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Choosing the bias points of an RF Power Amplifier can determine the level of performance
ultimately possible with that PA. By comparing PA bias approaches, can evaluate the trade-
offs for: Output Power, Efficiency, Linearity, or other parameters for different applications.
The Power Class of the amplification determines the type of bias applied to an RF
power transistor.
The Power Amplifier’s Efficiency is a measure of its ability to convert the DC power of
the supply into the signal power delivered to the load.
Power that is not converted to useful signal is dissipated as heat. Power Amplifiers
that has low efficiency have high levels of heat dissipation, which could be a limiting
factor in particular design.
In addition to the class of operation, the overall efficiency of a Power Amplifier is
affected by factors such as dielectric and conductor losses. First quantify any loss in
the circuit, then attempt to minimize it, and finally ensure that the mechanical and
thermal design is adequate under all conditions.
The optimum load for highest Gain is determined by the small signal parameters of the
device.
The optimum load for minimum distortion and maximum output power at the 1dB
compression point (P1dB) is determined by the bias point and I-V characteristics of the
device.
The load required to obtain the maximum value of Power Added Efficiency (PAE) will
be some compromise between these two conditions.
When considering which device will provide the greatest power added efficiency at the
1 dB compression point, the answer will not necessarily be the device whose
characteristics are more linear. It will be the device whose load requirements for gain
and maximum value of the 1dB compression point are the most commensurate.
Power Classes
Class - A
Is defined, as an amplifier that is biased so that the output current flows at all the
time, and the input signal drive level is kept small enough to avoid driving the transistor in
cut-off. Another way of stating this is to say that the conduction angle of the transistor is
360, meaning that the transistor conducts for the full cycle of the input signal. That makes
Class-A the most linear of all amplifier types, where linearity means simply how closely the
output signal of the amplifier resembles the input signal.
No transistor is perfectly linear; however the output signal of an amplifier is never an exact
replica of the input signal.
Signals such as CW, FM or PM have constant envelopes (amplitudes) and therefore do not
require linear amplification.
Class - B
This is an amplifier in which the conduction angle for the transistor is approximately 180.
Thus the transistor conducts only half of the time, either on positive or negative half
cycle of the input signal.
The same as in Class-A, the DC bias applied to the transistor determines the Class-B
operation.
Class-B amplifiers are more efficient than Class-A amplifiers. The instantaneous
efficiency of a Class-B PA varies with the output voltage and for an ideal PA reaches
π/4 (78.5 %) at PEP. However they are much less linear. Therefore a typical Class-B
amplifier will produce quite a bit harmonic distortion that must be filtered from the
amplified signal.
Linearizing the response of a BJT PA in Class-AB includes the use of specific, and
very low, impedance for the base bias supply voltage. This is a very different bias
design issue in comparison to the simple current bias used in small signal BJT
amplifiers, or the simple high impedance voltage bias used in FET PA’s.
Running the PA in a mid-AB condition the power gain may be 3dB higher than
Class-B.
Conventional Class-AB operation incurs odd degree nonlinearities in the process of
improving efficiency. Theoretically to increases efficiency all the way up to 78.5 %,
the device shall generate only even order nonlinearities. Such a device will not
generate undesirable close-to-carrier intermodulation distortion.
Class - C
Is an amplifier where the conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180.
The transistor is biased such that under steady-state conditions no collector current
flows.
The transistor idles at cut-off. Class C Amplifier
The voltage mode Class D amplifier is defined as a switching circuit that results in the
generation of a half-sinusoidal current waveform and a square voltage waveform. Class-D
PAs use two or more transistors as switches to generate a square drain-voltage waveform.
A series-tuned output filter passes only the fundamental-frequency component to the load,
Class-D amplifiers suffer from a number of problems that make them difficult to realize,
especially at high frequencies. First, the availability of suitable devices for the upper switch
is limited. Secondly, device parasitics such as drain-source capacitance and lead inductance
result in losses in each cycle. If realized, (they are common at low RF and audio
frequencies) Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is no
period during a cycle where the voltage and current waveforms overlap (current is drawn
only through the transistor that is on).
Class - E
The result is an ideal efficiency of 100 %, elimination of the losses associated with charging
the drain capacitance in class D, reduction of switching losses, and good tolerance of
component variation.
Class-E amplifier Class-E Voltage and Current waveforms
A Class-E amplifier will exhibit an upper limit on its frequency of operation based on
the output capacitance required for the output matching circuit that produces the
waveforms described and shown above.
Specifically, a Class-E amplifier for optimum efficiency requires an upper limit on
capacitance Cs.
