THERMODYNAMIC II

CHAPTER 4
REFRIGERATION &
HEAT PUMPS

1
TOPICS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Reversed Heat Engine Cycle
3.3 Performance of Refrigeration Cycle and
Heat Pump
3.4 The Ideal Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
3.5 The Practical Refrigeration Cycle
3.6 Refrigeration Load
3.7 Flash Chamber
3.8 Multistage Compression Refrigeration
System
3.9 Cascade Refrigeration System
3.10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems

2
INTRODUCTION
• A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a
refrigerant substance in order to collect energy from a cold region
and exhaust it in a higher temperature region, thereby further
cooling the cold region.
• 2’nd Law of Thermodynamics (The Clausius statement)
– “it is impossible for heat to flow from a colder body to a
warmer body without any work having been done to
accomplish this flow”

3
 REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

• Heat engines use heat to produce work.

• Reversed heat engines use work to remove heat.
• Refrigerators maintain cold space by removing heat
from it to a high-temperature region
• Refrigerants are used as working fluid
• Heat pumps maintain a hot space by absorbing heat
from a low temperature-region
• Coefficient of Performance (COP) is the criteria used to
measure the performance of refrigerators & heat
pumps

4
 WARM
ENVIRONMENT

QH
win
REFRIGERATOR

QL (Cooling Effect / Refrigerating Effect)

MAINTAINED COLD
ENVIRONMENT

Refrigerator

cooling effect QL Q&L

COPR = = = &
work input Win Win

5
 MAINTAINED
WARM
ENVIRONMENT

QH (Heating Effect)

win
HEAT PUMP

QL

COLD
ENVIRONMENT
heating effect QH Q& H
COPHP = = =
work input Win W& in
Heat Pump

6
• From 1st Law of thermodynamics
QH = QL + Win
QH QL + Win
=
Win Win
QL
COPHP = +1
Win
COPHP = COPR + 1

• If COPR is positive, then COPHP > 1

• The rate of heat removal from a system is called
cooling capacity.
• Cooling capacity is normally measured in tons of
refrigeration
• 1 ton = 211 kJ/min
7
CARNOT REVERSED HEAT ENGINE CYCLE

• The most efficient heat engine is represented by the

Carnot cycle. (Remember that Carnot cycle is
reversible)
• A reversed heat engine is represented by Carnot cycle
which operates in a reversed direction
• This cycle is called a reversed Carnot cycle
• A refrigerator/heat pump using this cycle is called
Carnot refrigerator/Carnot heat pump
• Its function is to remove heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature region.

8
 QH
3 2
Condenser

Pump
Turbine

4 Evaporator 1
Plant layout for
Reversed QL
Carnot Cycle T
QH
T-s Diagram with
3 2 saturation line of
Refrigerant

4 1
QL

s
9
PROCESSES

• (1 – 2)
– Wet vapor enters pump and is pumped
(Isentropic)
– Temperature is increased
• (2 – 3)
– Vapor is condensed at constant temperature
– Heat rejected by refrigerant
• (3 – 4)
– Isentropic expansion (Isentropic)
– Temperature is reduced
• (4 – 1)
– Heat for evaporation process is supplied from
cold source in evaporator at constant
temperature.
10
PERFORMANCE OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE AND HEAT
PUMP
• From T-s diagram,
• TL= T1 = T4 and TH= T2 = T3
• s1 = s2 and s4 = s3
• QL= TL(s1 – s4) and QH= -TH(s3 – s2)

• Win = QH - QL
= -TH(s3 – s2)– T1(s1 – s4) = -T2(s4 – s1) – T1(s1 – s4)
= (T2 – T1) (s1 – s4)

QL
• So, COPR can be given as follows: COPR =
Win
T 1 (s 1 − s 4 )
COPR =
(T1 − T 2 )(s 1 − s 4 )
T1 TL 1
COPR = = =
T1 − T 2 T H − T L T H − 1
TL

11
•Similarly for COPHP, we get:

T2 TH 1
COPHP = = =
T2 − T1 TH − TL 1 − TL
TH

12
• EXAMPLE 4.1
• A refrigerator operates between evaporator
temperature and condenser temperature of -30oC
and 35oC respectively. Calculate the maximum
possible COPR.
If the COPR for actual refrigerator is 80% of ideal
refrigerator, calculate the power required for a
cooling effect of 5kW.

