Zooming on iconicity

Shadows, mirrors, and smoke screens: zooming on iconicity

By Christina Ljungberg Iconicity is one of the semiotic concepts introduced by Charles Sanders Peirce that has recently attracted much attention across the disciplines. In neuroscience, the discovery of mirror neurons, brain cells that fire both when the organism acts itself and when it perceives the same action being performed by another organism, has raised much interest in iconicity and seems to offer explanations for theories of communication and speech development. Could behavior such as empathy and imitation have neurological roots? Could the Mirror System Hypothesis perhaps explain the evolution of speech by linking language to this theory of mind (cf. Arbib 2004)? The cognitive sciences have for a long time had much interest in the role of the iconic in concept formation and in communication, which has only increased with the current development in complex multimedia techniques and sophisticated methods of visualization of scientific processes. For quite some time, the focus has been on the importance of mental images in cognitive processes, not only for the way we orient ourselves in the physical world we live in but also for how we outline problems by mapping them, describe processes or make decisions by using maps, schemata, and diagrams. Cognition involves iconicity because mental images are icons, and icons can lead to new insights and to the discovery of relations not recognized without their iconic representation. Iconicity then becomes a precondition for communication and mutual understanding. This has recently been pointed out by Winfried Nth (2008) who stresses that it is above all the diagrammatic icon structuring discourse and reasoning that makes texts and arguments clearer and more transparent since diagrams lay bare the path of the argument: Diagrams in language are both cognitively necessary and rhetorically efficient since icons are superior to other signs when clearness of representation and coherence of argumentation is concerned. The importance of diagrammatic iconicity to cognition also accounts for the new interest in analogy. Analogies are mental diagrams with the effect of the parallel mapping of the structures of two conceptual domains. Analogies are important to linguistic theorizing and modelling and they are important factors of language change, language evolution, and language acquisition, as the studies by Douglas Hofstadter (1995), Terrence Deacon (1997), Esa Itkonen (2005), Dieter Wanner (2006), Olga Fischer (2007) and others have shown who have given evidence that the basic mechanism of learning is analogy. Frederik Stjernfelt is on a similar track in his recent Diagrammatology (2007), but he attempts to chart the importance of diagrams by looking at their philosophical implications (diagnosing similarities between Peircean semiotics and early Husserlian phenomenology) as well as exploring what a diagrammatic approach can bring to areas as different as biosemiotics, picture analysis, and the theory of literature. The increased interest in iconicity has also been prompted by the current focus on intermediality. Intermediality is not only of concern to the way modalities such as genres, narrative modes and styles change in the transfer process from one medium to another but also to the extent to which an original medium dialogues with other media and thus receives impulses in return. An example here is how literature has been influenced both by painting and film, attracting and absorbing techniques and ideas, which then flow back to these two media again, inspiring, in turn, literary texts anew. Not only are there interrelations and constant interactions between the visual, verbal, and oral media, and, as W.J.T. Mitchell has repeatedly claimed, all media are mixed media, but the intersemiotic translations and transformations taking place have a mainly iconic character as they involve the mapping of structures and self-reflexivity. As a result, the combinations of, and the switching among, the various media in multimedia works of art direct our attention to the specificity of the media and make us aware of the various sensory modalities addressed and the semiotic register of sign functions involved.

These topics and the iconicity in written texts and spoken discourse in general are some of the issues that will be discussed at the upcoming Seventh Symposium on Iconicity in Language and Literature, which will take place at Victoria College in Toronto during 9-14 June in 2009. Further topics of this conference are iconicity in visual texts, in signed and gestural languages, visual and auditory signing, cognitive science, reader-oriented approaches and music interacting with language as well as film and multimedia performance. It will also feature a workshop on Cognitive Poetics with distinguished speakers such as Margaret Freeman (Myrifield), Reuven Tsur (Tel Aviv), David Herman (Ohio), Zoltan Kovecses (Budapest), Adam Kendon (London), Mark Changizi (New York). It is therefore with excitement that we watch the June Symposium take shape. For further information, please visit the conference website. Iconicity: a definition Iconicity as a semiotic notion refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign (the signifier, be it a letter or sound, a word, a structure of words, or even the absence of a sign) and the object or concept (the signified) it refers to in the world or rather in our perception of the world. The similarity between sign and object may be due to common features inherent in both: by direct inspection of the iconic sign we may glean true information about its object. In this case we speak of imagic iconicity (as in a portrait or in onomatopoeia, e.g. cuckoo) and the sign is called an iconic image.

