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Passages:

The Neolithic passage grave as tiered cosmos

Elizabeth A. McCormack
University of Reading MA Archaeology Archaeology Department September 20, 2007

Dedicated to Russell Chaffee


All the gods, all the heavens, all the worlds, are within us.
Joseph Campbell

I am extremely grateful to the following people for their love and support: Mom, Dad, Suzanne and Kara McCormack of the McCormack clan; Steve Hempstead for laughing at just the right moments; Birdie and Nina for waiting; Steven Taylor, Alan Hartway, and Priscilla Inkpen of Naropa for their faith and encouragement; Julian Thomas for letting me come along; Colin Richards for the luxurious tent; Andrew Selkirk for being interested; Andy Johnson of Logaston Press, who has done more for me than he could ever possibly know; Miss Rita for sharing her Montgomery haven; Miss Jess for late-night chat-fests; Annette Baus for endless cups of coffee; Scott Walley for reading and critiquing looooooooooong excerpts; Lone Mountain Archaeology for giving me a job (!!!); the cast of Hollyoaks for easing the pain; all my wonderful classmates and friends at Reading University; and Linda Hulin, Rob Hosfield, Margaret Mathews, and especially Richard Bradley, Fay Stevens, Wendy Matthews, and Heinrich Hrke for their kindness, patience, and generosity toward an American in the rain

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................1 List of Figures ..............................................................................................................3 List of Tables ................................................................................................................3 Introduction .................................................................................................................4 Consciousness and the tiered cosmos......................................................................6 Introduction to Consciousness..............................................................................6 Overview of the Limbic System........................................................................6 Brain-wave Oscillations .....................................................................................6 Alpha:................................................................................................................7 Gamma: ............................................................................................................7 Theta: 4-8 Hz....................................................................................................7 Altered States of Consciousness ...........................................................................8 Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions ........................................8 Hallucination .......................................................................................................9 Extrasomatic Experience ....................................................................................9 Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States.......................................................9 The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos................................................................10 The 3-stage model .............................................................................................10 Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos ................................................................14 Association with ASC...........................................................................................14 Entoptics .............................................................................................................14 Neolithic Entoptics....................................................................................16 Audial Phenomena ...........................................................................................18 Drumming and Ritual ..................................................................................18 Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents ..............................................18 Standing Waves and Traveling Sound ..................................................19 Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance ..........................................................19 Music at the Graves?.....................................................................................20 Optical Effects in the Passage Graves ............................................................21 Neurology of flickering light.......................................................................21 Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?22 Conclusion .....................................................................................................23 Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?..........................................................24 Introduction: ......................................................................................................24 Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to elements of architecture ...................................................................................24 Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of the dead.................................................................................................................26 Newgrange.................................................................................................27 Knowth .......................................................................................................28 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................29 Knockmany ................................................................................................30 Fourknocks.................................................................................................30 1

Loughcrew .................................................................................................30 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................31 Passage as vortex...........................................................................................32 Newgrange.................................................................................................33 Knowth .......................................................................................................35 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................35 Knockmany ................................................................................................36 Fourknocks.................................................................................................36 Loughcrew .................................................................................................37 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................38 Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead .............................39 Newgrange.................................................................................................40 Newgrange Summary...............................................................................42 Knowth .......................................................................................................43 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................45 Knockmany ................................................................................................47 Fourknocks.................................................................................................48 Loughcrew .................................................................................................50 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................52 Leaving the Tomb .........................................................................................53 Newgrange.................................................................................................54 Knowth .......................................................................................................54 Barclodiad y Gawres.................................................................................55 Knockmany ................................................................................................55 Fourknocks:................................................................................................55 Loughcrew .................................................................................................55 Summary and Discussion ........................................................................58 Discussion: .....................................................................................................59 Artwork and composition................................................................................59 Motifs emphasize architectural elements ..................................................59 Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living ..........................................................................................................................60 Complex motifs as traps...........................................................................62 Simple motifs as guides ...........................................................................63 Data and findings......................................................................................64 Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................70 Area A: Visible at entrance.....................................................................71 Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber .................................71 Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc. ................................................................................................72 Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting ......................74 Conclusion ...............................................................................................75 Discussion ......................................................................................................76 Conclusion and Discussion .....................................................................................77 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................81 Appendix....................................................................................................................88

List of Figures
Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt. Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones . Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage Figure 6: Newgrange L19 Figure 7: Knockmany C6 . Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber ........... Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds .. Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z .. Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab .. Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials ... Figure 13: Knowth Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 . Figure 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds .. Figure 15 Barclodiad y Gawres Left recess back wall, Right rec. back wall Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 . Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A . Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill .. Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 . Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 ... Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb ... Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 ... Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 . Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 ... Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones.. Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs . Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 . Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 .. Figure 31: Areas A and B ... Figure 32: Area C Figure 33: Area D Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area .. Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb . Figure 36: Stones with low ci.. Figure 37: Stones with mid ci.. Figure 38: Stones with high ci. Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 ... Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions... 17 26 27 28 32 34 36 40 41 42 43 43 44 44 46 47 49 49 50 51 51 52 54 55 56 56 57 58 58 64 65 65 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 75

List of Tables
Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt Table 2: Elements of the passage . Table 3: Elements of the chambers ..... Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress ..... Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb Table 6: CI of hidden compositions 31 39 53 58 66 73

Introduction
The aim of this paper is to prove that the Neolithic passage graves under consideration are reifications of the tiered cosmos. They exhibit many characteristics in common including an association with Altered States of Consciousness, the inclusion of several perceptual and physical realms, and the experience of movement or a journey into the realm of the ancestors. Passage tombs were in use in Britain and Ireland from the early fourth millennium until some time in the third millennium (Dronfield 1996a, 37). Constructed of megaliths, their design typically includes an entrance or portal often fronted by a forecourt, a passage, and an inner chamber consisting of one or more cells. The entire construction is generally surmounted by a cairn. This construction has been seen as an iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos (Lewis Williams and Pearce 2005, 279). The tiered cosmos is thought to be a perceptual manifestation of the neurologically generated tunnel, 3-stages of ASC, and extrasomatic and other disorienting experiences resulting from ASC (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87; LewisWilliams and Pearce 2005, 85-86). As subjects move through the intensifying spectrum of ASC they pass from an ordinary reality, move through the vortex/tunnel, and arrive at an altered reality often featuring spirits and ancestors. These realms have manifested in shamanism and many of the worlds religions as aspects of a tiered cosmos comprising the realm of the living, the access route to, and the realm of the dead. The architectural areas of passage grave construction bear a striking resemblance to those realms comprising the tiered cosmos. The realm of the living is represented by the forecourt and entrance, the vortex by the passage, and the realm of the dead by the chamber (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268). In order to prove that the passage graves under consideration are iconographic replicas of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a sufficient number of characteristics are shared. These include: an association with

ASC (inductive or reflective elements including the presence of entoptic motifs), comparable internal locations, and similar functions in society. We will look at Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I, L, T, U, and Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, selected due to their inclusion of megalithic art. To illustrate an association with ASC, we will examine audial and optic phenomena in order to determine if these were utilized within the tombs. We will examine the presence of entoptic motifs. Finally, we will demonstrate that the realms of the tiered cosmos are physically manifested in the architecture. We will then examine Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H, I, L, S, T, and U in order to determine whether the artwork facilitates movement through the passage for both the living and the deceased. Some of this will rely on Gells (1998) argument that complex motifs serve as apotropaic devices, preventing the passage of the observer. If it can be shown that there is artwork present in the tombs that is in communication with the deceased, then the tomb, or at least the chamber, may be thought of as a realm of the dead perceptually and physically separate from the land of the living, or the outside world. Rather than as a repository for human remains, Neolithic people may have perceived the tomb as an alternate realm through which the ancestors moved and functioned concurrently with the living community. This is a very similar concept to the shamanic realm of the dead within the tiered cosmos. This may have been a very important component of Neolithic ideology, facilitating social cohesion in a time of economic change.

Consciousness and the tiered cosmos


This section will give a general overview of the brain processes involved in Altered States of Consciousness (ASC). The neurophysiological conditions brought about by ASC induction may result in hallucination, states of religious awe and/or Absolute Unitary Being (AUB) that effect the long-term consciousness of the individual, including enhanced memory formation, associative learning, and social behaviour. These are thought to be the origin of ritual practice and religion.