13
• The reversed Carnot is the most efficient
refrigeration cycle operating between two fixed
temperatures
• This cycle is impractical because,
– In process (1 – 2) it is difficult to compress
liquid-vapor mixture
– In process (3 – 4) it is difficult to expand high-
moisture-content refrigerant.
• Reversed Carnot cycle is only for comparison with
the actual refrigeration cycles

14
THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE
• To make the cycle practical;
– the refrigerant is vaporized completely before
compression
– The expansion engine (turbine) is replaced by a throttle
valve (expansion with no enthalpy change)
• Since compression process is carried out in vapor state, the
cycle is then called the Vapor-Compression Cycle
• This type of cycle is commonly used in domestic
refrigerators and air conditioning systems.

Condenser
3 2
Expansion Win
Valve

4 Evaporator 1

15
PROCESS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE
• (1 – 2)-Isentropic compression until vapor is superheated
• (2 – 3)-Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
• (3 – 4)-Throttling in an expansion device
• (4 – 1)-Constant pressure heat absorption in an evaporator
T
(K)

3 2

4 1

s(kJ/kgK

16
 Condenser
3 2

Expansion Win
Valve

4 1
Evaporator

T
2
QH
Win

4 1
QL

s
17
P-h DIAGRAM

• 2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.

– Using property table for refrigerants
– Using the P-h diagram

nt
q2 = h2 – h3

nsta
s co
3 2

ant
v const
nt
sta

4 1
on

q2 = h1 – h4
xc

h
win = h2 – h1

18
 19

P-h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a

UNDERCOOLING (SUBCOOLING) AND ITS EFFECTS
• In the condenser, the vapor can be further cooled at constant
pressure to a temperature that is lower than temperature in
condenser

T
2

3’
3 Cooling water
temperature

4 4’ 1

20
• Undercooling (subcooling) increases the refrigerating effect
(h1 – h4) > (h1 – h4’) where h4 is enthalpy with undercooling
(subcooling) and h4’ is initial enthalpy
• Undercooling (subcooling) is limited by temperature of cooling
water and temperature difference of cycle

T
2

3’
3 Cooling water
temperature

4 4’ 1

21
EXAMPLE 4.2

• In a refrigeration cycle, pressure of ammonia

refrigerant is 1.902 bar and condenser pressure
of 12.37 bar. Calculate refrigerating effect (QL)
per unit mass and COPR for:-
i) Ideal reverse Carnot cycle
ii) Ideal vapor compression cycle without
superheating and undercooling
iii) Ideal vapor compression cycle with
superheating
iv) Ideal vapor compression cycle with
superheating and undercooling (subcooling)
by 10K

22
THE PRACTICAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLES

• Because of the irreversible nature of most processes

of the cycle, the actual cycle deviates from actual
cycle.
• Source of irreversibilities
– Pressure drop in fluid
– Heat transfer with surroundings
• It is difficult to get saturated vapor at compressor
inlet. So in practice the refrigerant is slightly
superheated at compressor inlet.
• It is also difficult to get saturated liquid at
condenser exit. So in practice undercooling
(subcooling) (3 – 3a)is used.

23
Pressure drop occurs in: 2b
T
(1 – 1a) :
2s
line connecting
evaporator and
compressor 2a
Undercooling
(2 – 3):
within condenser 3
3a Pressure drop
(4 – 4a):
line between
4 1a
expansion valve and 4a 1
evaporator
(4a – 1):
within evaporator s

• During actual compression, entropy might increase or decrease. (Point

2 might be somewhere between 2a and 2b)

24
 EXAMPLE 4.3

• R12 enters compressor as saturated vapor at 1.509

bar and -20oC at a rate of 0.05 kg/s and leaves
compressor at 8.477 bar. After cooling in condenser,
the temperature is 26oC and 7.449 bar Then the
refrigerant is throttled to 1.509 bar.
Calculate:-
i) Rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space
ii) power input to the compressor
iii) COPref

25
4.6 REFRIGERATION LOAD

• Refrigeration Capacity, Q&L

– defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred
from a cold space per unit time
– determines the mass flow rate of refrigerant
• 1 ton = 200Btu/min = 211kJ/min = 3.516kW
• ton : “the rate of heat transfer to produce 2000 lb of ice at
0oC (32o)F from liquid water at 0oC (32oF) in 24 hours”
• Mass flow rate of refrigerant

& = refrigerator capacity

m
refrigerating effect per unit mass

26
EXAMPLE 4.4

• Calculate the refrigerating capacity of the refrigerator

in unit ton if given the enthalpy at the outlet and inlet
of the evaporator, and the mass flow rate are 179.01
kJ/kg, 60.58 kJ/kg and 0.05 kg/s respectively.