When we have a plurality of signs, the analogy may be more abstract: we then have to do with diagrammatic iconicity which is based on a relationship between signs that mirrors a similar relation between objects or actions (e.g. a temporal sequence of actions is reflected in the sequence of the three verbs in Caesars dictum veni, vidi, vici): in this instance, the sign (here the syntactic structure of three verbs) is an iconic diagram. Obviously, it is primarily diagrammatic iconicity that is of great relevance to language and literary texts. Both imagic and diagrammatic iconicity are not clean-cut categories but form a continuum on which the iconic instances run from almost perfect mirroring (i.e. a semiotic relationship that is virtually independent of any individual language) to a relationship that becomes more and more suggestive and also more and more language-dependent. A similar continuum informs the categories of what has been termed primary diagrammatic iconicity and second degree diagrammatic iconicity. In the first there is still some language independent (semiotic) relation present, e.g. temporal order as in the veni, vidi, viciexample. In the second category, the semiotic relation has become marginal and it is the linguistic relation between the forms used that suggests a similar relation between the concepts it refer to. Thus in the veni, vidi, vici-example above, the formal similarity of the three verbs iconically also reflects a similarity of the three actions referred to. For this formal concordance additionally emphasises the ease with which Caesars conquest took place: each verb consists of two syllables, each syllable (formed by a consonant and vowel) is of the same length and each starts with the same consonant (v). This type of second-degree iconicity plays a role in folk etymology, in word formation, in soundsymbolism, and it is used to great effect in poetry. Contrary to the Saussurean idea that language is fundamentally if not exclusively arbitrary (or in semiotic terms, symbolic), considerable linguistic research in the twentieth century

has shown that iconicity operates at every level of language (phonology, morphology, syntax) and in practically every known language. Recent literary criticism has confirmed that iconicity is also pervasive in the literary text, from its prosody and rhyme, its lineation, stanzaic ordering, its textual and narrative structure to its typographic layout on the page. Quite generally, it is important to realise that the perception of iconicity in language and literary texts is semantically motivated. Hence, the interpretative process usually moves from meaning to form, but form may also influence the meaning of a sign occasionally. The reason for this is that the perception of iconic features in language and literature always depends on an interpreter who is capable of connecting meaning with its formal expression. What is true of all signs is also true of an iconic sign: it is not self-explanatory.

Iconicity in Language: Bibliography

(last Anderson, Earl R. update 1998. A Grammar of September Iconism. London: Associated 2004) Press.

Armstrong, David F. 1983. "Iconicity, Arbitrariness, & Duality of Patterning in Signed and Spoken Language." Sign Language Studies 38: Andrews, Edna. 1993. "The Iconicity of Gender Shifts in Contemporary Russian." In Robert A. Maguire and Alan Timberlake (eds) American Contributions to the Eleventh International Congress of Slavists. Columbus: Slavica. 202-213. Askedal, John Ole. 1989. "On Language Signs and Linguistic Iconicity." Livstegn (Journal of the Norwegian Association for Semiotic Studies, Bergen, Norway), 7,2: 115-29. Bates, Elizabeth, et al. 1979. The Emergence of Symbols. New York: Academic Pres