The radio frequency choke (RFC) is large, with the result that only DC current Idc
flows through it.
The Q of the output circuit consisting of Ls and Cs is high enough so that the output
current io and output voltage vo consist of only the fundamental component. That is,
all harmonics are removed by this filter.
The transistor behaves as a perfect switch. When it is on, the collector/drain voltage
is zero, and when it is off the collector current is zero.
The transistor output capacitance co, and hence Cp, is independent of voltage.
If a given transistor has an intrinsic capacitance co greater than Cp_max, it is not
useable at the desired frequency. This Cs requirement implies that for high power
at high frequencies, higher current densities are required, as the cross-sectional
area of the switch corresponds directly to the device’s intrinsic capacitance.
Class - F
Class-F boosts both efficiency and output by using harmonic resonators in the output
network to shape the drain waveforms. The voltage waveform includes one or more odd
harmonics and approximates a square wave, while the current includes even harmonics and
approximates a half sine wave. Alternately (“inverse class F”), the voltage can approximate
a half sine wave and the current a square wave.
Class-F amplifier Class-F Voltage and Current waveforms
A Class-F amplifier can also be built with a quarter-wave transmission line as shown below.
A λ/4 transmission line transforms an open circuit into a short circuit and a short circuit
into an open circuit.
At the center frequency, the tuned circuit (Lo and Co) is an open circuit, but at all other
frequencies, the impedance is close to zero. Thus, at the fundamental frequency the
impedance into the transmission line is RL .
At even harmonics, the λ/4 transmission line leaves the short circuit as a short circuit.
At odd harmonics, the short circuit is transformed into an open circuit. This is
equivalent to having a resonator at all odd harmonics, with the result that the collector
voltage waveform is a square wave (odd harmonics should be at the right levels).
When two or more signals are input to an amplifier simultaneously, the second, third,
and higher-order intermodulation components (IM) are caused by the sum and
difference products of each of the fundamental input signals and their associated
harmonics.
The rated PEP of a Power Amplifier is the maximum envelope power of a two-tone
signal for which the amplifier intermodulation level is -30dBc.
When two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are input to any nonlinear amplifier, the
following output components will result:
Fundamental: f1, f2
Second order: 2f1, 2f2, f1 + f2, f1 - f2
Third order: 3f1, 3f2, 2f1 f2, 2f2 f1,
Fourth order: 4f1, 4f2, 2f2 2f1,
Fifth order: 5f1, 5f2, 3f1 2f2, 3f2 2f1, + Higher order terms
The odd order intermodulation products (2f1-f2, 2f2-f1, 3f1-2f2, 3f2-2f1, etc) are close
to the two fundamental tone frequencies f1 and f2.
As a relation between the degree of the nonlinearity (third, fifth, etc) and the frequency
of the side tone (such as IM3, IM5, etc), can be mentioned that the IM5 tones are not
affected by third-degree nonlinearities, but IM3 tones are functions of both third- and
fifth-degree (and higher) nonlinearities. That means at low signal amplitudes, where
the fifth-order distortion products can be neglected, the amplitudes of the IM3 tones
are proportional to the third power of the input amplitude.
With fairly large signal amplitude, 5th order products (which are dependent on a power of
five) will start to affect the IM3 responses. As a result, the 3:1 amplitude estimate will no
longer hold.
If the phases of the third- and fifth-degree coefficients are equal, the fifth-degree
nonlinearity will expand the IM3 responses. However, if the phases are the opposite,
the IM3 distortion will be locally reduced. This explains why notches (sweet-spots) in
the IM3 (and high-order) sidebands have been reported at certain amplitudes of output
power.
IM(n) products vs Input Re-growth of harmonic content vs Conduction Angle
Since the amount of device nonlinearities cannot be changed much, distortion is most
effectively minimized by optimizing the impedances seen by the distortion current
sources.
In all the Power Amplifiers, the output level is a “compressive” or “saturating” function
of the input level. The gain of the Power Amplifier approaches zero for sufficiently high
input levels. In RF circuits this effect is quantified by the “1dB compression point”,
defined as the input signal level that causes the small-signal gain to drop by 1dB. This
can be plotted in a log-log scale vs input level.
Sometimes this Output Power vs Input Power characteristic is referred as AM-AM
distortion.
The asymmetry of side-band intermodiulation products (IM) in a two-tone test is often
dependent on the carrier spacing, but not in a monotonic fashion. The effect can be
explained as an interaction between AM-AM and AM-PM distortion processes. On the
other hand, the mere presence of both processes does not guarantee that asymmetry
will occur.
