Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Research Committee Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) Other committee members: Russell Gardner, John Beahrs, Jacob Kerbeshian, Fred Wamboldt, Alan Swann, Johan Verhulst, Michael Schwartz, Morton Sosland, Carlo Carandang, Doug Kramer, John Looney
Beverly Sutton
Presentation Overview
Depend on scientific study But areas requiring emphasis vary over time Fosters different arrangement of relevant data
Article Characteristics
It reflects
Integrative values of the social brain concept Retaining the biomedical base While also emphasizing affective, moral & cultural developments of interacting people
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
This readiness, called "prepared learning" Possesses adaptive advantage Illustrates Darwinian fitness
Genetics Revelations
Human genome uses only tens of thousands protein-encoding genes More expressed sequence tags (messenger RNA) exist in brain than any other organ
Having a similar body plan such as four limbs Social rank hierarchy & territoriality.
Evo Devo
What molecular building blocks of animal structure developed over evolutionary time? Delineates differences resulting in the many species as well as individual differences Such similarities & contrasts include sociality
Vertebrate cranial vault of today (including the human) resembles that of vertebrates 480 million years ago2
Neocortex Expansion
Social group size accounts for 45% of brain-size variance5 Neocortex comprised much of this growth
Expand areas of language & culture its symbolbased product Old brain systems retain importance3 Large brain may not mean increased function
Autistic persons may have large brains4 though intellectually retarded & asocial Fossils of island-dwelling humans showed brain complexity with small brain sizes
PET studies show medial prefrontal areas and the thalamus activate in normal emotion Other areas process emotional content & social cognition
Amygdala Prefrontal cortex Right somatosensory cortices6 Sensory association areas & the anterior temporal lobe likely provide emotional color to sensory information Anterior insular regions invest cognitive and sensory information with negative emotional meaning7
Earlier assumed that moral judgments stem from pure reason But ethical dilemmas activate emotional brain areas
Moral Neurotransmitters
Moral-decision emotion activates dopamine & serotonin These relate to positive & negative feelings
Dopamine, a pleasure chemical, releases after eating, pleasant sexual interaction, or taking cocaine Decreased serotonin to negative feelings of depression, suicide, anxiety & social phobia Serotonin reuptake inhibitors increase optimism & social confidence9
Although the same areas in the brain are activated in moral matters, sexes differ in how they focus on the issues
Womens standards tend to involve responsiveness to others Mens morality ties to rules of fairness and separateness
Evolution preserves some psychopathology Removing some vulnerabilities may also limit behaviors/mental states necessary for survival/reproductive success2 No study shows genetic variation to account for all behavioral variations between mentally ill & mentally healthy people10
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
Fragile X Prader-Willi Angelman The latter two involve chromosome 15 & genomic imprinting
Fragile X Syndrome
Mental retardation, slow language development, attention disorders, pervasive developmental disorder, typically anxious Fragile X syndrome stems from a mutation
FMR locus at Xq28 A molecular component repeats # of repeats proportional to severity of clinical presentation
Genomic imprinting:
A same gene expresses different characteristics depending on whether mother or father furnished the DNA Mechanism includes DNA-methylation switches off gene-expression
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Weak hypotonic muscles, failure to thrive Short & never pubertal Overeat to extreme obesity unless restrained Emotionally labile & slow intellectually
15q11-13 genes impaired Impaired function of hypothalamic & septum No cortex impairment
Paternally derived
Angelman Syndrome
Williams syndrome
Clinical picture
Mild mental retardation Cardiac & connective tissue problems Profound visuospatial dysfunction Characteristic facial features
Unique: fluent language & much sociability Microdeletion on chromosome 7q11.23 Normally sized frontal cortex contrasts with small posterior lobes12
Moebius syndrome
Bilateral Cranial VI & VII paralyses Autism in 40% of patients Autosomal dominant With lateral gaze problems they show characteristic expressionless face
Mother-child interactions
Movie-frame microanalysis of
The mother identified one twin with her husband & the other with herself
The husband twin & she used avoidant head movements to each other This contrasted to an attracting pattern with the other The avoidant husband twin acted more fearfully with more dependency The more independent brother had better social skills
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
Parental attitudes
Expectations regarding the unborn baby strongly predict infant's attachment behavior beyond year 114 Month old infants viewed negatively by their mothers exhibit a sixfold greater likelihood for psychosocial developmental disorder at 19 years compared to positively viewed controls14
Developmental capacities change in that:
Infant becomes less fussy Permits mother to decrease her care-giving while increasing social interchange. But if fussiness fails to decrease, maternal attachment decreases