Bencze, Lrnt. 1991. Iconicity in Hungarian Grammar. In Bohumil Palek and Pemysl Janota (eds). Proceedings of LP '90. Linguistics and Phonetics: Prospects and Applications. Prague: Charles University Press. 157-162. Berezowski, Leszek. 1997. "Iconic Motivation for the Definite Article in English Geographical Proper Names." Studia Anglica Posnaniensia 32: 127-144. Bergen, Benjamin K. 2004. "The psychological reality of phonaesthemes." Language 80: 290-311. Bezooyen, Renee van. 1984. Characteristics and Recognizability of Vocal Expressions of Forms of English: Accent, Morpheme, Order. Eds. Isamu Abe and Tetsuya Kamekyo. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Birnbaum, Henrik. 1995. "The Linguistic Sign Reconsidered: Arbitrariness, Iconicity, Motivation." Elementa: Schriften zur Philosophie und ihrer Problemgeschichte, Eisingen 2, 2: 101-130. Boisson, Claude Pierre. 1993. "La liniearit: Iconicit et arbitraire." In L'ordre des mots, II: Domaine anglais. Sait Etienne: Univ. Jean Monnet. 85-124. Bolinger, D. 1980. Signs and Symbols. Chapter 3 of Language The Loaded Weapon. London: Longman. 17-24. Bolinger, D. and D.A. Sears. 1981. (3rd ed.). Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Bonheim, Helmut. 2002. "The materiality of language; Studies in honour of Jon Erickson." In M. Gymnich, A. Nunning and V. Nunning (eds), Literature and Linguistics: Approaches, Models and Applications. Trier: Wissenschaflicher. 147-156 Bonvillian, John D. 1993. "Early Sign Language Acquisition in Children and Gorillas: Vocabulary Content and Sign Iconicity." First Language 13, 3 (39): 315-338. Bouissac, Paul et al. 1986. (eds) Iconicity: Essays on the Nature of Culture. Tbingen: Staufenburg.. Bouissac, Paul. 1986. "Iconicity and Pertinence." In Paul Bouissac et al. (eds) Iconicity. Tbingen: Stauffenburg. 193-213.

Amsterdam - Zrich Iconicity Research Project Since 1997 the Iconicity Research Project (initially based on a co-operation between the Universities of Amsterdam and Zurich) has organised international and interdisciplinary symposia every two years to provide increasing evidence for the extensive presence of iconicity (i.e. form miming meaning and form miming form) in language and in literature. By means of detailed case studies (at first the main focus was on English but the interest has widened to other Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages) the symposia have, on the one hand, concentrated on iconicity as a driving force in language (in both spoken and signed languages) and on all possible levels (i.e. the phonetic, morphological, syntactic, lexical and discourse levels); in language acquisition (children's use of language); and in language change (grammaticalisation; developments in pidgins and creoles). On the other hand, the symposia have addressed the various mimetic uses of more concrete and creative iconic images and/or more abstract iconic diagrams at all levels of the literary text, both in narrative and poetic form, and in all varieties of discourse (literary texts, historical texts, political texts, advertising, language and music, literature and music, etc). So far, there have been five international and interdisciplinary conferences on iconicity in language and literature: 1997 in Zurich, 1999 in Amsterdam, 2001 in Jena, 2003 in Louvain-la-Neuve, and 2005 in Cracow (The sixth symposium will take place in in 2007.) Past keynote speakers in this series of conferences include: Sylvia Adamson (Manchester), Paul Bouissac (Toronto),Wolfgang Dressler (Vienna), Ivan Fnagy (Paris), John Haiman (St. Paul MN), Jrgen Dines Johansen (Odense), JeanJacques Lecercle (Nanterre), Winfried Nth (Kassel), Ralph Norrman (Tampere), Wilhelm Ptters (Wrzburg), Dan Slobin (Berkeley), John white. The most interesting and relevant papers given at those conferences have been collected in four publications (all published by Benjamins, Amsterdam): Form Miming Meaning. Iconicity in Language and Literature (1999), The Motivated Sign. Iconicity in Language and Literature 2 (2001), From Sign to Signing. Iconicity in Language and Literature 3 (2003), and Iconicity Inside-Out. Iconicity in Language and Literature 4 (forthcoming). A further series of papers that were presented at the 1999 Amsterdam conference was published in the special number Iconicity of the European Journal of English Studies (EJES 5) in 2001.

New Iconicity Research Project at the University of Amsterdam (from March 1, 2006): Title: Iconicity in language use, language learning, and language change