Introduction to Consciousness
Overview of the Limbic System
In cognitive processes related to spiritual and communal behaviour and consciousness, the most active area of the brain is the Limbic system. The limbic system is the most ancient part of the brain, providing the foundation for the brain's evolution and development. It is located in the temporal lobe, connected to the prefrontal cortex. It is responsible for monitoring and regulating emotion, orienting the self in space, sexual and social behaviour, motivation, learning and memory, internal homeostasis, and basic bodily needs such as hunger and thirst (Pare et al 2002, 306). It assigns emotional significance to stimuli. When an experience is attached to a high emotional value, it is more successfully encoded as a memory (Strange and Dolan 2004, 11454). The limbic system is also responsible for homeostasis within the brain, regulating the quiescent and arousal reactions generated by the autonomic nervous system (Joseph 1988, 633; Newberg et. al. 2001, 45). It performs these functions partially via hormone secretion (a physical reward system) (Newberg et al 2001, 45). Structures in the limbic system include the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, septal nuclei, and cingulate gyrus (Wikipedia).

Brain-wave Oscillations
The gray matter of the brain is comprised of neurons (nerve cells) relaying information in the form of electrical activity between one another. Adjoining, interconnected neurons embedded within the same area of the brain comprise local neural networks. (Russell, 1996; Nunez 2000, 372). Sets of neural networks comprise areas such as the frontal lobes, the auditory cortex, etc. 6

When neural networks fire electrical information in rhythm as a group, they are described as oscillating synchronously (Wang et al 1987, 9467). These oscillations are the dynamic processes responsible for cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and consciousness (Nunez 2000, 3; Miltner et al 1999, 435). An EEG or MEG traces the frequency (Hz) of electrical activity at the surface of the skull (Ward 2003). The frequencies relating to ASC are as follows:

Alpha: 8-13 Hz.


Alpha frequencies are linked to distraction-suppression function (Jensen et al 2002). Alpha waves appear to suppress cortical activity in areas of the brain that are not being used to focus on stimuli (Ward 2003). Musicians listening to music, meditators, and cannabis users under the influence of cannabis also exhibit increased alpha activity related to intense concentration (Ward 2003; Corby et al 1978, 575).

Gamma: 30-70 Hz.


Gamma oscillations are always found during synchronous oscillations across brain areas and in conjunction with other frequencies (Lutz et al 2004, 16370). They are thought to be instrumental in communication between global neural networks and as such are crucial to processing multiple stimuli, forming memory, language, and associative learning (Llinas and Pare 1991, 533; Miltner et al 1999, 434).

Theta: 4-8 Hz
Theta frequencies are linked to the encoding and retrieval of working and long-term memory, especially during states of emotional arousal (Pare et al 2002, 314, Peterson 2007, 217). Thus, amygdala and hippocampal theta frequencies facilitate consolidation of emotionally arousing memories (Pare et al 2002, 310; Strange and Dolan 2004, 11456). Theta states are also directly related to hallucinatory, dream-like images experienced in hypnogogic states (the twilight state between sleep and wakefulness), certain types of meditation, especially visualization meditations, and hypnosis (Wallace 1970, 1753, Budzynski 1977).

Altered States of Consciousness


Induction Methods and Physiological Conditions
ASC is related to alterations of brain systems associated with the regulation of consciousness, arousal and selective attention (Vaitl et al 2005, 115). During normal, waking states, everyday consciousness and subjective reality depends upon continuous neural processes. According to Vaitl (2005, 117), this requires intact brain tissue, metabolic homeostasis, a moderate level of arousal, a balanced interplay of inhibitory and excitatory networks, and midrange environmental conditions. As soon as one of these prerequisites for reliable assembly formation is lacking, alterations of consciousness are likely to occur." An interruption or breakdown of gamma activity results in a breakdown of the connectivity between neural networks, causing cell assemblies to operate as functionally independent units. This may be a basis for altered states of consciousness (Vaitl et al 2005, 116). If gamma frequencies occur in conjunction with theta frequencies, vivid imagery and hallucination will result. ASC occurs in many situations, may be induced by a number of different causes, and manifests itself in a variety of ways, ranging from mild dissociative to deep hallucinatory states. ASC inductors include psychotropic substances, meditation, hypnosis, physical disorders, rhythmic stimuli, dance, sensory deprivation, sensory homogenization, and sensory overload. ASC may also be induced by any number of spontaneously occurring events such as daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming, and near death experience (Vaitl et al 2005, 111). ASC may also be caused by the depletion of Carbon Dioxide (Vaitl et al 2005, 104). Confinement to small places may result in hypercapnia, which involves a rise in Carbon Dioxide. Hypercapnia may be causative to near-death experiences such as body detachment and perception of being drawn toward a bright light (Vaitl et al 2005, 105). This may be relevant to the experience of being in a chambered tomb, particularly if a fire is alight within the space, further increasing Carbon dioxide levels in proportion to oxygen levels within the tomb.

Hallucination
Siegal (1977, 132) defines hallucination as "A false sensory perception in the absence of an actual external stimulus." Characteristic of hallucination are magnified emotion and a breakdown of self-other boundaries. As a result, visual and audial hallucinations are perceived as originating from outside the body. A sense that one's own self is outside the body is also a common perception. Magnified emotions in conjunction with theta states cause the subject to perceive and remember this experience as profound. This may be related to the formation of religious belief. MRI readings indicate that brain activities taking place during hallucination occur in the limbic system and visual cortex (Vaitl et al 2005, 113). The breakdown in gamma activity causes the subject to be unable to process perceived stimuli in an ordinary manner, and therefore the brain provides alternative explanations or understandings of these stimuli (a tree branch is matched to a memory template of a serpent and is therefore perceived as such) (Vaitl et al 2005, 212).

Extrasomatic Experience
A common occurrence of ASC is the out-of-body experience. This experience is seen again and again in shamanic and other rituals, manifesting as flying, ascension and traveling to alternate spatial dimensions. The part of the brain that is responsible for extrasomatic action movement through the environment based on ocular and somatomotor function is disrupted (Vaitl et al 2005,113). Previc (2006, 510) postulates that hallucinations, like dreams, represent "the triumph of the extrapersonal systems over the body-oriented or peripersonal systems." The hippocampus is thought to be the source of specific hallucinations such as the visualizations of astral projection or seeing oneself floating above the body (Joseph 1998, 2000). Some patients report not only floating, but of being embraced by a light and taken to a vast realm of fantastic proportions where they are given access to knowledge of the nature of life and death (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515).

Hyperquiescent and Hyperarousal States


The autonomic nervous system maintains equilibrium in the body through the alternating interactions of the quiescent (parasympathetic) and arousal (sympathetic)

subsystems. In altered states of consciousness, both systems are pushed beyond mundane activity. When neural input is depressed (quiescent), as with sensory deprivation, the limbic system, in an attempt to maintain equilibrium, enhances neural flow (arousal), causing hyperawareness of stimuli. When neural input is intensified due to increased stimulation, the limbic system inhibits neural flow. When either the quiescent or the arousal system is maximally stimulated, a "spillover effect" occurs, causing stimulation of the other, normally antagonistic, system (Newberg et al 2001, 41). For example, in meditation and slow chant, quiescent activity can result in feelings of peace and unity, but when quiescent activity reaches optimum levels, a rush of energy may occur. "Someone who experiences this state while concentrating upon some object a candle for example, or a cross may feel as if he were being absorbed into that object" (Newberg et al 2001, 41). Similarly, peak arousal states may cause a surge in quiescent systems. For example, someone engaged in energetic dancing or singing may experience an ecstatic rush of energy, attention and intention that ultimately becomes a state of trancelike bliss (Newberg et al 2001, 42). Newberg et al (2001, 42) hypothesize that ritual could lead to the maximal discharge of both systems, causing hallucinations, mystical visions, or a state of Absolute Unitary Being (AUB). This is the unitary experience in which there is no perceived separation between spirits/gods/ancestors/spiritual realms, the universe, conspecifics and the self. This is the primary goal of religious ritual (Newberg et. al. 2001, 87).

The origin of the multi-tiered cosmos


The tiered cosmos as a function of the neurologically-generated tunnel together with the 3 stages of ASC and extrasomatic experience is thought to be at the root of shamanism and later spiritual practices (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87; Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86).

