Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ECTURE 13
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INTRODUCTION
As the environment, technology, and competition change, an information system must continually undergo changes. These changes range from minor adjustments to major overhauls. Occasionally, the old system is scrapped and replaced.
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INTRODUCTION
Companies change their systems for a variety of reasons:
To respond to changes in user needs or business needs. To take advantage of or respond to technology changes. To accommodate improvements in their business process. To gain a competitive advantage and/or lower costs. To increase productivity. To accommodate growth. To accommodate downsizing or distribute decision making To integrate incompatible systems. To replace a system that is aged and unstable.
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INTRODUCTION
Developing quality, error-free software is difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. Projects tend to deliver less than expected and consume more time and money. A KPMG survey found that 35% of all major information systems projects were classified as runaways hopelessly incomplete and over budget.
Major cause of runaways: Skimping on systems development processes.
Omitting basic systems development steps becomes tempting but may lead to disaster as developers create well-structured systems that fail to meet user needs or solve business problems.
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses five topics:
Systems development life cycle Planning activities during the systems development life cycle Feasibility analysis Behavioral aspects of change Systems analysis
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Test the system and make any needed modifications. Complete the documentation. Convert from the old to the new system. Deliver operational system.
Send the final report to the IS steering committee.
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These three activities will be discussed in this chapter. Additionally, the first phase in the SDLC, systems analysis, will be discussed in more detail.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implementing an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Top managements role in systems development is to:
Provide support and encouragement a clear signal that user involvement is important. Help align the systems with corporate strategies. Establish system goals and objectives. Review IS department performance and leadership. Establish policies for project selection and organizational structure. Participate in important systems decisions.
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THE PLAYERS
User management needs to:
Determine information requirements for departmental projects. Assist systems analysts with project cost-benefit estimates. Assign key staff members to development projects. Allocate funds.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Accountants also play an important role in systems development:
As AIS users, they must determine their information needs and systems requirements and communicate them to system developers. As members of project development teams or steering committees, they help management in the development process. They are also active in:
Designing system controls and monitoring and testing these controls. Ensuring the system is easy to audit.
Controls and auditability need to be built in early to minimize costs and inefficiencies later.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
The information systems steering committee is an executive-level committee whose duty is to plan and oversee the IS function.
Consists of high level management, such as:
Controller IS Manager User department managers
Sets policies to govern the AIS and assure topmanagement participation, guidance, and control. Attempts to encourage goal congruence and reduce goal conflict.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
The project development team includes systems specialists, managers, accountants, auditors, and users whose responsibility is to guide development. Their job:
Plan each project. Monitor to ensure timely and cost-effective completion. Ensure the human element is considered. Communicate project status to top management and steering committee. Communicate and meet with users to:
Consider ideas Discuss progress Eliminate surprises
The team approach produces more effective results and better user acceptance.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Systems analysts study existing systems, design new ones, and prepare specifications that are used by programmers.
They interact with technical personnel and users to bridge the gap. They are responsible for ensuring the system meets user needs.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
Computer programmers write the computer programs, using the specs developed by the systems analysts. They also modify and maintaining existing programs.
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THE PLAYERS
Many people are involved in developing and successfully implement an AIS, including:
Top management Accountants The information systems steering committee The project development team Systems analysts Computer programmers External players
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THE PLAYERS
External players include:
Customers Vendors Auditors Governmental entities
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It also provides:
Status of projects in process. Prioritization of planned projects and criteria for establishing priorities. Timetables for development.
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Planning horizon:
About a 3-year horizon. With updates at least 23 times/yeareven more frequently in some companies.
Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and monitoring systems development activities are:
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Gantt Charts
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Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and monitor systems development activities are:
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Gantt Charts
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Planning techniques
Two techniques for scheduling and monitor systems development activities are:
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Gantt Charts
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1 Design birdhouse Buy wood & nails Buy paint Build roof Build base Nail together Paint & decorate Sell
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Period 5 6
10
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
During the systems analysis phase, a feasibility study (aka, a business case) is prepared and is updated during the remaining steps in the SDLC. The extent of the feasibility study depends on the size and nature of the system. Feasibility team should include:
Management Accountants skilled in controls and auditing Systems personnel Users
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
The feasibility study and its updates are used by the steering committee as the project proceeds to decide whether to:
Terminate the project Proceed Proceed if specific problems are resolved
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Five aspects need to be considered during a feasibility study:
Technical feasibility
Is the technology there to do it?