If there is a time lag, or phase shift as measured in the envelope time domain between
the AM-AM and AM-PM responses, or their individual frequency components, IM
asymmetry will occur.
The first order term reproduces the input signal amplified by the small signal gain.
The second order term creates output signals which are at the second harmonic of the
input signals and at all the combinations which are the sum and difference frequencies
of the input signals.
If only one input frequency is present, the second order term will produce output
components at the second harmonic and a DC component. This term cannot produce
outputs at the input frequency.
The third order term creates outputs at frequencies which are very close to the input
frequencies and outputs which are exactly at the input frequencies. The output
components which are exactly at the input frequencies add vectorially to the output
produced by the first order term. If the phase of the component created by the third
order term is 180 degrees out of phase with that produced by the first order term, the
output signal at that frequency will be reduced.
Since the output amplitude of the signal created by the third order term is a function of
signal level this reduction in output amplitude will increase as the signal level
increases. This is known as Gain Compression.
If the output component created by the third order term is not 180 degrees out of
phase with the component produced by the first order term, then the output amplitude
and phase will be functions of the signal level.
The change in output phase angle when the input level is changed is known as AM to
PM conversion.
The intermodulation distortion components appear to be caused by the mixing of the second
harmonic of one signal with the fundamental of the other. This observation may result in the
erroneous conclusion that if the second harmonic is eliminated, intermodulation distortion
will be eliminated. Second harmonic reduction may be accomplished by decreasing the
magnitude of the coefficient of the second order term. In a practical situation, this may be
achieved by filtering.
The decrease in the magnitude of the second order term will not directly affect the
magnitude of the third order term and the outputs at the intermodulation distortion
frequencies will not be affected.
The output signals created by the third order term which are very close to the
frequencies of the input signals are of great importance because they usually fall
within the passband of the amplifier and cannot be filtered out.
Commonly used methods of specifying third order distortion components are:
intermodulation distortion, cross modulation distortion, modulation distortion, and triple
beat distortion.
It is obvious that they are closely associated with gain saturation since they are
produced by the same third order term of the output expansion.
Memory Effect
In a two (or multi tone) IMD test if the amplitude and/or phase of the IM signals is
affected by the tone difference, the amplifier exhibits memory effects.
Memory is caused by the storage of energy that has to be charged or discharged.
Memory Effect could be explained as a time lag between AM-AM and AM-PM
response of the amplifier. The Electrical Memory Effect is introduced by poor
gate/base and drain/collector decoupling at low frequencies causing a distortion of the
envelope currents which results in IMD asymmetry.
Low frequencies mean baseband/video frequencies or the spacing between two tones.
The most significant Memory Effect appears in Class AB amplifiers, with reduced
conduction angle where drain/collector varies with output power. In Class A amplifiers
the Memory Effect reduces.
Smooth memory effects are not usually harmful to the linearity of the PA itself.
o A phase rotation of 10º to 20º or an amplitude change of less than 0.5 dB, as a
function of modulation frequency, has no dramatic effect on the linearity of the
device.
There are two types of memory effects: Electrical and Thermal.
Electrical memory effects are produced by non-constant node impedances within
frequency bands as DC, Fundamental, and Harmonics. Most of these effects are
generated by frequency dependent envelope impedance, and those within the DC
band are the most harmful, because bias impedances are strongly frequency
dependent.
Thermal memory effects are generated by the junction temperature, which is
modulated by the applied signal.
Thermal effects will be much more prominent in a slow sweep, or a stepped CW test.
The analysis and simulation show that the drain envelope impedance is the most
important factor for reducing the memory effect and nonlinearity. A new matching
topology is proposed for minimizing the drain and gate envelope impedances.
o The matching topology consists of a series LC circuit for shorting the device at a
low frequency while maintaining a matchable impedance at the operating
frequency.
o The circuits are connected to the gate and drain terminals, rather than to the
bias lines, since the circuit can produce a very low impedance, not limited by the
quarter-wavelength bias line. The amplifier, with the reduced envelope
impedances, provides drastically reduced memory effects and very linear
amplification performance for wideband signals.
Simultaneous amplitude and delayed phase modulation does generate asymmetric
sidebands.
The input matching configuration, including the bias circuit, has an important impact on
the operation of the RF Power Amplifiers.
The input match will show different optima for maximum gain, best linearity, and
highest efficiency. Optimization of the efficiency may involve substantial reduction in
power gain.
Correct handling of harmonics is a necessary feature on the input, as well as the
output, match. Device used well below its cutoff frequency may require specific
harmonic terminating circuit elements on the input.
