Chron. 5:14).

4 A descendant of Jesse and the mother of Rehoboam’s wife Mahalath (2 Chron. 11:18).

5 The father of Esther and uncle of Mordecai (Esther 2:15; 9:29).

Abihu (uh-bi′hyoo; Heb., he [God] is my father), a son of Aaron and Elisheba who ascended the mountain of God (Exod. 6:23; 24:1, 9). He later died for offering unholy fire before the Lord in a way that had not been commanded (Lev. 10:1). See also Nadab.

Abijah (uh-bi′juh; Heb., the LORD is my father).

1 The son of Samuel, who served as judge in Beer-sheba (1 Sam. 8:2).

2 The king of Judah ca. 915–913 BCE, referred to as Abijam in 1 Kings. He was the son of Rehoboam; his mother is variously identified as Maacah, the daughter of Absalom (2 Chron. 11:20) and as Micaiah, the daughter of Uriel (13:2). During his reign the border wars between Judah and Israel continued unabated (1 Kings 15:7). He is described in 1 Kings 15:3–5 as continuing in the sins of his father, but 2 Chron. 13 portrays him as a pious king who trusted in God, successfully routed his Israelite attackers, and captured Bethel, Jeshana, and Ephron.

3 The son of Jeroboam, son of Nebat, who failed to recover from a childhood illness; his death was interpreted as a sign of divine displeasure (1 Kings 14).

4 The head of the eighth division of priests (1 Chron. 4:10), to which Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke 1:5).

5 The son of Becher, grandson of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:8).

6 The wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 21:9; she is called Abi in 2 Kings 18:2).

M.C./M.A.P.

Abijam (uh-bi′juhm). See Abijah.

Abilene (ab′uh-lee′nee), a tetrarchy in the eastern part of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range. Its capital, Abila, was located some nineteen miles northwest of Damascus in the Baroda Valley. According to Luke 3:1 and an inscription at Abila, Abilene was governed by Lysanias at the time of Jesus’s public life. In 34 CE it was given to Agrippa I. See also Herod; Lysanias.

Abimael (ah-bim′ay-uhl; Heb., El [God] is my father), the son of Joktan, a descendant of Noah’s son Shem (Gen. 10:28).

Abimelech (uh-bim′uh-lek; Heb., my father is king).

1 The king of Gerar (possibly Tell Jemmeh, ten miles south of Gaza), before whom Abraham posed as Sarah’s brother (Gen. 20; cf. 12:10–20). Elsewhere, Abimelech is identified as a king of the Philistines whom Isaac, living at Gerar, similarly deceives (Gen. 26).

2 The son of the judge Jerubbaal (Gideon) and a Shechemite concubine (Judg. 8:29–9:57). Abimelech accepted seventy pieces of silver from the Shechem temple treasury, slew seventy brothers, and became local king for three years while commanding a local army. When support collapsed, Abimelech used the troops to destroy Shechem and then moved on to Thebes, where he died when a woman on the city wall dropped a millstone on his head (cf. 2 Sam. 11:21). The story of Abimelech is interpreted as an antidynastic warning: the meaning of his name (my father is king) is thus ironic. See also Shechem.

R.B./M.A.P.

Abinadab (uh-bin′uh-dab; Heb., father of generosity).

1 A prominent man from Kireath-jearim, who had custody of the ark after its return from the Philistines until David moved it to Jerusalem (1 Sam. 7:1; 1 Chron. 13:7).

2 The second son of Jesse (1 Sam. 16:8; 17:13; 1 Chron. 2:13).

3 The fourth son of Saul (1 Sam. 8:33; 1 Chron. 9:39; omitted from the genealogy of Saul in 1 Sam. 14:49). He was killed on Mount Gilboa with his brothers Jonathan and Malchishua (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chron. 10:2).

Abinoam (uh-bin′oh-uhm; Heb., my father is delight), the father of Barak, a military leader in the period of the judges (Judg. 4:6; 5:1).