Infants behave as though they know that others can understand their thoughts, feelings and behavior and They show preferences for a few care-giving adults15 Requires a sense of self to experience pride & shame6
The toddler
Infants with congenital cataracts with an early sightless period show permanent problems in discriminating facial configurations that vary, eg, spacing between features Though they identify geometric patterns as well as children with normal early vision
Therefore, different neural systems process faces and geometric objects in adults16
But early exposure to faces sets up neural circuits that enable facial processing in the first 10-12 years of life
Auditory Experience
Infants after birth show ability to discriminate sound they prefer the mother's voice over those of other women17 4 day old French infants suck harder to hear a recording in French (vs Russian)
Sibling Sequence
Sibling order produces systematic influences that mold attitudes & behavior19 First-born children tend to identify with power & authority but later-born children question the status quo & resist pressure to conform
Siblings perceive differences in the way they are treated and this continues over the life span
First-borns more likely become political leaders and establishment scientists whereas socially successful later-borns support unpopular causes Six or more years between siblings restarts the birth order effect, i.e., another first born child seems to appear
Children who felt one or both parents provided more affection to them than siblings reached higher academic & occupational goals10
Factors in Behavior
Parents using mild, inductive techniques of behavior management produce children with high moral development. Benign management in the form of ignoring negative and rewarding positive behavior better socializes poor inner-city children (black and white) than do conventional restriction and punishment-oriented classes
The effect holds from kindergarten through 8th grade Peers favor tall thin ectomorphs not short fat endomorphs20
Women maintain networks with other women even with a stable marriage While intimacy tends to threaten men, divorced men remarry faster & more often than divorced women Men exhibit less depression than women, less often seek help, & they respond faster to treatment Women on the other hand show more panic disorder & somatization disorders Men exhibit more alcohol dependence, antisocial personality disorder, delusions about homosexuality, paranoid disorders, & compulsive disorders Most men value working & earning money Women often take low paying jobs that men refuse to consider Men in "pink collar" jobs (jobs typically held by women) face derision by uninformed or homophobic community members
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
Later born baby monkeys show lower cortisol levels Their lower levels of stress may reflect better care from experienced mothers24
Brain areas for song in white-crowned sparrows develop as longer days increase sex hormones25
Males with females had 15-20% larger song areas Compared to bachelors or males in all-male groups
A large crayfish neuron responds to serotonin differently depending on the animals social status22
Neuron tail-flip response used for fight or escape 5HT applied to it enhanced dominants neuron firing-rate2 2 subordinate crayfish put together results in one winning
Simply injecting serotonin into crayfish (& lobsters) produces aggressive dominant behavior only
A suspended animation phase for 2 or more months daf-2 gene inducing this insulin receptor protein Similar arrests in many vertebrate & invertebrate groups seems to operate to prolong reproductive period Obesity & prevalence of type II diabetes in humans may reflect survival of past generations from famine26 Functional hypoglycemia may have helped human adaptation to infrequent but large food supplies
Wild Norwegian rats raised in a confined space eventually stabilized their numbers Increased numbers and deteriorated care-taking behavior by mother rats
Rats raised in isolation show behavior changes & high levels of dopamine (DA)
DA-blocking agents ameliorate these rat symptoms DA involved in addiction, motor control, & perhaps schizophrenia
Amygdala Experiments
Rat pups handled by people may show less fear because of their mothers behavior after the pups return to her
Rat mother does extra licking, grooming and nursing more neurotransmitter receptors that in turn decrease amygdala activity & fewer receptors for CRH (involved with stress)
Amygdala
Field studies of chimpanzees show variation in patterns of tool use behavior, grooming, and sexual behaviors Different chimpanzee groups exhibit unique styles, communal behavior previously thought characteristic of human cultures only29 In humans, lower social status correlates with lower serotonin responsivity30
Dominance status in animal groupings typically correlates with reproductive success & control of resources
However, dominance studied with reproduction DNA studies showed that 2nd or 3rd rank rhesus males may impregnate females while the dominant male worked to maintain territory31 In great apes, females passively receive male sexual advances
Though higher ranking female baboons & macaques show more breeding success In Gombe, dominant chimpanzee females weaned twice as many infants than non-dominants32 Infant production, infant survival, & infant development also indexed female fitness
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications
Preagricultural Human Hx
~7 million years ago humans began evolving from ancestral forms in Africa ~ 500,000 years ago Homo sapiens appeared
~ 40,000 years ago Cro-Magnons (modern man) left evidence of stone & bone tools, nets, jewelry, clothes, spears, bows and arrows.
