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Study Guide by Narendran Sairam, Steven Kraplin and Rajat GoyalLECTURE NOTES (NARENDRAN SAIRAM)
CELL THEORY
In 1838 Schleiden and Schwann came up with cell theory. In 1838 cell theory consisted of three parts:a. The cell is a structure of physiology and organization. b. Cells have a dual existence:1. as an entity2. as a building block of live.c. Cells form from free cell formation also called spontaneous generation.
CELLS
Cells have two types of differences;a.Morphological differences: Have to do with structural differences.Eg. Eukayotes have a nucleus while prokaryotes have no true nucleus. b.Phylogenetic differences: Have to do with genetic differences.Eg. Bacterial, Eukaryan and Archean cells have phylogenetic differences.
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
Three shapes:Coccus: ball shapedBasilicus: Rod shaped.Spirilum: spiral
•
The cell walls of the prokaryotes are made up of carbohydrates and proteins. These moleculesare called peptiglycans. The plasma membrane pressurizes the cell wall and helps it retain itsshape. The plasma membrane and the cell wall help protect the cell.
•
Most bacteria have a single large circular chromosomes but some have linear chromosomes
•
Ribosomes are made up of three different types of RNA molecules and more than 50 types of  proteins.
•
Plasmids are circles of DNA that are twisted. Plasmids are capable of changing rapidlyaccording to their environment.
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Flagellum: These, in prokaryotes, serve the same function the serve in eukaryotes.
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Cytoskeleton: this made up of cytoplasm and stiff fibers. In prokaryotes, the cytoskeleton isvery complex in comparison to eukaryotes.EukaryotesProkaryotesMembrane bound organellesNo organelles5-100 micro meters1-10 micrometers Nuclear envelope delineates the nucleusNo true nucleusComplex cytoskeletonSimple Cytoskeleton.Reasons/advantages of having organelles:1.To get things done faster(improves efficiency)2.Compartmentalization (keeps different reactions separate from one another)All structures in a eukaryotic cell are membrane bound.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
The Achaean phospholipids:
©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin
 
•
The Archaean membrane is made up of Phosphate(PO
4-2
), glycerol and isoprene.The Eukaryan/ Bacterial phospholipids:
•
Made up of serine, Phosphate group, a glycerol group and a bunch of fatty acids.
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Serine is and amino acid that attracts water very well. This is because both, water and serine are polarized. Essentially serine is Hydrophilic (water liking).
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The fatty acids on the other hand are hydrophobic (don’t like water) because they are notcharged.Actual Structure:The membrane is made up of two phospholipids placed back-to-back. This makes it a phospholipids bilayer. The chemicals and the food get into the cell through the bilayer. This process is calleddiffusion. Diffusion is basically a change in the concentration gradient. The diffusion of water througha membrane is called osmosis.MEMBRANE PROTIENSThere are three types of membrane proteins;a.Transport proteins: There arethree types of transport proteins:
•
Carrier proteins: These proteins move moleculesthrough a membrane. EgC
6
H
12
O
6.
This is done bydiffusion.
•
Channel proteins: theseallow movement of ionsthrough a membrane.
•
Pumps: These allowmovement of ions againstthe concentration gradient(opposite of diffusion). b. Receptor Proteinsc. Cell to cell recognition proteins: These are also calledglycoprotein. They haveCarbohydrates sticking out of their cell. This carbohydrate helps recognize other proteins of thesame body or organ.
ORGANELLES
•
Endoplasmic Reticulum(E.R.):1.Rough ER: Cytoprotein (cellular protein) synthesis takes place in the membrane of theRough ER. Once the proteins are made they are compartmented and left in the cytoplasm.2.Smooth ER: Regulates C (Carbon) ion concentration. They make phospholipids
©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin
The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi apparatus
 
and other non-protein based molecules that help in killing toxins.The biochemical reactions that produce proteins and phospholipids are very complex. Proteins that aremade in the Rough ER are transported to the cytoplasm ribosomes and to the Golgi apparatus for activation.
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Golgi apparatus: This organelle is made up of three parts. A flat membrane sac calledthe cisternae. This cisternae holds the lumen (everything inside itself).1.Cisface: This part is close to the ER and receives the transport vesicles that carrythe proteins.2.The Medieval Region: This the space between the cis and trans faces (not shownin the picture). Acts as a transport between the extreme faces of the Golgiapparatus.3.Transface: This part is closest to the Plasma membrane. It packs the altered andactivated molecules and transports them to the membrane and other parts of the body.The Golgi apparatus produces lysosomes (organelles that produce digestive enzymes).They also modify proteins and activate them. The proteins are put in the lysosomes andare transported to other parts of the body.
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Chloroplasts: This is made up of two membranes; inner and outer membrane. There is aspace between the two membranes. This space is called intermembranal space. Thisorganelle is only found in plants and protists. It is the site of photosynthesis.Photosynthesis:The thylocoids capture the photons with the help of chlorophyll and carotenoidson their membranes and house the conversion machinery.Equation:6CO
2
+6H
2
O
C
6
H
6
O
12
+ 6O
2
This reaction is divided into two parts. During photosynthesis, plants take Carbon Dioxidefrom their surroundings and use it to make glucose. a)Photophosphorylation or light-dependent reaction and b)Calvin’s cycleor light-independent reaction. Photophosphorylation coverts lightenergy into chemical energy. Calvin's cycle uses the stored energy,water and CO
2
to give glucose.Since glucose (C
6
H
12
O
6
) has bonds that require a lot of energy and sinceCO
2
's carbon-oxygen bonds don't have too much potential energy, their  potential energy must be increased in order to make glucose. Thisenergy is acquired from the photons of light. In order to use the energyof the photons the energy must be converted into chemical form to be stored. This process is calledPhotophosphorylation.Photo ("light") phosphorylation ("the addition of phosphate to a molecule") basically adds a phosphateto ADP to make it ATP and there by stores energy in ATP. The process takes place in the grana(Figure1), within the tylakoids. The environment within the grana is suitable for chemiosmosis (processwhere ADP is synthesized to ATP). The photons of light are captured by the antennae called photosystems and are brought into the reaction center where they are converted into chemical energy.
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Mitochondrion: This organelle is found in both, plants and animals. Its function is to produce energy by producing ATP. It converts Glucose to ATP. The mitochondrion, likethe chloroplast has two membranes and space between those membranes. The outer membrane separates the cytocol(the jelly like part of the cytoplasm) from the inside. Theonly things that enter the mitochondrion are enzymes, proteins, glucose and oxygen.
©Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin
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