Abiram (uh-bi′ruhm; Heb., my father is exalted or the Exalted One is my father).

1 A Reubenite who, along with his brother Dathan, a fellow Reubenite named On, and the Levite Korah, conspired with some two hundred and fifty tribal leaders to challenge the authority of Moses and the priestly leadership of Aaron. After Abiram and Dathan defied a summons from Moses, Korah led the rebels in an attempt to offer incense to God. Abiram, along with Korah and Dathan as well as their families and possessions, perished when the ground opened and swallowed them. The rest of the rebels were consumed by fire from God (Num. 16:1–40; Ps. 106:16–18; Sir. 4:18–19; 4 Macc. 2:17). See also Korah.

2 The firstborn son of Hiel the Bethelite (1 Kings 16:34). He died, fulfilling the word of Joshua (Josh. 6:26), when his father rebuilt the Jericho gates (1 Kings 16:34). See also Hiel.

D.R.B.

Abishag (ab′uh-shag), a Shunamite virgin brought to sleep with King David when he was dying in order to keep him warm at night (1 Kings 1:4, 15). Although David did not have sexual relations with her (1:4), Solomon chose to view her as one of David’s wives; when Adonijah requested to marry her, Solomon had him executed for treason (2:13–25).

Abishai (uh-bi′shi), the son of Zeruiah, David’s sister, and the brother of Joab and Asahel (1 Chron. 2:16). His reputation as a belligerent warrior and defender of David is attested by his desire to kill the sleeping Saul (1 Sam. 26:6–9) and Shimei of Saul’s house (2 Sam. 16:9–11), by his killing the Philistine giant Ishbi-benob (21:17), and by his leading a portion of David’s army into a battle that resulted in the death of eighteen thousand Edomites in the Valley of Salt (1 Chron. 18:12). He also avenged the death of his brother Asahel by murdering Abner in Hebron (see 2 Sam. 2:12–28; 3:26–30). See also Abner; Asahel; Joab; Zeruiah.

F.R.M.

Abishua (ah-bish′oo-uh; Heb., my father is deliverance).

1 The son of Phineas and great-grandson of Aaron; he served as a priest (1 Chron. 6:4–5, 50) and was an ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:5).

2 A Benjaminite, the son of Bela (1 Chron. 8:4).

Abner (ab′nuhr), the son of Ner, grandson of Abiel, cousin of Saul, and Saul’s army commander (1 Sam. 14:50–51). After the Philistine defeat of Israel at Mount Gilboa, Abner kept the remnant of Saul’s kingdom together, ostensibly in the service of Ishbaal, Saul’s son (2 Sam. 2:8–9). Abner led operations against David, but eventually abandoned Saul’s followers to negotiate a private compact with David for the transfer of the north to him. Nevertheless, Abner was cut down by Joab, his personal rival and the commander of Judah’s army; he was buried in Hebron (2 Sam. 3:12–39). See also David; Saul. M.C.

abomination, usually something detestable to a god and, so, to people who are faithful to that god. The Hebrew term recurring in Lev. 11 designates unclean creatures that are not to be eaten. The word is used in the NRSV to translate a variety of terms with a range of meanings: foreign gods (1 Kings 11:7; 2 Kings 23:13); improper ways of worshiping God (Deut. 12:31; 17:1); unacceptable or unlawful conduct (e.g., Lev. 18:22; Prov. 20:23; Rev. 21:27); and human wisdom (Luke 16:15). The book of Proverbs includes a few instances of more secular uses, in which something is described not as an abomination to God, but to others (13:9; 16:12; 24:9; 29:7; cf. 8:7). See also abomination that makes desolate.