Given,
m& = 0.05 kg s
= 0.05 × 60 = 3.0 kg min
So,
Q& = m& (h1 − h4 )
= 3.0 kg min (179.01 − 60.58) kJ kg
1ton
= 355.29 kJ min ×
211 kJ min
= 1.684ton

27
 FLASH CHAMBER

• Flash chamber is used in a multi-staging

refrigeration system
• It separates vapor and liquid refrigerant during the
throttling process
• The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from
entering evaporator
• The vapor developed during throttling (flash vapor)
is bled out of the throttling device and fed back to
the compressor

28
MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
QH

• A multistage Condenser
5 4
compression
Win
refrigeration Expansion
Valve
system is one 6 9
example of a Flash Chamber 3
system that
uses a flash 7 2 Win
chamber Expansion
Valve
• It can be carried 8 1
out with the use Evaporator
of one or more 4

compressors QL
Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Compression
Refrigeration System

29
T-s DIAGRAM

• The T-s diagram representing the cycle of a two-stage

vapor-compression cycle

T 4

5 2

7 9
6 3

8 1

30
TWO-STAGE REFRIGERATION CYCLE REPRESENTED
BY THE P-h DIAGRAM
• The P-h diagram is a more convenient representation
of the cycle because it can easily be compared to the
plant layout
P

5 Condenser 4

Flash Chamber 3 2
7 6 9

Evaporator
8 1

h
31
• 1kg refrigerant starts his journey
through condenser
• 1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve P
• 1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash
chamber starts to evaporate and 5 Condenser 4
becomes mixture of gas (x)kg and
liquid (1–x)kg
• (x) leaves early and is ready to enter 3 2
7 6 9
2nd stage compressor at Pi
• (1–x)kg liquid make its way through
the 2nd throttle valve into the 8
Evaporator
1
evaporator
• (1–x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage h
compressor where it is compressed to
Pi
• At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes with
(x)kg vapor adiabatically and becomes
1kg vapor
• 1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd stage
compressor
• 1kg vapor enters condenser to be
condensed and becomes 1kg liquid

32
ANALYSIS

• Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates in the flash chamber can

be given as follows. h 6 − h fi
x =
h fg i

• Refrigerating Effect, QL= (1 – x)(h1 – h8)

• Total work input, ∑Win = W12 + W54

= (1 – x)(h2 – h1) + (h4 – h9)

• Heat rejected in condenser

QH = (h4 – h5)

33
• Coefficient of Performance

QL
COP R =
∑ W in
=
(1 − x )(h1 − h8 )
(1 − x )(h 2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h9 )

34
EXAMPLE 4.5

• A vapor compression of a two-stage compression plant uses

R-134a and has an evaporator temperature of -5oC and
condenser temperature of 45oC. The vapor is dry saturated
on entering the compressor. A flash chamber is employed at
an inter stage saturation temperature of 15oC.
Calculate:

i. The amount of vapor bled off at the flash chamber

ii. The state of vapor at the inlet to the 2nd stage of
compression
iii. The refrigerating effect per unit mass of refrigerant in
the evaporator
iv. The work done per unit mass of refrigerant in the
compressors.
v. COPR

35
CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
• A refrigeration process can be carried out in stages
• We call refrigeration cycles that operate in series as
cascade refrigeration cycles
• We will look at a two-stage cascade refrigeration
system
• A heat exchanger will serve as an evaporator for
one cycle and a condenser for another