They also painted, sculpted and played musical instruments. Ships appearing 13,000 years ago made it possible for people to travel outside landmasses.33
~ 10,000 years ago the agricultural revolution began in the Middle East, China, & Mesoamerica
More people lived in discrete areas without needing to move for food
Food supplies obtained by farming caused rapid population increases. Average time between children is 2 years for farm people but 4 years for hunter-gatherers34
Gene-culture Co-evolution
Yet each individual mind possesses genetic determinants Gene-culture co-evolution a special form of natural selection3
Culture provides a special environment for behavioral genes Everyday ways of doing things, preferred forms of interaction, & what people feel as common sense28
Definition of culture:
Culture determines what people consider normal, including how illnesses have meaning and the necessary elements for cures
Bodily expression of mental illness represents a more common worldwide attribution than psychological expression Yet DSM used on this continent focuses on psychological presentations
Unsuitable for diagnoses in non-Western areas People on this continent from non-Western cultures often receive misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment
Emotions = Signals
By 8 to 9 years of age, children use facial and situational cues to assess emotion6
89% of 4-5 year olds rely on facial expression to determine another's emotional state.
Bilateral amygdalar damage impairs recognition of a face expressing fear Manic patients deficiently recognize negative emotions
Particularly fear & disgust35 Euthymic bipolar and healthy persons scored similarly Manics frequently evaluated a fear face as expressing surprise
Cultural Rituals
Small groups place importance on physical grooming behaviors Social interaction in larger groups gains enhancement through use of social "grooming" (talking & rituals)
Compelling powerful experiences enhance social control Further, groups ritualistically set the ways that people behave when eating, grooming, & otherwise interacting with one another Religious ceremonies and courting behavior may entail inflexible components of behavior required by all But often differ from accepted social conventions in extent & timing37
70% of human societies expect the bride to move to her husband's birthplace (patrilocal) Study of 3 matrilocal (men move to woman's birthplace) and 3 patrilocal groups in northern Thailand showed findings expected from the chromosome characteristics of the different sexes38
Patrilocal groups
High variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inherited only from mothers Low variability in the y-chromosome (transmitted to sons from fathers)
American Families
~10% of American families = tradition of man-provider & woman-homemaker Unique families & child care practices21
Dual-career marriages Single parent families Lesbian and gay parents Complex or "blended" families (children from former marriages) Boomerang families (adult children returning home) Adult-oriented multigenerational families
At age 12 months
82% of the children show disorganized behavior compared with 19% of controls.
35% of maltreated infants remained disorganized & 21% securely reactive Control infants: opposite rates of 27% disorganized & 71% secure
At 36 months,
Maltreatment Effects
They use fewer internal state words than nonmaltreated infants with otherwise similar vocabularies15 Abused children likely become abusing adults
Maltreat their children in the next generation As well as their elderly parents
Family Conflict
Sibling Conflict
This is a conflict not sex linked, Not associated with a parent of the same or opposite sex, Not the result of sexual drive
Young Mothers
Talk to their children less, but command more They smile less and touch base less with eye and physical contact compared to older mothers Children exhibit poorer cognitive & language outcomes15
Young mothers display less sensitivity to their children but more intrusiveness
Children show more avoidance Punitive discipline results in more aggression, impulsivity, social withdrawal & fewer friends
These mothers underestimate their children's ability to think, interact & communicate but overestimate mastery of the next developmental level
Family Facts
White women more likely work for economic independence compared to African-American women who work from economic need One- to two-thirds of American women experience abuse from their spouses each year Although the economics of divorce usually increases a man's & decreases a woman's standard of living, men show more psychological and physical distress than women from separation and divorce Male elders provide important superego models and cultural supports to the family as a group21
Cultural Differences
American Indians, Alaskan Natives, & Southeast Asians no word for "depressed" Hopi commonly express sadness
Eskimos and Tahitians rarely show anger Iranians encourage but Navajos discourage displays of extreme sadness. Javanese seek serenity A woman staying at home at all times may be agoraphobic in the West but virtuous if Muslim
Therefore, to diagnose depression, 1 month of depression should elapse rather than the usual 2 weeks
Culture-bound disorders
disorders stem from anger, fright, witchcraft, "evil eye", preoccupation with bodily function or other precipitants28
Anxiety disorders reflect bodily arousal, cognitive interpretation, & ineffective coping skills,
Blood-injury phobia
European comparisons
French people typically complain of fatigue & headache plus other problems caused by "liver crisis" German physicians vigorously treat low blood pressure or poor circulation