The 3-stage model


Drawing on the work of Siegel (1977; cf Siegel and Jarvik 1975), Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988) postulate that the experience of altered states of consciousness occurs

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in 3 stages (although not all subjects experience all three). The stages should be thought of as cumulative, each stage building on the last. Stage 1: Upon entering ASC, the subject experiences geometric visual precepts generated within the eye and optic system (Siegal 1977, 132). Images may include lattices, parallel lines, circles, and dots. These may be experienced as "animated, luminous percepts that fragment, replicate, reduplicate and rotate in the field of vision" (Blundell 1998, 10). These images are not culturally biased as they arise from the structure of the nervous system (Siegel 1977, 132-4). Stage 2: As the subject moves deeper into ASC, geometric images are interpreted, becoming elaborated into iconic forms (Horowitz 1975: 177, 178, 181). Geometric motifs are cognitively matched against a store of experience or mental template. If a fit is affected, the image is recognized as an iconic image (e.g. a meandering line is recognized as a serpent) (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 203). Stage 3: In this stage the subject is drawn into the hallucination, perceiving it as real. Visual imagery is iconic, based almost entirely on cultural bias. These may involve more than the visual sense. The subject often interacts with the hallucinated images. Entoptic motifs may persist, often providing a backdrop against which iconic imagery is projected (Siegel 1977, 134). Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988, 204) report a tunnel or vortex experience occurring between stages. Horowitz (1975, 178) describes this as the transition between the perception of entoptics and the manipulation of these into iconics. Laboratory subjects reported that the vortex or rotating tunnel seems to surround them (Horowitz 1975, 178). The sides or walls of the vortex may be marked by entoptic motifs, particularly a lattice of squares similar to television screens (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204). The first iconic hallucinations appear as images on these screens, eventually superseding the vortex as entoptics transform to iconic images and the subject becomes immersed in Stage 3 hallucination (Siegel and Jarvik 1975, 127, 143; Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204).

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The tunnel/vortex experience may be attributable to the V5 area of the visual cortex in which moving visual stimuli are analyzed in order that the subject may navigate through her environment (Dronfield 1996a, 40). Motion processing in V5 is carried out via response to four basic motion types: expansion/contraction; rotation; spiraling; and translation (linear motion). ASC may precipitate the spontaneous firing of V5 neurons. These neurons process the entoptic motifs occurring in the first stage of ASC, resulting in a moving, rotating, spiraling tunnel. This area may also be responsible for spiral motif (Dronfield 1996a, 40). The idea that the vortex is an access route to another realm is supported by the perception that the subject leaves the body during ASC. During ASC, theta:gamma states affect the limbic and bodily orientation systems, and is experienced as extrasomatic, hyperquiescent and/or hyperarousal states (Vaitl et al 2005, 212). This occurs in conjunction with the spontaneous firing of the V5 area during ASC, resulting in the combined experience of a tunnel and a sense of traveling outside of the body. This may be responsible for the subjects perception that she is traveling through the tunnel to another realm. Additionally, in this state, the subject is more liable to accept as reality the perceptions that s/he is able to traverse alternate realms where s/he is able to interact with otherworldly beings (Siegel 1977, 134; Newberg et. al. 2001, 87). The tunnel/vortex experience is crucial to the understanding of shamanism and the tiered cosmos, which may have implications as to the origins of religion in general. The tiered cosmos is characterized by the perception that reality can be divided into realms: e.g., the realm of the living, and the realm of the dead. As subjects move through the intensifying spectrum of ASC, they pass from an ordinary reality, through the vortex/tunnel, and arrive at an alternate reality featuring iconic imagery which the subject perceives as real. Often a bright light is associated with the end of the tunnel, enhancing the perception that it is the entrance to a sacred realm (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204). Often the subject interacts with spirits or deceased loved ones while in deep ASC, emphasizing the perception that the altered reality is the realm of the dead (Rhawn 1996, 3; Previc 2006, 515). Lewis-Williams (2002, 145) suspects that the tunnel experience is the origin of the common belief that an underground passage leads to a subterranean realm of the dead. 12

The notion of tunnels as interfaces between dimensions of reality is present in myths and beliefs associated with shamanic practice (Dronfield 1996a, 39). Dronfield (1996a, 39-45) cites several ethnographic examples of tunnels as access routes to the dead. These include San, Bwiti, Tukano, Huichol, and others. Furst (1972, 150) relates a Huichol myth in which the shaman accompanies the Huichol children on a journey to the land of the Great Mother and ancestral gods. The peyote deer deity allows them access by holding back the clouds while the bird-children fly quickly through the passage (Furst 1972, 150). This tiered cosmos is the realm of the shaman or spiritual practitioner, one who acts as a go-between for the living community and the ancestors or spirits. A shaman, according to Michael Harner (1973, xi) is "a man or a woman who is in direct contact with the spirit world through a trance state." This is accomplished by the over-riding feature of Shamanism, which is its association with ASC. The shaman induces a trance state, or ASC, using hallucinogenic drugs or other methods. This facilitates access to the tiered cosmos via the tunnel/vortex and 3 stages of ASC, providing the opportunity for interactions with the supernatural (Harner 1973, xii).

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Passage Grave as Multi-Tiered Cosmos


Lewis Williams and Pearce (2005, 279) argue that Neolithic passage graves were an iconographic replica of the tiered cosmos. The world of the living is represented most often by a forecourt at the entrance to the tomb, where ceremonies could be viewed by the larger community. Most of the public would never venture past the entrance stone demarcating the boundary between outside/inside. The authors contend that passages were perceived as routes between the realms of the cosmos, through which the decedent, accompanied by celebrants, would travel to the land of the dead. The chambers, with deposits of human remains, may have been perceived as the land of the dead (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 268). In order to prove that passage graves are iconographic replicas of the neurologicallygenerated tiered cosmos, it must be shown that a sufficient number of characteristics are shared. These include: an association with ASC (the presence of entoptic motifs and other inductive or reflective elements), an association with the dead, and comparable internal locations.

Association with ASC


Entoptics
A similarity between entoptic motifs and British, Irish, and Breton Neolithic megalithic art has been noted by several archaeologists (e.g., Bradley 1989; Patton 1990; Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b; Hodgson 2001; Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005). If these megalithic motifs could be confidently shown to be entoptic, then an association between Neolithic spiritual practices and ASC could be inferred. Siegal (1977, 132) noticed in anthropological reports that the hallucinogen-inspired art of many peoples often contains constants in form, colour and movement (Siegal 1977, 138). These are generated by the optic and nervous systems and comprise a set of motifs known as entoptic (Siegal and Jarvik 1975, 81-104) In 1988, Lewis-Williams and Thomas Dowson published the seminal paper on the neuropsychological model of art interpretation based on entoptics. Theirs was a twopronged approach, applying neuropsychology to ethnographic accounts and 14

interpretations of the art. Neuropsychological research explains form of motifs, while ethnography may help explain the meaning (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 201). The authors proposed a model comprising 6 entoptic form types, 7 principles governing their perception, and 3 stages of the progression of ASC. They applied this model to 3 artistic traditions known ethnographically to be shamanic (Tukano, Coso Range and San). This was then applied to Upper Palaeolithic, western European art (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 202). The six entoptic categories are present to differing proportions in Coso, Tukano and San art (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 205). The second and third components of the model, the principles of perception (in which images are integrated, superimposed, juxtaposed, fragmented and reduplicated with one another) and the three-stages of ASC (see above), were found to apply to Coso, Tukano and San artwork. This is evidence to the authors that the art has shamanic origins. They conclude that artwork bearing these characteristics can, in the absence of ethnographic material, be considered to have shamanic origins. Lewis-Williams and Dowson's primary critic is Bednarik (1990, 78). Of particular contention is the link between shamanism and phosphenes/entoptics. Bednarik points out that although all humans use phosphenes daily, "that does not make us shamans!" (Bednarik 1990, 79). Bahn has the same criticism (Bahn 1988:217). Hodgson (2000) counters this critique by suggesting a neurological association between mark-making and ASC. Human visual perception is facilitated by two primary systems. The more primitive magno system organizes the visual world by detecting and interpreting lines distinguishing individual objects from one another. This enables an animal to navigate through its environment, catch prey, and avoid predators (Hodgson 2000, 868). The perception of lines, outlines, and form would have been critical for survival and, over time, specifically selected for. The production and repetition of geometric shapes may be a fundamental propensity in humans that is rewarded with pleasurable feelings of of mastery, security, and relief from anxiety" promoting the development of important survival skills. Importantly, Hodgson (2000, 868) goes on to say that this reward system may facilitate ASC. Engagement in a visually creative act is said to produce a hyperreality experience akin to that produced 15

by trance or drug inducement in that the artist is in a state of focused awareness detached from the outside world. The same effect is produced by focusing intently on an entoptic motif. This strengthens the argument for a neurological affiliation with the production of geometric motifs.