36
 QH
6
Condenser
7
Win
Expansion
A Valve
Heat
Exchanger Compressor
5

8
2

3
Win
Expansion
Valve
B Compressor
1
Evaporator
4

QL
Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Cascade System

37
THE PROCESS
• The heat exchanger connects cycle A with cycle B
• For cycle A, the heat exchanger acts as condenser
• For cycle B, the heat exchanger acts as the evaporator
• Assumptions
– Heat exchanger is insulated
– Kinetic & potential energy is negligible
– Same refrigerant is used in both cycles
• So heat leaving condenser in A is equal to heat
entering absorbed& by evaporator
& in B
QA = QB
m& A (h5 − h8 ) = m& B (h2 − h3 )
m& A
=
(h2 − h3 )
m& B (h5 − h8 )

38
• Refrigeration Coefficient of Performance for the
system:
QL
COPR =
∑Win
m& B (h1 − h4 )
=
& A (h6 − h5 ) + m
m & (h2 − h1 )

39
T-s AND P-h DIAGRAM OF THE CASCADE
REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

T P
6
7 6

7 2 A
A 5 8 5
8 3 2
3
B
B
4 1 4 1

s h

40
CHARACTERISTICS OF CASCADE SYSTEM
• In a cascade system, no mixing of refrigerant takes
place in the heat exchanger,
– so no mixing of refrigerant between cycles,
– so different refrigerants can be used
• Using a cascade system
– Increases the refrigeration capacity
– Decreases compressor work
– So COPR increases
• In practice the working fluid of the lower cycle will be
at a higher pressure and temperature in the heat
exchanger for effective heat transfer

41
EXAMPLE 4.6
• A two stage cascade refrigeration system operates between
pressure limits of 0.8 MPa and 0.14 MPa. Each stage
operates on an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
with R-134a as working fluid. Heat rejection from lower
cycle to the upper cycle takes place in an adiabatic
counterflow heat exchanger where both streams enter at
about 0.4 MPa. If mass flow rate of refrigerant through the
upper cycle is 0.24 kg/s. Determine
i. Mass flow rate through lower cycle
ii. Rate of heat removal from refrigerated space
iii. Power input of compressor
iv. COPR of this Cascade

42
ABSORPTION & GAS REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Absorption Refrigeration System

• Introduced because:
– saves energy
– uses environmental friendly refrigerant
• Types of absorption refrigeration systems
– Ammonia-Water
– Water-Lithium bromide
• The system is similar to a vapor-compression system
except that the compressor is replaced by an
absorption system
• Refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium through
the absorbing system

43
SYSTEM LAYOUT OF AN AMMONIA-WATER
ABSORPTION SYSTEM

Q
H Generator QGenerator
Condenser Rectifier NH3 + H2O
NH3 Note:
An identical
H2O layout is used
for the water-
Expansion
ammonia
Valve absorption
Expansion
system
Valve
Pump
Win, Pump
NH3 Absorber
Evaporator NH3 + H2O

QL
Cooling water

Absorption system

44
PROCESS IN THE ABSORPTION SYSTEM

• Take an Ammonia-Water system as an example. Here,

Ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorber.
• In the case of water-lithium bromide system, water is
the refrigerant and lithium bromide is the absorber.
• NH3 from evaporator enters the absorber. It reacts
with cooling water and releases heat to form NH3 +
H2O solution
• The NH3 + H2O is pumped to generator. Heat is
transferred to NH3 + H2O to vaporize it
• Then it is passed to the rectifier to separate NH3 and
H2O
• High pressure NH3 in rectifier goes to condenser
• H2O & the rest of NH3 is passed through a regenerator.
It transfers heat to the solution rich with NH3 that is
on its way to the generator
• Then it is throttled back to the absorber

45
ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE

• Advantage
– Pump work is relatively small compared to the
heat supplied to the generator
• Disadvantage
– Rather complex
• Coefficient of performance
QL
COPR =
Qgenerator + W pump
because W pump is small
QL
COPR =
Qgenerator

46
GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLE
• Can be represented by a reversed Brayton cycle

QH
Heat
3 Exchanger 2
Win
Turbine Compressor

1 4
Heat
Exchanger
QL

Figure: A Reversed Brayton Cycle

Refrigeration system

47
T-S DIAGRAM AND COPR

QL
QH
2 COPR =
Win
QL
=
3 Wcomp − Wtur

=
(h1 − h4 )
1 (h2 − h1 ) − (h3 − h4 )
4 QL

48