Operational feasibility
Do we have people who can do it, and will it get used?
Legal feasibility
Does it comply with legal, regulatory, and contractual obligations?
Scheduling feasibility
Can it be done in time?
Economic feasibility
Will the benefits exceed the costs?
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Calculating economic feasibility costs and benefits
Economic feasibility is probably the most important and frequently analyzed aspect. This examination requires a careful investigation of costs and benefits. It typically uses a capital budgeting model that considers:
Cost savings and other benefits Initial outlay costs Operating costs Other costs
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
When possible, benefits and costs should be estimated and included even if they are not easily quantifiable. If some costs and benefits cannot be accurately estimated, they should at least be listed, along with the likelihood of their occurrence and their expected impact.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Benefits might include:
Cost savings. Improved customer service, productivity, decision making, or data processing. Better management control. Increased job satisfaction and employee morale.
A rigorous cost-benefit analysis is a good strategy for ensuring the benefit of new information technology exceeds the cost.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Costs might include:
Equipment costs
Initial outlay plus ongoing operating costs.
Software costs
Costs of acquiring, maintaining, supporting, and operating.
Site preparation costs. Installation and conversion costs. Supplies. Overhead. Financial charges.
Makes up 6575% of the organizations system efforts.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting return on investment technique to evaluate the economic merits of different system alternatives. There are three commonly used techniques:
Payback period
Calculates the number of years before the new savings from the project equal the initial cost of the investment. Select projects with shorter payback periods.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital Budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting return on investment technique to evaluate the economic merits of different system alternatives. There are three commonly used techniques:
Payback period Net present value (NPV)
Calculates and sums the discounted future cash flows of the costs and benefits. Select projects with higher positive NPV.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Capital Budgeting
Most organizations use a capital budgeting return on investment technique to evaluate the economic merits of different system alternatives. There are three effective interest rate techniques: in Calculates the commonly used that would result
a net present value of zero for the project. Payback period Select projects with higher IRRs. Net present value (NPV) Internal rate of return (IRR)
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Reactions to change can be improved by observing the following guidelines:
Meet users needs with respect to the form, content, and volume of system output. Keep communication lines open. Managers and users should be fully informed about:
What changes are being made Why How it will benefit them Who to contact with questions
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Maintain a safe and open atmosphere.
If employees become hostile, its an uphill battle you probably wont win.
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FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Solicit user participation.
It is ego enhancing, challenging, and intrinsically satisfying. Users who participate will be more committed to using the system.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Humanize the system.
Employees shouldnt feel the computer is controlling them or has usurped their positions.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Avoid emotionalism.
Emotional issues should be allowed to cool, handled in a non-confrontational manner, or sidestepped.
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
Ignoring the preceding steps can leave to behavior issues that are difficult or impossible to reverse.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When a new or improved system is needed, a written request for systems development is prepared. That request describes:
The current systems problems. The reasons for the proposed changes. The goals and objectives of a proposed system. The anticipated benefits and costs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The initial investigation is conducted to:
Gain a clear picture of the problem or need.
Sometimes what is thought to be the cause of the problem is not the real source.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The initial investigation is conducted to:
Gain a clear picture of the problem or need. Determine the viability of the project and expected costs and payoffs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The initial investigation is conducted to:
Gain a clear picture of the problem or need. Determine the viability of the project and expected costs andEither: payoffs. Initiate the project as proposed. Evaluate the scope and nature of the new Modify it. Abandon it. AIS. Recommend whether to proceed.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
If the project is approved:
A proposal to conduct systems analysis is prepared. The project is assigned a priority and added to the master plan. The development team begins a survey of the existing AIS. The proposal will be modified as more information becomes available.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
A systems survey involves an extensive study of the current AIS which could take weeks or months. Objectives are:
Gain a thorough understanding of: Company operations, policies, and procedures. Data and information flow. AIS strengths and weaknesses. Available hardware, software, and personnel. Make preliminary assessments of current and future processing needs, and determine extent and nature of needed changes. Develop working relationships with users and build support. Collect data that identify user needs, conduct a feasibility analysis, and make recommendations to management.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Data can be gathered from:
Employees. Documentation such as organization charts and procedure manuals. External sources such as:
Consultants Customers Suppliers Industry associations Government agencies
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering data are:
Interviews Questionnaires Observation System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering data are:
Interviews Questionnaires Observation System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of interviews:
Can answer why questions. Can allow for follow-up and clarification. Provides opportunity to build positive relationships with interviewees and support for new system.
