Fumi Awonuga NUCLEAR FUSION If light nuclei are forced together, they will fuse and energy will

be released because the mass of the combination will be less than the sum of the masses of the individual nuclei. the fusion reaction of two (or more) nuclei with masses greater than iron is endothermic

Matter is converted to energy according to Einstein's mass-energy equation E=mc2. The fusion of two nuclei with lower masses than iron (which, along with nickel, has the largest binding energy per nucleon) generally releases energy, while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron absorbs energy. The opposite is true for the reverse process, nuclear fission. This means that fusion generally occurs for lighter elements only, and likewise, that fission normally occurs only for heavier elements. mass defect = mass of reactants - mass of products LIMITATIONS

Temperatures in the order of billions of degrees are needed to start nuclear fusion. Although this can be achieved, it is difficult and certainly is not possible for any large scale commercial venture. There is no material that can be used to withstand such temperatures. And the process itself, once initiated, is likewise difficult to control. Scientists have not yet been able to contain a fusion reaction long enough for there to be a net energy gain. Many countries are phasing out fusion research because of the failure to reach a breakthrough

Fumi Awonuga NULEAR FISSION In nuclear fission larger nuclei will split up to produce smaller nuclei (more like iron) and give out energy in doing so. In both fusion and fusion products have a higher binding energy per nucleon than at the start of nuclei. This means that they are more tightly bound so there is less mass per nucleon. This drop in mass is realised as mass energy.

When a stray neutron strikes a 235U nucleus, it is at first absorbed into it. This creates 236U. 236U is unstable and this causes the atom to fission. The fissioning of 236U can produce over twenty different products. 235U + 1 neutron 235U + 1 neutron 2 neutrons + 92Kr + 142Ba + ENERGY 2 neutrons + 92Sr + 140Xe + ENERGY

The more stable nuclides have higher Binding Energy/A than the less stable ones. Using the binding energy curve, we can estimate the energy released in this fission process. Fusing two nuclei of very small mass, such as hydrogen, will create a more massive nucleus and release a small amount of mass which appears as energy. Meanwhile, fissioning elements of great mass, like uranium, will create two lower-mass and more stable nuclei while losing mass in the form of kinetic and/or radiant energy. Advantages * relatively little fuel is needed and the fuel is relatively inexpensive and available in trace amounts around the world. * Fission is not believed to contribute to global warming or other pollution Disadvantages * Possibility of nuclear meltdown from uncontrolled reaction--leads to nuclear fallout with potentially harmful effects on civilians * Waste products can be used to manufacture weapons

Fumi Awonuga NUCLEAR REACTOR Fuel, made up of heavy atoms that split when they absorb neutrons, is placed into the reactor vessel (basically a large tank) along with a small neutron source. The neutrons start a chain reaction where each atom that splits releases more neutrons that cause other atoms to split. Each time an atom splits, it releases large amounts of energy in the form of heat. The heat is carried out of the reactor by coolant, which is most commonly just plain water. The coolant heats up and goes off to a turbine to spin a generator or drive shaft.

Control Rods: To slow the fission reaction to prevent the reactor from blowing up in an uncontrolled nuclear explosion. The control rods absorb excess neutrons that would otherwise split additional fuel atoms . If there is a failure in the control rods system, gravity pulls them down completely into the reactore core, where they will absorb all neutrons and shut down the reaction. The moderator is there to slow down the neutrons produced by fission. These are produced with high energy, that is they move fast, but Uranium235 has a capture cross section much greater for slow neutrons, so they need to be slowed down to make the chain reaction more efficient.

Ethical And Environmental Issues Concerns about the safety of nuclear fission include possibility of radiation-releasing nuclear accidents, the problem of radioactive waste disposal and the possibility of contributing to production of nuclear weapon.

http://www.a-levelphysicstutor.com/nucphys-fusion.php http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/fission/fission.html http://science.howstuffworks.com/fusion-reactor1.htm http://www.enel.com/en-GB/group/production/nuclear_power/operation/parts.aspx?it=0