Neolithic Entoptics
Bradley (1989) and Patton (1990) suggest an application of Lewis-Williams and Dowsons model to the Irish, British, and Breton passage graves. Patton points out that culturally significant iconic motifs appear against a background of entoptics. This relates to stage 2 and 3 of Lewis-Williams and Dowsons model (Patton, 1990, 556). Bradley cautions that although none of these arts can prove Lewis-Williams and Dowsons case completely, there can be some light shed on some of the problems of interpretation, making their study a particularly persuasive one (Bradley 1989, 73). In 1993, Lewis-Williams and Dowson proposed an application of their model to megalithic art and its relationship to the tiered cosmos. Lewis-Williams and Dowson note that the placement of a body in a chambered tomb directly reflects the tiered cosmos generated during ASC. They argue that the placement of entoptic motifs at specific locations within the tombs emphasizes the association with specific components of ASC (Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1993, 60-61). The six entoptic types identified by Lewis-Williams and Dowson (1988) were selected from the range of motifs established by neurologists and psychologists (e.g. Kluver 1942; Knoll and Kluger 1959; Horowitz 1965). They are: 1. basic grid, development in lattice and expanding hexagonal pattern 2. sets of parallel lines 3. dots and short flecks 4. zigzag lines crossing field of vision 5. nested catenary curves 6. filigrees or thin, meandering lines

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Dronfield (1996b) argues that Lewis-Williams and Dowsons six entoptic forms are not reliable markers of ASC. He contends that their analysis failed to include and test against non-subjectively derived art (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He conducted his own investigation, comparing motifs from three groups: one which engages in ASC, one which occasionally engages in ASC, and one which does not. He confirmed that of Lewis-Williams and Dowsons six entoptic types, five (lattice, parallel line, dot, zigzag, arc) are undiagnostic of ASC (Dronfield 1996b, 386). He was able to determine motifs which can be confidently labeled as diagnostic endogenous. 7 motifs were found whose presence confirms ASC and endogenous images. Figure 1 shows Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic endogenous motifs.

Figure 1: Diagnostic endogenous and undiagnostic motifs (Dronfield 1995)

When he applied this model to Neolithic passage graves in the U.K. and Ireland (1995), he found that endogenous diagnostic types made up a large percentage of the motifs found therein. He concludes with approximately 80% confidence "that Irish passage-tomb art is fundamentally similar to (as opposed to merely resembling) arts derived from endogenous subjective vision, and fundamentally dissimilar to arts not

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so derived. Therefore, we can confidently conclude that Irish passage-tomb art was itself derived from endogenous visual phenomena" (Dronfield 1995, 545). The motifs in the passage graves of Britain and Ireland are shown to be entoptic, and therefore associated with ASC, although it is not here suggested that ASC or shamanism per se was being practiced at the tombs.

Audial Phenomena

Drumming and Ritual


Audial phenomena are associated with ASC. If the presence of audial phenomena can be shown at the tombs, this suggests a further association with ASC. Ethnographically, sound has been found to be closely associated with ritual (e.g. Jackson 1968). Repetitive drumbeats, as well as some sounds with certain qualities such as very low frequencies, may be inductive to transcendental states in which communication with spirits and travel to other realms becomes possible (Watson 2001, 187). Extended drumming is a common inductive element to trance states and ASC. Winkelman (1986) conducted a cross-cultural survey of 47 societies and reported that at least one shamanic practitioner in each community took part in ASC induced by auditory driving. 3-6 Hz are the most frequently reported rhythmic frequencies associated with shamanic rituals. These produce a theta-state in shamans and listeners resulting in ASC. Practitioners as far removed as Azande witch-doctors (EvansPritchard 1976, 76) and snake-handling Christians of the U.S. Appalachian mountains (Kane, 1974, 295) use drumming, chant, and rhythmic dance to enter trance and speak with the spirits.

Neurological Effects and Inductive Agents


Rhythms have been proven by scientists to effect brainwave frequencies of limbic system processes. This is based on sonic entrainment in which two or more rhythmic cycles become synchronized to each other over a period of time (Neher 1962).

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Neher considers alpha and theta brainwaves as necessary precursors to trance states (cf. Ward 2003). He asked if these could be induced by auditory driving, and found that alpha and theta frequencies associated with shaman-journey experiences including changes in time sense and body image, enhanced imagery, tunnel experiences, dissociation from the body, hallucination, absolute unitary states, and states of religious awe can be induced by monotonous drumming (Ward 2003; Newburgh; et. al. 2001, 86; Vaitl et al 2005, 107). Ethnographic evidence suggests a predominance of theta frequency in ritual drumming (Jilek 1982, 337; Maas and Strubelt 2003).

Standing Waves and Traveling Sound


In an ethnographic study of Chukchee shamen, it was found that in a crowded, confined room, the shaman is able to direct his voice and drum sounds to different parts of the room. The source of the sounds is lost, the song and drum shifting around the room seemingly on their own (Watson 2001, 186). This is accomplished through the use of standing waves. Standing waves are acoustic phenomena caused by the reflection of sound waves between solid walls producing zones of low or high intensity of sound as waves either cancel or combine. This phenomenon is certain to occur during any auditory event taking place at the passage graves, as the walls reflect sound waves (Watson and Keating 1998, 325). Speech becomes distorted to the point of becoming unintelligible or unrecognizable as human, and can appear to emanate from the body of the listener (Watson 2001, 186).

Infrasonics: Helmholtz resonance


Helmholtz Resonance is an acoustic effect boosting the volume of a frequency (blowing a particular frequency across the mouth of a glass bottle produces Helmholtz resonance). The structure of a passage grave, with its constricted passage opening into a central chamber potentially mirrors this effect (Watson 2001, 187). Watson and Keating (1999, 325) performed tests at several passage graves and found that repetitive drumming produced Helmholtz resonance. Larger tombs such as Newgrange and Knowth were found to have lower resonant frequencies of 1-2 Hz, requiring a slower drum-beat to evoke Helmholtz Resonance. Tombs having similar

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internal volumes will have similar frequencies despite differences in their layout (Watson and Keating 1999, 325). Devereux and Jahn (1996) suggest that deep male chanting could have resulted in Helmholtz resonance at Newgrange. Low frequencies such as would have been needed to produce the resonance at Newgrange, and amplified thus, can even result in trembling or shaking of the structure (Watson & Keating 2000, 261). Although such frequencies cannot be heard by human ears, they are capable of producing physiological effects that transcend the usual range of experience and may be described as supernatural (Watson 2001, 187). Symptoms include dizziness, headaches, pressure, extreme vibration and imbalance, feelings of ascent and modifications to breathing and pulse rate (Watson and Keating 1999, 333).

Music at the Graves?


Watson claims that passage graves provide an ideal environment to create auditory illusions (2001, 186). Inside the passage and the chambers, the structure of space and quality of construction materials effect sounds, creating unusual audial phenomena (Bradley, pers. comm.). The passage graves were probably not built specifically to provide a space for these phenomena, but their effects would have enhanced the magical qualities of these monuments (Watson 2001, 188). There has been no archaeological evidence for drumming or the use of other musical instruments at the passage graves under consideration. Based on internal area of the tombs, it seems likely that any rhythms used would have been on the low, slow side. There is not much room for whirling or other highly energetic trance dances, except possibly at Fourknocks, which has a fairly good-sized central chamber with a high corbelled roof. It seems to this author as if low, slow beats would have been utilized, along with chanting or other vocalizations, possibly in conjunction with optic stimuli such as a fire or small flame, inducing a mesmerizing, hypnotic alpha/theta state. Its possible that rhythmic events of a more energetic nature could have taken place at the entrance to the tomb. At a crucial moment, upon entering trance state, the

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practitioner could disappear into the darkness of the tomb in order to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the community. Sonic phenomena may have been perceived by listeners as originating in another realm, and would have reified the multi-tiered cosmos in a very credible way. In addition, the sounds themselves could have facilitated intercosmic travel via induction of altered consciousness.

Optical Effects in the Passage Graves


Inside the enclosed space of the passage grave, any artificial light would be distorted by the uneven surface of stones and cast flickering shadows over the artwork. Flickering light at 8-12 Hz has been shown to have psychoactive properties (Putz; et al. 2006, 167). Flicker-frequency depends on several factors including temperature, oxygen flow, and fuel source (wax, oil, wood, etc.). Application to the passage graves is necessarily speculative in the absence of archaeologically proven light sources. In any case, the unusual light would contribute to conditions of alternating neural flow resulting in ASC, deafferented orientation of the self and AUB.

Neurology of flickering light


Photic (light) stimulation causes entrainment at certain frequencies and induces visual imagery, dream-states, relaxation, euphoria, hyperquiescent and hyperarousal states. These occur most frequently with theta and alpha frequencies (Richardson and McAndrew, 1990, 381; Williams et al 1975, 520). The natural flicker frequency is approximately 10 Hz for a burner diameter of approximately 1 cm (Zhang and Megaridis, 1998). This is in the alpha frequency range, facilitating a state of calm and relaxation (Corby et al 1978, 575). Air currents, fuel source and size of burning surface and wick all effect the combustion flicker frequency (Huang et al 1999, 733). In a closed or enclosed space, air flow will be very low. This will cause a decrease in flicker frequency to theta (4-8 Hz), facilitating

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visions, dreamstates, hypnosis and hypnagogia (Wallace 1970, 1753, Budzynski 1977).

Would These Frequencies Have Been Possible at the Passage Graves?