Disadvantages of interviews:
Time-consuming. Expensive. Personal biases or self-interest may produce inaccurate information.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When you do interviews:
Make an appointment. Explain the purpose ahead of time. Indicate the amount of time needed. Be on time. Be familiar with the interviewees responsibilities. Make notes on points to cover. Put the interviewee at ease and let him/her do the talking. Pay attention to nonverbal cues. Take notes and augment them with impressions after the interview. Request permission to tape critical interviews.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering data are:
Interviews Questionnaires Observation System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Questionnaires can be used when:
The amount of information to be gathered is small and well defined. The information is to be obtained from many people or from those who are remotely located. The information is intended to verify data from other sources.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of questionnaires:
Can be anonymous. Not time-consuming to complete. Inexpensive. Allows the subject time to think about responses.
Does not allow in-depth questions or answers. Does not allow follow-up or clarification. Does not build relationships. Difficult to develop. May be ignored or completed superficially.
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Disadvantages of questionnaires:
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering data are:
Interviews Questionnaires Observation System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of observations:
Can verify how the system actually works rather than how it should work. Results in greater understanding of systems.
Disadvantages of observations:
Time-consuming. Expensive. Difficult to interpret. People may alter behavior while being observed.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When you do observations:
Identify what is to be observed and estimate the time required. Obtain permission. Explain what will be done and why. Dont make value judgments. Take notes and document impressions ASAP.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Four common methods of gathering data are:
Interviews Questionnaires Observation System documentation
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Advantages of systems documentation:
Describes how the system should work. Written form facilitates review and analysis.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once the data is gathered, document findings and model the existing system.
Documentation consists of:
Questionnaire copies Interview notes Memos
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Another form of documentation is a system model:
Physical models illustrate how a system functions by describing:
Flow of documents. Computer processes performed and the people doing them. Equipment used. Any other physical elements.
Logical models illustrate what is being done regardless of how the flow is accomplished.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When documentation is complete, analyze the existing system:
Evaluate the AISs strengths and weaknesses to develop ideas for designing and structuring the new AIS.
Try to retain strengths. Correct weaknesses.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
At the end of this phase, prepare systems survey report:
Outlines and documents the data gathered. Provides recommendations that result from the systems survey.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
After the systems survey, a more thorough feasibility analysis is conducted. This analysis is updated regularly as the project proceeds and costs and benefits become clearer.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
- Processes Describes what is to be done and by whom.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
- Processes - Data elements Describes name, size, format, source, and significance of necessary data elements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
- Processes - Data elements - Data structure
A preliminary structure showing how the data elements will be organized into logical records.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
Processes Data elements Data structure Outputs Layouts of system outputs and a description of their purpose, frequency, and distribution.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
Processes Data elements Data structure Outputs Inputs A copy of system inputs and a description of their contents, source, and who is responsible for them.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
Processes Data elements Data structure Outputs A description of deadlines, Inputs schedules, security requirements, Constraints staffing limitations, and legal requirements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
Processes Data elements Data structure Outputs Inputs Constraints Controls Controls that are needed to ensure accuracy and reliability.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once a project clears the feasibility hurdle, the company identifies the information needs of AIS users and documents systems processes, including:
Processes Data elements Data structure Outputs Inputs Documentation constraints Controls Changes in staffing, job Reorganizations functions, etc., that would be necessary.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Issues:
There is much to be specified, even for a simple AIS. It may be difficult to get employees to accurately articulate their needs. Errors are best caught early, as the cost to correct them increases significantly the farther you are into the project.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives and constraints
Many entities take a systems approach to determining information needs and systems requirements. Problems and alternatives are viewed from the standpoint of the entire organizationas opposed to a single department.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
- Usefulness
Able to help users make decisions.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
- Usefulness - Economy
Benefits exceed costs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
- Usefulness - Economy - Reliability
Data is processed accurately and reliably.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability
You can access it when you need it.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness
More critical information is provided first.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service
Efficient and courteous.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service - Capacity
Can handle peak periods.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service - Capacity - Ease of use
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service - Capacity - Ease of use - Flexibility
Can accommodate changes.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service Capacity Ease of use Flexibility Tractability
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service Capacity Ease of use Flexibility Tractability Auditability
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems objectives must be identified, so analysts and users can focus on those elements most vital to success of the AIS. These may include:
Usefulness Economy Reliability Availability Timeliness Customer service Capacity Ease of use Flexibility Tractability Auditability Security Available only to
authorized users.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
There are often trade-offs between objectives. Organizational constraints make it impossible to develop all parts of an AIS simultaneously.