Coordinator: Prof. Dr. Olga Fischer Members of the research group within ACLC: Prof. Dr. Olga Fischer Non-ACLC Researchers: PD Dr. Christina Ljungberg (University of Zrich) Prof. Dr Paul Bouissac (University of Toronto) Prof. Dr William Herlofsky (Nagoya Gakuin University) Dr. Piotr Sadowski (Trinity/American College, Dublin) Prof. Dr Elbieta Tabakowska (University of Krakow) Dr. Klaas Willems (University of Ghent) Ludovic De Cuypere, PhD project (University of Ghent) Hendrik de Smet, PhD project (University of Leuven) Description Iconicity as a semiotic notion refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign (the signifier), and the object or concept (the signified) it refers to in the world or rather in our perception of the world. The similarity between sign and object may be due to common features inherent in both; in this case we speak of imagic iconicity (as e.g. in onomatopoeia, some signs in signed language) and the sign is called an iconic image. In spoken languages, the analogy or similarity is usually more abstract: we then have to do with diagrammatic iconicity which is based on a relationship between signs that mirrors a similar relation between objects or actions. Both imagic and diagrammatic iconicity are not clean-cut categories but form a continuum on which the iconic instances run from almost perfect mirroring (i.e. a semiotic relationship that is virtually independent of any individual language) to a relationship that becomes more and more suggestive and also more and more language-dependent. Contrary to the structuralist idea that language is fundamentally arbitrary (or in semiotic terms, symbolic), considerable linguistic research in the twentieth century has shown that iconicity operates at every level of language (spelling, phonology, morphology, syntax) and in practically every known language. The process referred to as grammaticalization can also be seen to be related to iconicity, e.g. via the iconic principles of quantity and proximity as shown i.a. by John Haiman and Talmy Givn. Iconicity and grammaticalization also form part of the grammaticalization cycle, whereby new, exploratory iconic forms replace grammaticalized structures (cf. Plank 1979, Fischer 1997). Recent literary criticism has confirmed that iconicity is also pervasive in literary texts, from its prosody and rhyme, its lineation, stanzaic ordering, its textual and narrative structure to its typographic layout on the page. History Since 1997 the Iconicity Research Project (initially based on a co-operation between the Universities of Amsterdam and Zrich) has organised international and interdisciplinary symposia biannually to provide increasing evidence for the extensive presence of iconicity

in language (including literary texts). By means of detailed case studies the symposia have concentrated on iconicity as a driving force in language (in both spoken and signed languages) on all possible levels (i.e. the typographic, phonetic, morphological, syntactic, lexical and discourse levels); in language acquisition (children's use of language); and in language change (grammaticalisation; developments in pidgins and creoles). The program involves a long-term research project. It was started in 1996 and has developed a webpage (http://home.hum.uva.nl/iconicity/), which is maintained by the Amsterdam and Zrich coordinators. Olga Fischer and Christina Ljungberg will continue to organize the biannual symposia in cooperation with local organizers. They are also, from February 2006, onwards the general editors of the Iconicity Series for Benjamins. Olga Fischer is on the editorial board of the electronic journal Iconicity in language (http://www.trismegistos.com/IconicityInLanguage/) and both Christina Ljungberg and Olga Fischer are involved in The Public Journal of Semiotics started by Paul Bouissac in Toronto (http://semiotics.ca/) and on the advisory board of the Semiotics Encyclopedia (http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/srb/dse/index.html) Possibilities exist for both internal and external PhD projects (more information follows at a later date)

Iconicity in Literature: Bibliography (June 2003) Alderson, Simon. 1996. Alexander Pope and the Nature of Language. Review of English Studies n.s.47: 23-34. Alderson, Simon. 1993. Iconic Forms in English Poetry of the Time of Dryden and Pope. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Cambridge). Alderson, Simon. 1999. "Iconicity in Literature. Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Prose Writing." In Nnny and Fischer (eds) Form Miming Meaning. 109-120. Alderson, Simon. 2001. "Chance and Imagination in Literary Iconicity." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) Iconicity. Special Number of the European Journal of English Studies (EJES) 5, 1: 17-29. Anderson, Earl R. 2001. "Old English Poetic Texts and Their Latin Sources. Iconicity in Caedmon's Hymn and The Phoenix." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) The Motivated Sign. 109-132. Attridge, Derek. 1982. Iconic Functions. In his The Rhythms of English Poetry. London: Longman. 287-95.