The performance of the output matching circuit is critical for a Power Amplifier. In a
PA, impedances control how much power is delivered to the output and how much
gain and noise are produced in the process, therefore matching network is critical for
maximum performance.
One aspect that's sometimes overlooked is the power dissipation in the output
matching circuit. This power is lost in the capacitors, inductors, and other lossy
elements that are part of the matching network. This "dissipation loss" degrades the
PA's efficiency and output power capability.
Different implementations of the output match result in different losses and there are
still significant design tradeoffs to be made between bandwidth and dissipation loss.
For a PA, the loss of the output match is always a concern because of the large power
levels involved.
A capacitor's quality factor is reversal proportional to its capacitance. To minimize the
dissipation loss of the output match, it's therefore necessary to design the output
match with the lowest possible value of C. The tradeoff is between bandwidth and
dissipation loss.
Different capacitor technologies give different losses when used in output matching
circuits.
One way of understanding the loss mechanisms of an output match and to don’t mix
up mismatch loss and dissipation loss, is to simulate the match with loss-less
components, then introduce loss into one component at a time.
Because the dissipation loss doesn't depend on the source impedance it's possible to
use S21 to find the correct dissipation loss in a circuit simulation. The procedure
involves using the complex conjugate of the simulated load line as the source
impedance.
Running at a low efficiency not only reduces talk time in a portable device, but it also
creates significant problems with heating and reliability.
The load line is set based on the needed Power Amplifier output power and available
supply voltage. For example low voltage PA’s (~3.5V for mobile devices) have a load
line ranging from 1 to 5 Ω.
RL = Vmax / Imax
Matching for maximum Gain occurs when the amplifier is unconditional stable and
load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the same source impedance
(conjugate matching). Complex conjugate simply refers to complex impedance having
the same real part with an opposite reactance.
e.g. - if the source impedance is Zs=R+jX, then its complex conjugate would be Zs*=R-jX
If matched: Zin = Zo, Γs = S11*, and Zout = Zo, ΓL = S22*
Matching for maximum Output Power occurs when Optimum Load impedance (RL) is
equal to Source impedance (Rgen). In order to obtain maximum output power, typically
the power amplifier is not conjugate matched. Instead, the load is designed such that
the amplifier has the correct voltage and current to deliver the required power.
If operation is at the optimal Power Added Efficiency point, optimal-power tuning
produces about 1 dB to 3 dB of higher power. Gain is reduced (for small Pin) typically
by a slightly smaller amount.
The transistor’s input and output impedances will also decrease with an increase in
frequency, which further complicates the design of a PA’s matching networks,
especially since these impedances can be as low as 0.5 Ω. Thus, when matching a
discrete driver stage to its PA with maximum efficiency, we would normally want to
implement a direct match from the true output impedance of the driver to the true input
impedance of the PA, instead of first forming a 50-Ω match at the output of the driver,
and then another 50-Ω match for the input of the power amplifier, as this would
needlessly transform the impedances from low to high, and then back from high to
low.
By selecting a transistor with a high collector voltage requirement, we can increase its
output impedance over a transistor that operates at lower values of collector voltage.
Output matching network for most high-powered amplifiers should normally consist of
the T type, rather than the PI type. PI matching networks for high powered amplifiers
sometimes result in unrealistic component values when matching for the higher
operating frequencies encountered into a 50 Ω load. Indeed, T networks are capable
of much higher-frequency operation before this becomes a major problem. Both T and
PI networks can be used, however, if the output impedance of the transistor is higher
than its load.
It is possible to increase the bandwidth by using a higher order of output matching
network. For example, instead of an L network, a double-L network can be used to
convert first to an intermediate impedance, and then to the final value.
Smith Chart representation for maximum gain and power matching
The value of load resistance is dependent upon power level required and is given by:
where,
VCC = the supply voltage
VSAT = the saturation voltage of the transistor
P = the output power level required in Watts
Note that this equation provides only the load resistance, when usually in the datasheets the
manufacturer provides values of shunt output capacitance vs frequency for the RF power
transistor.
Power Amplifier Bias Design
There are many different ways to bias an amplifier, depending on the required
temperature stability, efficiency, cost, device, power output, linearity, and so on.
In the above example, all diodes and transistors are assumed to be at the same
temperature. As temperature rises, VD falls, reducing VBE and keeping I constant.
Reflected power caused by a high VSWR condition between a PA and its load does
not, in and of itself, cause a transistor’s destruction or damage. Rather, a PA can be
damaged or destroyed in a high VSWR environment simply because it is now looking
at completely different load impedance than it was designed for.