Use of Drugs
Knockout mice that lack a dopamine transporter protein show "no interest in cocaine or amphetamine39
People typically learn drug use from peers. Low alcohol dehydrogenase cause some Asians to flush & feel sick from alcohol use
Cultural variations:
Some northern/western Europeans use it heavily Mormons forbid its use Muslims & Buddhist monks do not drink Some American Indian & Hispanic American men do all day drinking parties28
Use/nonuse of alcohol during cultural rituals varies with group & country
If an American Indian refuses a drink, peers may consider the abstinence impolite
Some religious ceremonies regularly involve the use of mind-altering substances At funerals, Irish Americans drink & tell jokes African Americans grieve & sing spirituals
Exposure to it usually increases aggression28 Drug addicts may use violence to obtain drugs Willingness to use violence to maintain the status quo typifies firstborn, conservative, tough-minded behavior19 Aggression typifies boys behavior on the playground unless supervised at "play" by adults who stop predatory behavior, model nonviolent behavior and teach social skills
Non-Violence Taught
Increased academic achievement Reduced disciplinary referrals Program emphasized zero tolerance for pathological behavioral roles (bully, observer, victim) While teaching appropriate social behaviors
Language
Words change the way we feel & may substitute for other behavior Language unites those in a social group
Conflicted Language
Belgium French-speaking Canada Basque-speaking Spain Moses protested that he could not lead the people of Israel from language difficulties (Genesis, Chapter 11)
A pygmy chimpanzee learned to respond to oral English language to an extent comparable to a 2 year old human infant6
Change In Humans
Evolution of the larynx position, i.e., migration to a lower neck position made it possible to create more sounds41
Human brain reorganized to accommodate this function particularly in the frontal area, including Broca' s area
High pitched, slow, & melodious verbalization Attracts baby's attention & encourages attunement A cultural group that shouts use easily recognized vowels, Loudness of verbalizations is inversely proportional to the number of vowels in the language42
Sentence mind-traces make thoughts easier to follow Young children may interrupt play to reference the mother for emotional information6 At age 6 months, the infant seeks reassurance from a parent's presence By 1 year also seeks information from the parent's face
Social referencing
Sounds to Vocabulary
Number then decreases Change stems from restricted set baby hears in the family6
At 1-month, infant can distinguish a "ba" sound from a "pa" sound. A 1-year old infant has 2-3 words &
Vocabulary
At 2 years, the child knows about 50 words Factors forecasting large vocabularies include
Adults reading and talking about stories, Quality of mealtime conversations, Large vocabulary and mean length of utterance by the mother, Higher socioeconomic status of family, Firstborn status Talkative mother with sophisticated language43
In Japan and Korea, words chosen must fit the relative social status of the participants Over half of Japanese sentences omit the subject reflecting the favored indirect approach Swear words
Japanese & American Indian languages contain no native curses An extremely crude swear word may arouse anger in one culture but usually no emotional reaction in another culture
Men excel on visuo-spatial abilities (especially mental rotation of complex figures) & Women on verbal abilities (especially fluent production of words)21
Girls withdraw more Boys tend to hyperactivity42
Men who had been language-impaired display more antisocial disorder compared to controls Children with speech & language disorders
Followed 14 years showed higher rates of anxiety disorder (social phobia) than controls43 Language-impaired youth tend to have other psychiatric disorders
Relates to brain circuitry for speech & language45 3-generations of a family & an unrelated person had severe speech & language problems A disrupted gene, FOXP2 transmits as an autosomal-dominant
Unaffected family members & other unaffected nonrelated persons have no such substitution
Memory
Declarative (explicit), features awareness of past experiences, and Nondeclarative (working) memory works outside consciousness46
Neural Correlates
An intact hippocampus & related structures in the medial temporal lobe Dorsal & anterior thalamic nuclei & mammillary bodies produces apathy and problem with explicit memory Frontal lobes do temporary storage of info for specific tasks
Puts experience in context & allows memory search Damage to the former impairs integration of cognition Damage to the latter affects emotional & social functioning
Face Recognition/Memory
Humans and other species use face recognition as an important social task
Sheep remember both sheep & human faces for over 2 years, distinguishing both frontal & profile views
Small cell-groups in temporal & medial prefrontal cortices mediate this function47
Particularly on the right Hold in memory the imitated model of a facial expression for at least 2.5 minutes
Episodic memory (the recollection of one's personal past) appears at ~4 years of age Over time child becomes aware of self experience Memory consolidation helped by REM sleep & dreams may serve a role in social adaptation Better recollection occurs if ones mood state at the time of an experience recurs at attempted retrieval (state-dependent learning)
Neurogenesis