You divide it into modules that are analyzed, developed, and installed independently. When changes are made, only the affected modules need to be changed. The modules should be properly integrated into a workable system.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Success often depends on the project teams ability to cope with organizational constraints, including:
Requirements of governmental agencies. Managerial policies and guidelines. Lack of sufficient, qualified staff. Capabilities and attitudes of users. Available technology. Limited financial resources.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Strategies for determining requirements:
One or more of the following four strategies are used to determine AIS requirements:
Ask users what they need
This is the simplest and fastest strategy. But many people dont realize or understand their true needs. Its sometimes better to ask them what decisions they make and what processes they are involved in. Users also need to think beyond their current information needs.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Strategies for determining requirements:
One or more of the following four strategies are used to determine AIS requirements:
Ask users what they need Analyze existing systems
Internal and external systems should be analyzed to avoid reinventing the wheel.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Strategies for Determining Requirements: Certain modules:
One or May not be used as intendedfour strategies more of the following May be augmented by manual tasks are used Maydetermine AIS requirements: to be avoided altogether
Ask users determine whether the system really needs to be Helps what they need simply modified rather Analyze existing systems than replaced. Examine existing system use
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Strategies for Determining Requirements:
One or more of the following four strategies Entails roughing out a system for users to critique. are used to determine AIS requirements:
When Ask users they see something on a screen, its easier to what they need identify what they like and dont like. Analyze existing systems of improving and reviewing Goes through iterations with existing system use Examine users until users agree on their needs. Create a prototype
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Documentation and approval of user requirements:
Detailed requirements for the new AIS should be created and documented.
How to produce the required features is determined during the design phases of the SDLC. The requirements list should be supported by sample input and output forms and charts that make it easier to conceptualize. A nontechnical summary is often prepared for management.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Once user requirements have been determined and documented, the project team:
Meets with users. Explains the requirements. Obtains their agreement and approval.
When an agreement is reached, user management should sign off on the requirements.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The project development team will conduct the systems analysis in five steps:
Initial investigation Systems survey Feasibility study Information needs and systems requirements Systems analysis report
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The last step in systems analysis is the systems analysis report.
Summarizes and documents the activities. Serves as a repository of data from which designers can draw. Outlines:
Goals and objectives of the new system. Scope of the project. How the new system fits into the companys master plan. User processing requirements and information needs. Feasibility analysis. Recommendations for the new system.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
A go-no-go decision is usually made three times during systems analysis:
During the initial investigation to determine whether to go ahead with a systems survey. At the end of the feasibility study to determine whether to proceed with the information requirements step. At the completion of the analysis phase to decide whether to proceed to the next phase (conceptual design).
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
When systems analysis is completed, the project can move on to:
Conceptual design phase Physical design phase Implementation and conversion Operation and maintenance
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SUMMARY
Youve learned about the five phases in the systems development life cycle, with a particular emphasis on systems analysis. Youve learned who the players are in the systems development process. Youve learned about various techniques that are used to plan the development of a system. Youve reviewed some techniques for determining system feasibility. Youve learned about behavioral responses to systems changes and how dysfunctional behavior can be minimized.
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