There is a paucity of evidence for any fuel use in Irish Neolithic passage graves beyond charcoal. If it is assumed that artwork in the passage graves was meant to be visible to the living humans inside, it seems likely that they were lit. Among the graves studied, Barclodiad y Gawres yields the most dramatic evidence of artificial light. A hearth measuring 3 in diameter and 6 thick was found in the main chamber, filled with wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Apparently, a wood fire was lit and allowed to burn until it became ash with embedded fragments of flowing charcoal. Charcoal was also found in tiny amounts in the passage and among the cremations in the recesses (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). Knowth, Newgrange, Knockmany, and all of the cairns at Loughcrew yielded evidence of charcoal, but only in association with cremations (Eogan 1986, 42; OKelly 1982, 105; Collins 1960, 5; Conwell 1864, 46; Conwell 1866, 372). Fourknocks yielded a small amount (flecks) of charcoal in the central chamber (Hartnett 1957, 201). In summary, Fourknocks yielded the only charcoal separate from cremations, and Barclodiad y Gawres yielded the only evidence of a discrete hearth area. This does not necessarily preclude the existence of hearths or pure charcoal deposits inside the other monuments, as most of them were disturbed. In the case of cremated bone, there is no way to tell if the charcoal mixed with those deposits is a result of the cremation (which would have taken place at a separate location) or of a burning event taking place inside the tomb. Pearce (2004, abstract) suggests the use of charcoal as a fuel in its own right; the charcoal found in cairns may be the remnants of the fuel supply used in rites. The smoke from a charcoal fire is mush less dense than that from a wood fire, and the event would have been sustainable in the closed atmosphere of the monument. Its

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also possible that herbs were thrown on charcoal embers as a form of incense or to induce ASC. There may be evidence for the use of Henbane smoke in the Balfarg cairns of Scotland (Schenk 1956). Another possibility for artificial light source is the oil lamp. There has been no evidence of these at the passage graves under consideration, however, and very little evidence of domestic use from this time in this area. Additionally, oil lamps create a great deal of soot, and the tomb walls would most likely bear some residue of this activity (Allen 1888, 82). According to Allen (1888, 83), a rude, unglazed earthenware lamp, shallow, and with a snout to support a wick, was found some time ago among prehistoric remains near Portstewart. He claims these lamps date to the Neolithic. Miners at Grimes Graves hollowed cup-shaped impressions in the chalk and used them as oil lamps. Soot stains remain in the galleries, attesting to this use (Greenwell 1870, 429), though this use may have taken place later than the Neolithic. A further possibility for artificial lighting is the rush candle. According to Allen (1888, 82), rushes were dipped in wax and used as candles. These were efficient and economical (Boyle 2002). Again, there is no evidence for rush-candle use in the passage graves under consideration. There is no wax, soot, oily residue, or industrial remains reported in any of the original excavation reports. There is ethnographic evidence for the ritual use of light and fire. The combined use of several inductive elements is often observed. Nganasan shamans of Siberia, Tukano shamans in South America, Azande witch doctors in Africa, and Catholic priests in Boston use fire, rhythm, chant and orchestrated movement (Basilov 1990, 13; Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 11; Evans-Pritchard 1976, 76, personal observation).

Conclusion
Although there is no archaeological evidence at the graves in question, the artwork suggests that some artificial light source must have been used. These would have contributed to ASC in the closed environments of the tombs. Alpha and theta frequencies emitted by natural fires would have entrained observers brainwaves to those frequencies, resulting in tranquility, meditative states, hypnosis, dreamstates and

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hypnagogia, vivid imagery, mystical states, and AUB (Williams and West 1975, 520). Flicker frequency has also been found to entrain to rhythmic sound waves (Johns Hopkins University Department of Physics and Astronomy Website). Any rhythmic sonic events taking place in the tomb would cause entrainment of the artificial light sources flicker frequency, increasing attention and other cognitive processes leading to ASC (Neher 1962). Additionally, the oxygen depletion caused by the fire in the enclosed space contributes to hallucination and extrasomatic experience (Vaitl et al 2005, 105). Finally, the unusual atmosphere created by fire and the presence of entoptic imagery, human remains and enclosed space enhances the sense of otherworldliness, emphasizing the tiered cosmos.

Locales: Are architectural elements of passage graves a reflection of the neurologically-generated tiered cosmos?
Introduction:
Richard Bradley (pers. comm.) remarked that undecorated passage graves were present in Britain and Ireland prior to those decorated with entoptic motifs. If the appearance of entoptic motifs is seen as marking the induction of ASC at Neolithic passage graves, then the association of passage graves and ASC may be called into question. While it is not here argued that passage graves were sites of Neolithic shamanism, it is suggested that the origin of their architectural design is firmly rooted in ASC and the tiered cosmos. The later addition of entoptic motifs may reflect the intensification of ASC at the tombs.

Structure of space: Stages of hallucination and their correlation to elements of architecture


The experience of moving through elements of the tiered cosmos during altered states is of primary importance here, and will be shown to reflect the architectural elements of the passage graves. First, upon changes in theta and gamma processes in the limbic system brought about by one or many inductive elements, the subject begins to experience a distortion of

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reality, witnessing geometric shapes, etc., gradually disengaging from ordinary reality. Next, the subject sees and then moves through a vortex, often rotating, and often with a bright light at its center or end, producing a belief in the subject that s/he is moving toward an extra-ordinary place. The subject then enters deep ASC, experiencing vivid multi-sensory hallucinations (Siegel and Jarvik 1975, 127, 143; Siegel 1977, 136; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988, 204). It is widely reported that subjects interact with spirits or deceased loved ones while in deep ASC, emphasizing the perception that the altered reality is the realm of the dead (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). Finally the subject returns to ordinary reality. This is hazardous. In shamanic contexts, it is possible for the subject to get caught in the land of the dead (Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow her/him back to the land of the living (Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be avoided. Four locales, each with its own associated activity, may be distinguished within the experience of ASC. o The border between ordinary and non-ordinary reality across which the subject moves as s/he goes deeper into ASC; o The vortex leading to non-ordinary reality through which the subject moves; o Non-ordinary reality, in which the subject meets and communicates with beings, often ancestral or deceased loved ones; and o The movement or passage back to ordinary reality. These four locales with their specific activities are reflected in the passage graves: o The border between outside and inside, through which the celebrant leaves the world of the living and enters the realm of the dead. o The vortex leading to the realm of the dead through which the celebrant moves, carrying the deceased with her/him; o The land of the dead in which the celebrant deposits the deceased; and o The movement or passage back to the land of the living. We will examine the architecture at the following passage graves: Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Fourknocks, and Loughcrew cairns F, H, I, L, S, T, and U in 25

Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales in order to determine if the four locales representing the tiered cosmos as described above can be seen. If these are present within the tombs, then an association with ASC and the tiered cosmos may be established.

Forecourt: Realm of the living; Entrance: borderzone to the realm of the dead
Many passage tombs are surrounded by kerbstones delineating the tomb from the outside world. This is probably as far as anyone in the general public would have come. The entrance to the monument is often dramatic, embellished with grand stones, forecourts, and other features emphasizing the demarcation between inside and outside. Inside the monument, the space is constricted, limiting inhabitation to few individuals at a time. The forecourt opened out from the monument to a larger area where many people might gather for ceremonies focusing on the entrance to the passage grave. The community would stay at the entrance while the celebrant entered the dark, mysterious world of the monument where interactions with the dead occurred. They may have awaited the return of the celebrant from his/her journey inside (Bradley 1989; Thomas, 1990; Parker-Pearson and Richards 1994; Cooney 2000).

Figure 2 Loughcrew T entrance/forecourt (Shee-Twohig 1981)

The ordinary world from which the subject departs at the onset of ASC may be compared to the world of the living from which the celebrant and the deceased depart

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upon entering the tomb. Evidence for this would include entrance stones limiting access to the passage grave, forecourts or other features suggesting ritual practice with space for many people, and symbolism aimed at a large audience.