R.H.H./M.A.P.

abomination that makes desolate, an act desecrating the Jerusalem temple, mentioned twice in the book of Daniel (11:31; 12:11; cf. 9:27). Many scholars associate the reference with an altar to Zeus erected by the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV in the temple around 167 BCE. This altar is referred to as a desolating sacrilege in Hellenistic deuterocanonical literature (1 Macc. 1:54; cf. 2 Macc. 6:1–5). In any case, the author of Daniel assured his contemporaries that supernatural deliverance would occur within a relatively short time (12:7: a time, two times, and half a time, probably meaning three and a half years; cf. 12:11–12) from the time the altar was erected. Later, Daniel was read as a book that prophesied events yet to occur, and the abomination that makes desolate was viewed as one of the final signs that must take place before the end (Matt. 24:15; Mark 13:14: the desolating sacrilege; cf. also 2 Thess. 2:3–4). The emperor Caligula’s plan to erect a statue of himself in the temple (ca. 40 CE) may have been seen by some as a potential fulfillment of this prophecy; the destruction of the temple by the Romans in 70 CE may also have been viewed as such a fulfillment. The Gospels of Matthew and Mark, however, associate the abomination with the events to precede the expected return of Jesus as Son of Man and evidently regard the prophecy as yet to be fulfilled at their time of writing (Matt. 24:15–21; Mark 13:14–19). See also abomination; Antiochus; apocalyptic literature; Daniel, book of; eschatology; Maccabees; Parousia; temple, the.

R.H.H./M.A.P.

Abraham (ay′bruh-ham; Heb., father of a multitude), a Hebrew patriarch and an important figure in three living religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. First known as Abram (Heb., exalted father), he became the patriarch of several peoples from the area of the Levant. He is called the father of many nations (Gen. 17:5) and the friend of God (2 Chron. 20:7).

According to the Bible, Abraham moved to the Levant from Mesopotamia. His genealogy (Gen. 11:10–32) places him in Ur when he received divine instructions to leave, along with a promise that he and his descendants would become a great nation and be blessed by God in order to be a blessing to others (12:1–8). He traveled to Egypt with his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, where Sarah’s beauty prompted Abraham to tell people she was his sister, with near disastrous results (12:10–13:1). Then the trio entered the Negev, and Abraham and Sarah settled in the land of Canaan (13:2–18; the story of Abraham and Lot parting ways demonstrates the character and origin of the Moabites and Edomites). Abram subsequently had to rescue Lot from an alliance of eastern kings (14:1–24). Additional stories relate a covenant God made with Abraham and Sarah (15:1–21); the birth of Ishmael, Abraham’s son by his wife Hagar, who was Sarah’s slave (16:1–6); the origin of circumcision (17:1–27); a visit God paid to Abraham and Sarah (18:1–5); and, Abraham’s intercession for Sodom and Gomorrah (18:16–33). Then Abraham and Sarah traveled to Gerar, where, once again, Abraham presented Sarah as his sister, and the problem they encountered in Egypt was repeated (20:1–18; cf. 12:10–20; also see 26:6–11). Finally, Isaac was born to Sarah, and jealousy prompted Sarah to expel Hagar and Ishmael, who were nevertheless attended by God (21:1–21). Abraham had a dispute with Abimelech, the king of Gerar (21:22–34). Then God tested Abraham by telling him to sacrifice Isaac as a burnt offering (22:1–19). Narratives of Abraham purchasing burial property (23:1–20) and ensuring that Isaac would have a wife from among their relatives (24:1–67) precede an account of his death (25:1–18).

The place of Abraham in the history of the ancient Near East is difficult to assess, depending largely on the model of ancient life used. One model argues the discontinuity of pastoral nomadism and agrarian culture, while a second model maintains the basic continuity of the two. Theories in line with the first model argue that the social context of the Abraham material assumes a nonagrarian nomadic culture and that this would place Abraham in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BCE) or the Middle Bronze Age (2000–1500 BCE). Theories supporting the coexistence of pastoral nomadism and agrarian lifestyles maintain that a later date works just as well: the personal names and social customs described can be found much later, hence the events could be Late Bronze Age (1500–1200 BCE) or Iron Age I (1200–900 BCE). A third position argues that the legendary nature of the stories precludes questions of historicity. Scholars making this proposal often date the stories of Abraham to Iron I or later.