Attridge, Derek. 1988. Literature as Imitation: Jakobson, Joyce, and the Art of Onomatopoeia. Peculiar Language: Literature as Difference from the Renaissance to James Joyce. London: Methuen. 127-57. Bailey, K.V. 1988. "To Boldly See...: Iconicity in Science Fiction and Fantasy." Foundation 44: 14-26. Bauer, Matthias. 1999. "Iconicity and Divine Likeness. George Herbert's 'Coloss. 3.3'." In Nnny and Fischer (eds) Form Miming Meaning. 215-234. Bernhard, Walter. 1977. Heuristisches Modell eines funktionalen Literaturbegriffs. Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik 3: 85-93. Bernhard, Walter. 1986. The Iconic Quality of Poetic Rhythm. Word & Image: 2, 3: 209217. Bernhard, Walter. 1999. "Iconicity and Beyond in 'Lullaby for Jumbo': Semiotic Functions of Poetic Rhythm." In Nnny and Fischer (eds) Form Miming Meaning. 155-169. Breitenberg, Mark. 1988. "Reading Elizabethan Iconicity: Gorboduc and the Semiotics of Reform." English Literary Renaissance 18,2: 194-217. Brogan, T.V.F. 1993a. Iconicity. In Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan (eds). The New Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton: Princeton UP. 552. Brogan, T.V.F. 1993b. Representation and Mimesis. In Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan (eds). The New Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton: Princeton UP. 1037-44, esp. 1039-40. Bronzwaer, W. 1990. "Poezie en iconiciteit ." Forum der Letteren: Tijdschrift voor Taal en Letterkunde 31, 2: 93-103. Burke, Michael. 2001. "Iconicity and Literary Emotion." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) Iconicity. Special Number of the European Journal of English Studies (EJES) 5, 1: 31-46. Carriker, Kitti. 1991. "The Doll as Icon: The Semiotics of the Subject in Yeats's Poem 'The Dolls'." In Leonard Orr (ed.) Yeats and Postmodernism. Syracuse: Syracuse UP. 126-145. Ceci, Louis G. 1983. "Iconic Features in the Noun Phrases of Yeats's 'The Cold Heaven.'" Language and Style 16,2: 138-50. Ciugureanu, Adina. 2001. "The Ideogram as an Iconic Dimension in Ezra Pound's Early Cantos." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) Iconicity. Special Number of the European Journal of English Studies (EJES) 5, 1: 47-58.

Coale, Samuel. 1993. "Hawthorne's Black Veil: From Image to Icon." CEA Critic 55, 3: 7987. Combe, Dominique. 1985. "Posie, fiction, iconicit: Vers une phnomenologie des conduites de lecture." Potique 16,61: 35-48. Conly, Tom. 1992. "An 'Allegory of Prudence': Text and Icon of 'De la physionomie'." Montaigne Studies 4, 1-2: 156-179. Conly, Tom. 1992. "Michel de Certeau and the Textual Icon." Diacritics 22, 2: 38-48. Couturier, Maurice. 1988. "Ecriture-icone chez Nabokov." University of Windsor Review 21, 2: 18-31. Cureton, Richard. 1980. Poetic Syntax and Aesthetic Form. Style 14, 4: 318-40. Cureton, Richard. 1981. e.e. cummings: A Case Study of Iconic Syntax. Language and Style 14, 3: 183-215. Cureton, Richard. 1986. Visual Form in e.e. cummings No Thanks. Word & Image 2, 3: 245-77. Eckstein, Barbara. 1996. " Iconicity, Immersion and Otherness: The Hegelian 'Dive' of J. M. Coetzee and Adrienne Rich." Mosaic 29, 1: 57-77. Epstein, E.L. 1975. The Self-Reflexive Artefact: The Function of Mimesis in an Approach to a Theory of Value for Literature. In R. Fowler (ed.) Style and Structure in Literature: Essays in the New Stylistics. Oxford: Blackwell. 40-78. Epstein, E.L. 1978. Language and Style. London: Methuen. . Genette, Grard. 1977. Valry and the Poetics of Language. Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism. Ed. J.V. Harari. Ithaca, N.J.: Cornell UP. 35973. Fenk, August. 1997. "Representation and Iconicity." Semiotica 115:3-4: 215-34 Fenollosa, Ernest. 1936.The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry. Ed. Ezra Pound. San Francisco: City Lights Books. Fischer, Olga and Max Nnny. 1999. "Introduction: Iconicity as a Creative Force in Language Use." In Nnny and Fischer (eds) Form Miming Meaning. xv-xxxvi.