Newgrange
The cairn at Newgrange is surrounded by a stone kerb, many decorated with elaborate motifs (OKelly 1982, 12-22). The front of the monument is now covered with a revetment of quartz stones and round granite boulders rising 3m from the top of the kerb (O'Kelly 1982, 15-21). These stones were found in the rubble in front of the mound when it was first excavated. Cooney (2006, 309) argued that the stones represented a large quartz forecourt. Either scenario is implicated in large-scale communication aimed at a wide audience. Quartz was a widely used symbolic element during the Neolithic in Britain and Ireland. Due to its continued use at entrances and borders of monuments, and its association with tombs, it has been thought to symbolize the moon and water, transformation, liminality and the ancestors (Darvill 2002, 73; Cooney 2006, 706). The quartz would have caught and reflected the sun and the moon in a variety of visual effects emphasizing the continuing symbolic power and place of this area as an entrance to another world" (Cooney 2006, 706). The quartz at Newgrange, whether it fronted the monument or lay as a platform before the entrance, would have been a highly visible, highly charged communiqu understood by the witnessing community as a symbol of the activities taking place inside the mound. A large decorated stone lies across the entrance to Newgrange (Fig. 3). The artwork on this stone appears to emphasize the architectural
Figure 3: Newgrange Entrance Stone (OKelly 1982)

entrance and

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passage. The spiral may refer to passages (Dronfield 1996a). The stone is divided in two by a line emerging from an unwinding spiral motif. The line leads directly to the passage of the tomb. In order to gain entrance, one would have had to clamber over the stone directly over the line as if it were pointing the way into the passage (OKelly 1982, 149). This is a clear rendering of the act of leaving the ordinary world and entering, guided by the symbolic passage, the passage to a world that is not so ordinary. Thus, the symbols on the stone communicate and emphasize to the general public the passage one takes to enter the inner sanctum of the monument, a place the vast majority of them would never see. Significantly, the motifs on the bottom of the stone appear to continue below ground. OKelly (1982, 149) suggests that this represents the ritual union of above and below, communicating to the public the activities taking place inside the monument. The images in fact do not continue below ground, suggesting that the carvings are symbolic rather than functional. An oval stone setting east of the tomb entrance is filled with quartz pebbles and associated artifacts (OKelly 1982, 75-6). This setting and deposition are obviously deliberate and indicate that certain activities, perhaps of a ritual nature, were taking place in front of the entrance at Newgrange, with plenty of room for a large audience.

Knowth
Knowth has two entrances: one on the east and one on the west, each leading to a passage going almost to the center of the tomb. The mound was once surrounded by 127 kerbstones, of which 124 survive, demarcating the boundary of the monument (Eogan 1986, 46). The largest and most elaborately decorated kerbstones are those closest to the entrances. The entrance stone at the western passage of Knowth is decorated with nested rectangles and a vertical line oriented to the passage (Fig. 4). A stone with two opposed sets of nested rectangles lies across the eastern entrance (Figure 13). Entrance is
Figure 4: Knowth entrance stones (Eogan 1986)

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gained by going over the stone along the vertical line, through the concentric images (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 211). The motif emphasizes the entrance and the passage, acting as a guide or map to the route through the chamber. The stone acts as a barrier to the passage, preventing the entrance of the general public. The symbolism on the stone communicates to the community the activities taking place inside the monument. On the old ground surface or over the various features around the entrance was a lunatespread of quartz and non-local stones (Eogan 1986, 65). This may have been a faade similar to the one now standing across Newgrange. This would have transmitted information about the tomb to a large audience. Seven stone settings are arranged symmetrically outside the eastern tomb entrance. These were roughly circular, surrounded by edge-set stones (Eogan 1986, 46). Setting 1 is directly opposite the entrance, saucer-shaped and overlain with small quartz chips (Eogan 1986, 47). The other settings are similar in size and shape. The features on the western side are similar. There are six stone settings delimited by smooth stones. Setting 1, opposite the entrance, is roughly oval and filled with quartz. Settings 5 and 6 are circular and have spreads of quartz in the center. 2, 3 and 4 are ushaped. 2 and 4 are hollowed and filled with dark earth (Eogan 1986, 48). These settings were deliberately placed and designed. Quartz is a recurring element. The selection of stones and the careful design suggest ritual use. It is possible that communal ceremonies took place in the large spaces in front of the entrances.

Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres passage grave on Anglesey in Wales faces northwest toward the sea. An entranceway is formed by the passage stones opening outwards. Two stone sockets were found possibly representing monumental elements at the entrance, possibly a forecourt (Powell and Daniel 1956, 13). Tiny flecks of charcoal were found which may indicate fire activity, possibly of a ritual nature (Powell and Daniel 1956, 13). This forecourt would have been accessible or at least visible to a fairly large

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audience. Unfortunately, beyond the tiny specks of charcoal, there is no evidence surviving of activity taking place in the forecourt, and evidence of monumental architecture is ambiguous.

Knockmany
Knockmany is a simple passage tomb with several decorated stones, set in a 25m diameter cairn on top of a hill (Herity 1974, 82). There was a vestigial passage at the entrance (Herity 1974, 82). The mound is surrounded by a stone kerb. This may have been added as an afterthought to prevent erosion (Collins 1960, 6). The kerb would have demarcated the boundary between the outside and the inside. There is no evidence of any ritual activity at the entrance, but the cairn is much disturbed. The mounds placement on a peak would have made it a visually arresting, dramatic feature of the landscape. This in itself would have communicated to a large audience.

Fourknocks
The mound at Fourknocks is surrounded by a drystone kerb curving inward toward the entrance, emphasizing the feature (Hartnett 1957, 201).

Loughcrew
F: F faces eastward toward T and is surrounded by a kerb (Herity 1974, 50). H: The entrance at Cairn H is demarcated by a large, imposing lintel (Conwell 1866, 362). The entrance faces east, toward Cairn T, as do all the other cairns in the Carnbane West group. This could be a reference to the River Boyne and the sunrise as well as an association with the main tomb (T). H is surrounded by a kerb. I: Cairn I faces eastward toward the river, the sunrise and Cairn T (Herity 1974, 55). It is surrounded by a kerb. L. Cairn L faces southeast toward Cairn T, the sunrise and the river. Passage orthostats open out at entrance. A large lintel demarks the entrance (Conwell 1866, 30

369). L is surrounded by oblong kerbstones. Stone L1 bears highly complex motifs and is visible from the entrance (Herity 1974, 50). T: Cairn T is the focal point of all the tombs at Loughcrew. This passage grave is fronted by a forecourt is created by orthostats opening outwards. The passage entrance is blocked by large stones. Outside of the entrance, a loose layer of quartz lumps was found, possibly representing a circular feature or a forecourt (Herity 1974, 42). The entrance was approached by a V-shaped incurve in the kerb, faade made imposing by graduated larger stones toward the entry, two uprights flanking the opening and a large lintel. Stones L1 and L2 are highly decorated and are visible from the entrance. The entry faces slightly south of east to the Boyne and the sunrise (Herity 1974, 42). U: The entrance to Cairn U is aligned eastwards like T (Herity 1974, 44). A long slab laid on its edge fronts the entrance, and along the passage a high sill almost blocks the entrance (Herity 1974, 44). It is kerbed of small boulders (Herity 1974, 50).

Summary and Discussion


Table 1: Elements of the entrance/forecourt Kerb Newgrange Knowth Barclodiad y Gawres Knockmany Fourknocks LC-F LC-H LC-I LC-L LC-T LC-U X X X X X X X X X X X External Entrance Forecourt features stone X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Symbolism (motifs, orientation, quartz) X X

X X

All of the passage graves under consideration were surrounded by kerbs demarcating the border between inside and outside the monument (See Table 1). This emphasizes the fact that the interior of the mound is a special, perhaps even dangerous place 31

which only the dead and the experienced religious leaders could enter. Three of the passage graves had entrance stones further limiting access to the tomb. At least five of the tombs had forecourts providing a gathering place spacious enough to accommodate large groups. Four of the tombs have external features providing evidence of ritual performance focusing on the entrance. All of the tombs feature at least one symbolic element. In some its an orientation on the sunrise, the river and an important monument. Some have artistic motifs on their entrance stones or on passage stones visible at the entrance. Some have quartz elements. All of these would have held meaning for the community viewing them, and all emphasized the physical entrance to the passage grave. While the community may not have been privy to the knowledge of the inner world of the tomb, they were given some idea of the activities taking place inside by the symbols presented to them. They probably witnessed the dead being taken inside, most likely as the climax of a public ceremony as evidenced by the forecourts and external features, and witnessed the celebrant emerging alone from the passage grave. The deceased was no longer a member of their community, but an ancestor living in the land of the ancestors which was associated with the tomb in a very real, physical way. The entrance to the tomb became the door to the ancestral world.

Passage as vortex
Upon stepping through the tombs entrance, the subject enters a passage. In shape and design, the tomb passage is a reflection of the neurologicallygenerated tunnel/vortex. During ASC, the vortex is perceived as an access
Figure 5: Loughcrew T passage (Shee-Twohig 1981)

route between the

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every-day realm and the non-ordinary realm of deeper hallucination where the subject may interact with spirit beings and ancestors. Passages may serve the same purpose by functioning as an access route between the every-day world outside and the extraordinary world inside where the dead are deposited. Evidence that these tomb passages were perceived as access routes to the realm of the dead requires a comparison to the vortices of ASC. The vortices experienced during ASC often are seen to have imagery on them. They are often seen to rotate. Evidence for a comparison may include motifs on passage walls, especially symbols of rotation such as the spiral (Dronfield 1996a and 1996b). The construction of passages in such a way as to make them difficult or stressful to traverse may reflect that they were considered to lead to a dangerous place such as the realm of the dead. Architectural and artistic elements emphasizing the difference between the passage and other parts of the tomb may be present. There may also be symbolic orientation of the passage, reflecting the movement from the land of the living (entrance facing sunrise) to the land of the dead (moving westward along the passage toward the sunset and the chamber).