In the NT: Abraham is understood as the patriarch of Judaism and, by extension, Christianity, which depends on the traditions of Judaism (Matt. 1:1, 2, 17; 3:9; Luke 13:16; 16:24; 19:9; Acts 13:26). Abraham as patriarch becomes a symbol of compassion (Luke 16:19–31) and the one who legitimates (John 8:33–38). Abraham also functions as a vehicle of the covenant with God (Luke 1:73; Acts 7:5–6; Gal. 4:28; Mark 12:26; Acts 7:32), as one who experienced a special relationship with God (James 2:23), and as one whose company the faithful long to enjoy in the afterlife (Matt. 8:11; Luke 16:22–30). More than all of these, however, the NT describes Abraham as the model of faith and the pioneer of trust in God (Rom. 4:1–25; Gal. 3:1–19; Heb. 6:13–14; 7:1–10; 11:8, 11). See also ancestor; Genesis, book of; Isaac; Mari; patriarchs.

Bibliography

Fretheim, Terence. Abraham: Trials of Family and Faith. University of South Carolina Press, 2007.

S.B.R.

Abram (ay′bruhm). See Abraham.

Absalom (ab′suh-luhm).

1 One of the sons of David who led a rebellion against his father. Because he was handsome and ambitious, Absalom was the most conspicuous of David’s sons; his mother was Maacah, princess of the neighboring vassal state of Geshur. The story of Absalom is told in 2 Sam. 13–20. When his half brother Amnon raped his full sister Tamar and David took no action, Absalom killed Amnon and fled, spending three years in exile in Geshur. Laborious mediation on the part of Joab brought Absalom back to court, but David refused to see him for another two years. Once readmitted to full palace life, Absalom began to undermine David’s authority (15:1–6). He directed and capitalized on the resistance felt by many people who could not accept the changes in social patterns and values that accompanied the spectacular growth of David’s empire, court, and administrative machinery. In his rebellion, Absalom won the support of the royal counselor Ahithophel, whose authority was above all criticism (16:23).

Absalom gave the signal for the revolt from Hebron, the town in central Judah where David himself had risen to national power. His march to Jerusalem forced David to leave the country, and once Absalom had taken the city, he demonstrated his dominance by raping ten of David’s concubines in public view. Ahithophel advised Absalom to pursue and isolate David forthwith, but Absalom was deceived by the flattery of Husai, who acted as a spy for David and who gave the opposite advice. Thus, David was able to escape across the Jordan and start the organization of a military comeback. A few weeks later David’s experienced regular army, which had remained loyal to him, defeated Absalom’s militia in the Transjordan, not far from Mahanaim. Though David had ordered his generals to spare Absalom, Joab found Absalom entangled by his hair in the branches of an oak and had him slaughtered as an archrebel—a realistic military choice, but one that caused him to lose favor with the mourning father. See also David; Joab.

2 The father of Mattathias (1 Macc. 11:70) and Jonathan (13:11), commanders in the Maccabean army. This may be the same person who served as one of two messengers in the negotiations between Judas Maccabeus and Lysias (2 Macc. 11:17).

J.P.F.

abyss, a term employed in the NT for the abode of the dead (Rom. 10:7) and for the place where evil spirits are confined (Luke 8:31). In the book of Revelation, the term is translated bottomless pit in the NRSV (9:1–11; 11:7; 17:8; 20:1–3). The word also occurs in Tob. 13:2 and in Sir. 1:3; 16:8; 24:5, 29; 42:18; 4 Esd. 15:67. See also antichrist; Hades; heaven; hell; Sheol.