Fischer, Olga and Max Nnny. 2001. "Introduction: Iconicity and Nature." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) Iconicity. Special Number of the European Journal of English Studies (EJES) 5, 1: 3-16. Fischer, Olga and Max Nnny (eds). 2001. The Motivated Sign. Iconicity in Language and Literature 2. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Fger, Wilhelm. 1997. "SCRIPTSIGNS: Variants and Cultural Contexts of Iconicity in Joyce." Joyce-Studies-Annual 8: 60-80. Garrity, Henry A. 1984. "Pop-Culture Love in Diva: Objects as Icon, Index and Syntagma." In Umstead D. Radcliff (ed.) Sex and Love in Motion Pictures. Kent: State U. 47-51. Genette, Gerard. 1995. Mimologics [1976]. Transl. Thas E. Morgan. Lincoln: U Nebraska Press. Godden, Richard. 1989. "Iconic Narrative; Or, How Faulkner Fought the Second Civil War." In Lothar Honnighausen (ed.) Faulkner's Discourse: An International Symposium. Tbingen: Niemeyer. 68-76. Goh, Robbie B.H. 2001. "Iconicity in Advertising Signs. Motive and Method in Miming 'the Body'." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) The Motivated Sign. 189-210. Goh, Robbie B. H. 2000. 'Clockwork' Language Reconsidered: Iconicity and Narrative in Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange. Journal-of-Narrative-Theory, 30(2): 263-80. Gutkind, Peter C.W. 1993. "Icon, Illusion and Reality: Images of Urbanism." In Peter J.M. Nas (ed.) Urban Symbolism. Leiden: Brill. 251-264. Halter, Peter. 1999. "Iconic Rendering of Motion and Process in the Poetry of William Carlos Williams." In Nnny and Fischer (eds) Form Miming Meaning. 235-249. Harding, R.F. Gillian. 1984. "Iconic Mythopoeia in MacEwan's The T.E. Lawrence Poems." Studies in Canadian Literature 9, 1: 95-107. Hausman, Margaret Jane. 1989. "Syntactic Disordering in Modern Poetry: Index, Icon, Symbol." DAI. Ann Arbor 49, 8: 2210A. Henry, Anne C. 2001. "Iconic Punctuation. Ellipsis Marks in a Historical Perspective." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) The Motivated Sign. 135-155. Herzfeld, Michael. 1986. "On Some Rhetorical Uses of Iconicity in Cultural Ideologies." In Paul Bouissac et al. (eds) Iconicity. Tbingen: Stauffenburg. 401-419.

Hiraga, Masako K.and Joanna Radwaska Williams. 1997. " Nothing in the World Is Single: Metaphorical Network in Shelley's 'Love's Philosophy'." In Irmengard Rauch and Gerald F. Carr (eds). Semiotics around the World: Synthesis in Diversity, I-II. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 425-428. Hollander, John. 1975. Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of Poetic Form. New Haven: Yale UP. Hrushovski, Benjamin. The Meaning of Sound Patterns in Poetry. Poetics Today 2:1a (1980): 39-56. Innocenti, Loretta. 2001. "Iconoclasm and Iconicity in Seventeenth-Century English Poetry." In Fischer and Nnny (eds) The Motivated Sign. 211-225. Innocenti, Loretta. 1999. 'Language Thou Art Too Narrow': Reflections on Visual and Verbal Iconicity. Textus:-English-Studies-in-Italy. 12(1): 11-36. Johansen, Jrgen Dines. "Description and Depiction: On the Indexical Function of the Icon in the Staging of Ibsen's 'The Master Builder'." Degrs 31: f1-f7. Johansen, Jrgen Dines. 1996. Iconicity in Literature. Semiotica 110-1/2: 37-55. Kopnick, Lutz. 1992. "Goethes Ikonisierung der Poesie: Zur Schriftmagie des Weststlichen Divans." Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift fr Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 66, 2: 361-389. Kuper, Christoph. 1981. Ikonische Tendenzen in der Rhetorik. LiLi: Zeitschrift fr Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik 11, 43-44: 143-163. Leech, Geoffrey N. 1969. Onomatopoeia. and Varieties of Onomatopoeia. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London: Longman. 96-100. Leech, Geoffrey N. and M. Short. 1981. Iconicity: The Imitation Principle. Chapter 7.7 of Style in Fiction. London: Longman. 233-43. Leland, Blake. 1988. The Iconicity of Rhetorical Figures: Schemes as Devices for Textual Cohesion. Language and Style 21, 2: 162-90. Leland, Blake. 1992. "Psychotic Apotheosis: Visionary Iconicity and Poet's Fear in Ezra Pound's 'The Return'." Twentieth Century Literature 38, 2: 176-193. Levenston, E.A. 1992. The Stuff of Literature: Physical Aspects of Texts and Their Relation to Literary Meaning. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

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