Newgrange
The Newgrange passage runs 19 meters along a thin, sinuous passage (OKelly 1982, 21). The passage is oriented southeast/northwest. The subject moves northwest through the passage toward the chamber, or roughly in the direction of the sunset, and back toward the direction of the sunrise upon her/his return to the outside. This orientation is emphasized for several days per year when the winter solstice sunrise enters the passage through the roofbox directly over the entrance and shines into the back chamber (OKelly 1982, 22). The roofbox had a quartz slab that could be moved back and forth across the opening to allow or prevent light into the monument, and a profusely decorated lintel (O'Kelly 982, 96). This artwork emphasizes the roofbox and the traversal of the sun along the passage.

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Each side of the passage is lined with orthostats. The orthostats nearest the chamber are tallest, over 2 m high. The passage, roofed by massive slabs, rises in height to 3.6 m as it approaches the chamber (O'Kelly 1982, 21). The opening out of the passage into the chamber is similar to the experience of leaving the vortex and entering the 3rd stage of ASC. A marble and a pendant were found deposited in the passage close to the chamber entrance (OKelly 1982, 105), emphasizing movement into a different space. There are two concentrations of burnt and unburnt bone in the passage. One
Figure 6: Newgrange L19 (OKelly 1982)

(Lot 3) occurs at the chamber entrance. The other (Lot 7) occurs a short distance from the chamber entrance. The journey is a

highly orchestrated one with particular emphasis on doorways and openings, heightening the traveler's awareness that she or he is traveling through radically different spaces (Thomas 1990). There are many motifs in the passage at Newgrange, and many of them are concentrics. Dronfield (1996a, 43) found that most of the concentric motifs at Newgrange were associated with the architectural passage. Given the association of the ASC vortex and concentric motifs, the association of the tomb passage and concentrics at Newgrange is suggestive of a link. The most imposing of all the artistic compositions in the passage is on L19 (Fig. 6), close to the chamber entrance, again emphasizing the demarcation or liminal zone between architectural areas of the tomb. At some point the passage was blocked by a massive stone, cutting off access (OKelly 1982, 100). Perhaps it was felt that without the proper guide, the passage was too dangerous to traverse, and the world inside the chamber inappropriate for general members of the public.

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Knowth
The western tomb The passage runs approximately 32 meters from the entrance stone to the chamber (Eogan 1986, 43). The passage is straight for three fourths of its length, then bends to the right. After the bend there is a sillstone and, further along, the passage narrows. Finally it expands into a chamber. At the time of publication, this tomb had not been excavated. Near the chamber entrance, several passage orthostats (33, 34, 38, 48, 49, 50, 51) bear complex motifs including several concentrics. These emphasize the transitional or liminal space between the passage and the chamber (Eogan 1986, 44). The eastern tomb The passage on the eastern side is 40 meters long and ends in a cruciform chamber (Eogan 1986, 64). Eogan (1986, 64) argues that stones decorated in a particular style were deliberately placed in specific areas of the tomb, especially in the passage as one nears the chamber. An elaborate chevron-decorated capstone (43) can be found 27 m from the entrance. Capstone no. 45 also stands out as it was set at a lower level and was decorated with picked motifs along its outside edge. Along this 5 m stretch, the orthostats on both sides of the passage were decorated. Several undecorated stones then occur between this and the entrance to the chamber, setting the areas apart. At the entrance to the chamber itself, orthostats on both sides of the sill as well as capstones are decorated (Eogan 1986, 64). The sill is another architectural element highlighting the entrance to the chamber from the passage, setting it apart.

Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres has a 20 ft long passage (Powell and Daniel 1956, 12). The passage is generally straight with a slight variation at the entrance to the chamber where the left wall dips to the left. The entrance to the chamber is demarcated by decorated stones. The passage goes from north to south, with the entrance to the north. The siting is related to Porth Trecastell, the best landing place on the island.

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Barclodiad y Gawres was the only coastal tomb known to the excavators (Powell and Daniel 1956, 1). Perhaps the orientation toward the ocean was a symbol of regeneration. Orthostats C1, C16 and L8 bear concentric motifs and are located at the chamber entrance. An interesting aspect of Barclodiad y Gawres is the hearth in the central chamber. The fire, when viewed from the entrance or inside the passage, would appear as the bright light in the center of the vortex during ASC.

Knockmany
Knockmany has only a vestigial passage (Herity 1974, 82). Cremated bone was found behind stone 12, but this may have been displaced from disturbance of the burial chamber (Collins 1960, 4). The passage is very short, and oriented south/north with the entrance at the south. A striking visual experience when walking through the passage toward the chamber (a quick trip), is the artwork on stones C5 and C6 (Fig. 7).
Figure 7: Knockmany C6 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Because of the view of the motifs from the passage it appears that one is entering a different sort of space. However, the passage is so short that it doesnt feel as if one is traversing the realms so to speak. The architecture appears to refer to a passage or to be reminiscent of a passage. There is a very faint motif on passage stone 12. The passage opens into the central chamber.

Fourknocks
The originally unroofed passage at Fourknocks is oriented northeast to southwest, and is unique in that it yielded elaborate burials (Hartnett 1957, 201). The passage was paved with flat stones (Hartnett 1957, 205). The remains were found in layers beneath the paving stones, and included both burnt and unburnt bone (Hartnett 1957, 206). The heaviest concentration of inhumations was by the entrance, the lowest by the chamber (Hartnett 1957, 206).

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The passage widens slightly as it approaches the chamber entrance. The sensation of entering the chamber, however, must have been very different during the tombs currency than it is today in the passages present roofed state. If the passage was indeed unroofed, as Hartnett claimed, then the entrance to the chamber must have felt more constricting than opening out, but the chamber would have seemed even more like a radically different space. These differences may be due to the fact that the tomb was used in a single event and then sealed (Hartnett 1957).

Loughcrew
F: The passage at Cairn F is approximately 2.5 m long, and is oriented east to west. The passage widens from approximately 0.5 m at its entrance, to almost 1.0 m at the chamber entrance (Conwell 1866, 361). There are motifs on five of the eight passage orthostats, but all are so weathered as to be rendered almost invisible. It is impossible to say how visually arresting the motifs may have been during the tombs currency. H: The passage at Cairn H, oriented east-west, measures approximately 5m long and expands from 1 m at entrance to approximately 1.5 m at entrance to chamber. The passage was packed with burnt bone mixed with small quartz fragments (Conwell 1866, 362). Motifs occur on two of six passage stones. The motifs on L2 are invisible, while those on R2 are fairly visible, especially a large spiral that occurs on the stone low to the ground. As one approaches the chamber entrance, the sill stone of the right recess becomes highly visible, with three large spiral depictions. Stone C5, comprising the back wall of the left chamber, also has spiral motifs which are highly visible from the passage as one nears the chamber entrance. All of these vividly emphasize the difference in space between the passage and the chamber. I: The passage at Cairn I, oriented east-west, is approximately 2 m long. It opens from approximately .7 m at the entrance, to 1 m at the chamber entrance (Conwell 1866, 364). There is only one stone with motifs in the passage, R2, located at and demarcating the chamber entrance. The motifs are fairly visible from the passage. Motifs on stone C5, the right wall of one of the left chambers, are also visible from passage.

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L. The passage at Cairn L is approximately 3 m long oriented east to west (Herity 1974, 54). Of eight passage stones, six bear artwork. R1, R2, L3 and L4 bear spirals which are fairly visible in the passage. Three spirals on C3 are plainly visible from the chamber entrance. The chamber appears to open out from the passage due to the roof opening upwards. T: The passage at Cairn T is approximately 5 m long and covered by a corbelled roof rising as one nears the central chamber (Herity 1974, 42). The passage remains fairly constant in width at approximately 1 m wide at the entrance and the chamber entrance, with the exception of the midpoint of the passage. At this point, passage stones L3, L4, R3 and R4 are set at a different angle than the rest of the passage stones, constricting the passage to about half its width. The passage then opens up again and continues on toward the chamber. Eight of 12 remaining stones are decorated elaborately. Five of these are highly visible as one traverses the passage. A sill separates the chamber from the passage. C8, the back wall of the back recess, is very complex and highly visible from the passage at the chamber entrance. The side of C15, at the chamber entrance, is also highly visible from the passage, demarcating the spaces. The passage entrance was eventually blocked by large stones, curtailing access. U: Cairn Us passage runs approximately 5 m from east to west, widening slightly at the chamber entrance. Of five remaining passage stones, three bear motifs, none of which are plainly visible when moving from entrance to chamber (Herity 1974, 50). Motifs on chamber stones C2, C6 and C8 are visible only when crouched at the chamber entrance as they are low to the ground.