High device power dissipation can then produce elevated heating of the transistor
and/or excessively high voltages.
Some of the DC bias voltage would be wasted if the resistance in the chokes were too
high. Also the collector chokes must supply a very high impedance to the RF. If this
impedance is not high enough, then some of the valuable RF output power generated
by the PA will be wasted.
Use low-ESR electrolytic capacitors at the PA’s power supply, as this type of capacitor
can immediately supply the needed current to the amplifier stage, and without pulling
down the entire voltage supply during this critical transient turn-on time.
When in saturation, a nonlinear PA’s gain, PAE, and linearity are most affected by the
reflections of its own harmonics back into its output port. These reflections are caused
by the next stage, which will normally be a band-pass or low-pass filter, as well as an
antenna.
Instability in RF amplifiers can take the form of oscillations at almost any frequency,
and may even damage or destroy the transistor. These spurious oscillations will arise
at specific or very wide ranging, frequency or frequencies, and over a particular bias,
drive level, temperature, or output load impedance.
RF PA oscillation problems can be broadly categorized into two kinds:
Bias oscillations and RF oscillations.
Bias oscillations occur at low frequencies, in the MHz to VHF range, and are caused
by inappropriate and unintentional terminations at those frequencies by the bias
insertion circuitry, such as the addition of a large-value decoupling capacitors.
The oscillations have little to do with the details of the RF matching circuitry, where the
RF blocking and decoupling capacitors become open circuit terminations at lower
frequencies.
RF oscillations, on the other hand, typically occur either in band or commonly out of
band but still quite close to the desired bandwidth from the low frequency side.
Decreasing the low-frequency gain of a PA stage, which is naturally at an increased
level, will assist in amplifier stability.
The unavailability of a sufficient ground-plane, or a ground-plane that is excessively
segmented, can create uncontrollable instability in a PA.
LDMOS and GaN (Gallium Nitride) devices are best suited for the output and driver
stages because of higher gain, improved linearity, and very low on-resistance. High gain
reduces the number of stages needed in the amplifier to attain the same output power,
compared to the old generation systems built with bipolar transistors.
In a multi-stage linear power amplifier there are various factors that need to be considered
for choosing the right transistor for each of the stages of the amplifier.
The pre-driver is biased Class-A for attaining consistent performance for minimal
effect on the linearity of the device due to minor changes in bias supply. Drain
efficiency is not as much of a concern for the pre-driver as it is for the latter stages in
the amplifier. The driver and the output stage for such a system are typically biased
Class AB, for achieving best tradeoff between linearity and efficiency of the amplifier.
The most common method used to determine the linearity of a transistor is to
characterize the Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) measured with two tones spaced.
Typically, tone spacing up to 20 MHz should be used while tuning amplifiers for wide-
band modulation applications.
When transistors are used significantly backed-off from their peak power levels, it is all
the more necessary that the IMD characteristics of the transistor at lower output power
levels be taken into account. The profile of an IMD vs. Pout (drive-up) curve for a good
transistor should have a large positive slope, even while attaining similar peak power
capability, to get maximum Adjacent Channel Power Ratio (ACPR).
The transistor used in the driver stage has similar linearity requirements as the output
stage. In terms of ACPR, it needs be operated at an output power that gives a margin
of at least 4 dB from the maximum allowed value for the output stage. In addition, it
needs to have an input bandwidth about 2 to 2.5 times greater than the bandwidth of
the modulating signal in order to maintain constant group delay and flat gain.
One of the major factors determining the performance of the high power transistor in
the wide modulation environment is the gain flatness. The transistor needs to have a
flat gain across the band for its use in multiple channel amplifiers. Very flat gain
response greatly simplifies the design of linearization schemes systems.
Fast roll-off of gain at the edges of the band causes deterioration in the ACPR
performance.
To attain the intrinsic device linearity, the 3 dB bandwidth of bias networks needs to be
at least two times greater than the modulation bandwidth.
For attaining best ACPR response, it is necessary to have an excellent decoupling
network at the Drain of the transistor, down to very low modulation frequencies. This
can be achieved by using a high quality shunt capacitor. This technique helps in
achieving maximal gain flatness, which is very critical for wideband applications.
It is advisable to avoid ferrite components in the biasing network and to use a series
resistor on the Gate bias network to prevent instability. To achieve flat gain response
across the band, the traditional inductive feed should be avoided on both the Gate and
Drain. Instead, a quarter wave line at the frequency of interest, properly decoupled
with a chip-capacitor, has been shown to provide very flat gain across the entire
bandwidth.
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