New neurons form in adult mammalian brains including monkeys & humans in the olfactory bulb (smell) & hippocampus (memory)
Sensorimotor stimulation stimulates neuronal replacement 48 Neurogenesis decreases from stress, a boring environment & perhaps depression
In rats, timing of learned responses & temporal relationship between events depends on the neurogenesis Many birds add neurons involved in song production & memory throughout adulthood50 Monkeys with damage to the hippocampus & amygdala behave like autistic persons6
Presentation Outline
Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture Treatment implications
More accurate diagnoses of malfunction and interventions that support survival of the individual & of mankind
e.g., neural stem cells may eventually treat patients with neurodegenerative disorders
These versatile cells produce both neurons and glia & when plated on muscle-cell cultures, half produce muscle cells51
Physical Disorders
Most common depression, anxiety, confusion, memory & speech disorders Some after Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infections
Display autoimmune problems presenting as obsessive compulsive disorder, Syndenhans chorea or Tourette's disorder2
Possible treatment for drug addiction stem from rats given methylphenidate
When given this stimulant during preadolescence & then exposed to cocaine as adults, mature rats responded less and have increased aversion52 If exposed to methylphenidate as adults, these rats responded less to cocaine but no aversion
Treatment Relations
Diagnostic errors may stem from stereotypes as might an undue emphasis on environment with little attention to personal or social factors
A person facing adverse personal and social conditions may seem flat or suspicious
For success, the therapist should find something likeable in the patient
Schools
Schools can play important roles in decreasing violence. Teaching & modeling socially appropriate behavior & includes
Adequate supervision on the playground No tolerance for predatory or bullying behavior will decrease aggression and increase academic performance
Adults also need to help children avoid watching such behavior & to refuse assuming victim roles
Requires group incentives, education, & clear objectives A problems meaning typically reflects group beliefs Understanding the cultural background of the family helps tailor the approach used28 Approved child punishment in one culture may constitute abuse in another Family therapists demonstrate sensitivity to values and agree to disagree with the family if necessary
Specific Examples
As when encouraging the family to solve its own problems28 Some African-American teenagers receive covert messages that a new child is desired
Teenagers bear over 50% of pregnancies borne by black women and the pregnancy often surprises them
Extended Family
Therapists should consider the potential support that stems from extended family21 Asian-American families benefit from formal, structured and practical assistance; indirect communication helps avoid shame Tolerance of differences can be taught & encouraged22
Sensitive care critical when diagnosing or treating family dysfunction22 In communications, problem solving, conflict resolution, & time management
Teenage mothers with educational assistance more likely become self-sufficient Pregnancy may deter the education of a teenage father, making assistance required
Non-Conventional Issues
Lesbian & gay families may use assistance to cope with societal reactions New families (after remarriage) may relate stressfully
Family members may have to expand contacts to more than the immediate stepfamily to satisfy relationships
Effective rules help work out problems As with household labor, family property, authority relationships, financial obligations, & communication
Parentified Children
Such parentified children produces problems e.g., as interpreters for parents, inappropriate exposure to intimate medical & legal issues This expectation for the child becomes the norm in most families and must be challenged especially regarding inappropriate use of children for adult-only conversations
Reason: to feel nothing. They must be taught to be open, direct and assertive.
May overfunction by advising, rescuing, and taking over with stress Need help for healthier mutual relationships21
My become quite isolated, & underestimate their distress Therapists may need to reach out to them in an invitational manner.
More likely than white men go to correctional system rather than the mental health system21 Knowing this helps ensure needed diagnosis & treatment
Group Therapies
e.g., male infertility, menstruation, physical illness, or sexual function Reason: these issues "not discussed in polite society"
In a group situation, men more likely respond negatively to women leaders But positively to men leaders for saying the same thing More early developmental issues come up in same-sex groups Mixed sex groups may help issues of professional development21
Sex of leaders
Conclusion
Addressing molecular-genetic pathogenesis of disorders more readily accomplished in our present era of considerable data production
Of course, such levels of analysis need analytic integration e.g, attention often restricted to medication
But additionally many other factors impact the persons, the familys and groups views of dysfunction
Considering these factors, views & communicational states takes time, motivation, education, and consensus opinion to change Such integration of treatment plans means they will achieve greater adequacy for troubled people
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