Summary and Discussion


Of primary importance in the comparison to the ASC-generated vortex is the perception and experience of the tomb passage as an access route between locations that are very different from one another.

38

Table 2: Elements of the passage


Symbolic orientation Opening out into chamber Nonlinear trave rsal Y Y Y Emphasis on chamber entrance Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Spirals/ Concentrics /radials Intervisible with passage Y Y Y Y Y Y ? Y Y Y Y Y Other Motifs in passage

Newgrange Knowth E Knowth W Barclodiad y Gawres Knockmany Fourknocks LC-F LC-H LC-I LC-L LC-T LC-U

Y Y Y?

Y Y Y

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Nine of the 12 tombs under consideration have orientations that may reference a movement from sunrise to sunset. This may be symbolic of moving from the land of the living to the land of the dead. Fewer than half have long, sinuous tunnels, but 11 of 12 open out from the passage into the chamber, with architectural and artistic emphasis on the junction. The sensation of emerging from a physically constricted passage into a wide, open space emphasizes the perception that the inner chamber is a radically different place from both the passage and from the outside world. All of the passages bear motifs as do many ASC-generated vortices. At least nine of the passages comprise stones bearing highly visible spirals, concentrics and/or radials. The character of these motifs enhances a perception that they are rotating, a commonly-reported characteristic of ASC-generated vortices. Additionally, all of the graves have conspicuous spirals, concentrics and/or radials visible in or from the passage. These motifs appear to reference rotation and movement, and may serve as visual cues for movement through the space (Dronfield 1996a).

Chamber as realm of the spirits or realm of the dead


The chamber constitutes the inner sanctum of the passage graves. In the graves under consideration, this area is the most common for yielding human remains and accompanying objects (with the exception of Fourknocks and Newgrange). Most of 39

the chambers were constructed with high, corbelled roofs, giving a sense of open space. This may replicate the vortex leading from stage 2 into stage 3 hallucinations.

Figure 8: Loughcrew T Chamber (Shee-Twohig 1981)

The chamber may be compared to the realm experienced during ASC stage 3. It has been shown that stage 3 may represent another existential realm, often interpreted as an underworld occupied by the dead, ancestors or other spirits (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 218). If the chamber can be shown to be associated with a realm of the dead, ancestors or spirits, then a close association of the chamber with ASC stage 3 may be seen. We will examine the 12 passage graves for evidence that the chambers were perceived to be a different existential realm having to do with the dead/ancestors/spirits. Evidence may include: architectural and artistic elements suggesting that the chamber was a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and than the outside world; human remains indicating an association of the space with the dead; and grave goods indicating a sacred nature of the deposit.

Newgrange
The cruciform chamber at Newgrange has three recesses or side chambers, the west, the east, and the back recesses. The chamber has a high corbelled roof ending in a single capstone 6 m above floor level (O'Kelly 1982, 21).

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In the chamber, a layer of burnt and unburnt bones and faunal remains was observed (O'Kelly 1982, 105) (Fig. 9). The excavations revealed that the tomb was disturbed by later activities, and it is thought that many of the original artefacts were probably removed (OKelly 1982, 26). In the main chamber, a layer of burnt and unburnt human bone was located on the floor adjacent to the back, east and west recesses. A bone disc bead was discovered just beyond the chamber entrance. A central pit was present in the main chamber associated with a large hammer pendant. Near the west recess a serpentine marble and some utilized flint flakes were found (O'Kelly 1982, 105). In the end recess only a utilized flint flake was
Figure 9: Newgrange chamber finds (OKelly 1982)

found together with a single, broken basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105). In the west recess, a pendant and several fragments of bone points and pins, three of them burnt, were found mingled with several discrete concentrations of burnt and unburnt human remains around and beneath a single basin (O'Kelly 1982, 105). The burnt material contained a tooth and some skull fragments indicating at least one individual (O'Kelly 1982, 105-6). The east recess is the largest and most profusely ornamented of the recesses at Newgrange. Two basin stones, one inside the other, were present in this recess. One of these basin stones was carved with lattice motifs, argued by Dronfield (1996a, 52) to have a perceptual association with mortuary remains. In the 1967 excavations, the lower basin couldnt be moved, so the ground beneath it was never fully examined. Elsewhere in the recess, finds included a bone chisel, marbles, a bead and a pendant. This recess was the richest in human remains. Unburnt material included 2 incomplete adult skeletons, both broken into very small pieces. The distribution of material shows that it was widely scattered and intermingled with other materials in the area (O'Kelly 1982, 106-7). The burnt material comprises at least 3 individuals, but it is almost 41

certain that there were more at one time prior to the tombs disturbance (O'Kelly 1982, 107). At the junction of the passage and the chamber two stones, X and Y found to be profusely decorated (O'Kelly 1982, 96) (Fig. 10). These designs are artistically unique within Newgrange and here emphasize the liminal zone between the chamber and
Figure 10: Newgrange stones X, Y and Z (OKelly 1982)

passage.

Newgrange Summary

The presence of multiple concentrations of human remains in the chamber suggests that the chamber is associated with the dead. There are two concentrations occurring outside the chamber. These may refer to the liminal zone; as one approaches the chamber, one approaches the land of the dead. This is further emphasized by the nature of the deposit. The remains are not separated according to individual, but are mixed together. This may be symbolic of a group of ancestors (Barrett 1994, 51, Thomas 2000, 655). The subject entering this space would necessarily come into contact and interact with the ancestors as their bones would be present. Grave goods found in proximity to the remains suggest a sacred aspect and possible ritual activity. The high corbelled roof and side recesses give the impression of space opening up from the passage. The roof slabs in the eastern and western recesses bear highly complex compositions featuring spirals and concentric motifs. Additionally, there are several decorated stones whose motifs are hidden from view, such as the western recess roof slab, which is presently partially hidden. These compositions may serve to direct the movements of the deceased. In the case of the roof slabs, the deceased is placed directly beneath them. Since spirals and concentrics have been seen to represent vortices (Dronfield 42

1996a, 52), perhaps these motifs serve to direct the deceased upward into the realm of the ancestors. Similarly, the motifs hidden in the corbels and lintels may be intended for the deceased. Based on architectural and artistic elements, the chamber is delineated as a separate space from the rest of the tomb and from the outside world. The presence of mixed human remains in the chamber suggest an affiliation with a group of ancestors.

Figure 11: Newgrange eastern recess roofslab (OKelly 1982)

Knowth
The eastern tomb: The eastern tomb is cruciform with three recesses. The chamber is roofed with a high, corbelled roof topped by a capstone 8 m above the ground surface. In the central chamber, human remains were found in a small area near the entrance to the right recess (Eogan 1986, 39). These were almost all cremation except for a few pieces of disarticulated bone (Figs. 12 and 14). Cremations were found between the sillstone and backstone of the left recess (Eogan 1986, 39). A general blanket deposit of cremations was present, ranging from 3-15 cm deep all around the sides of the recess, abutting onto orthostats and the sillstone. In one of the hollows, some unburnt or 43
Figure 12: Knowth Eastern Tomb, Eastern Recess Burials (Eogan 1986)

partly burnt bones were mixed in with the cremations. Grave goods consisted of 2 pestle pendants, parts of two mushroom-headed pins, and parts of 5 other pins. In the outer part of the recess (in the central chamber), on the original surface next to the sill a small amount of cremated bone was found which may have been part of a more extensive primary deposit (Eogan 1986, 42). In the end recess, the burials were much disturbed. The inner part of the concentration was almost completely covered with a large flagstone lying on the old ground surface. A cremation deposit overlay the flag (Eogan 1986, 42). A very complex composition of art motifs including was found on stone 48 on the right wall of the end recess (Figure 13). The only other composition that comes close to this one in complexity is the back wall (54) of the right chamber. Both include lattices and lozenges, and stone 54 bears concentrics argued by Dronfield (1996a, 52) to be associated with the dead and the vortex.
Figure 13: Eastern Tomb Stones 48 and 54 (Eogan 1986)

There were six burial deposits in the right recess. Between consecutive deposits, a thin layer of earth or small, flat stones was placed. Grave goods include stone beads, pendants, and antler pins (Eogan 1986, 43). A very large stone basin was placed in a central position in this recess. It
Fig. 14: Knowth Eastern Recess Chamber Finds (Eogan 1986)

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is so large as to suggest that it was placed during construction (Eogan 1986, 42). A distinctive macehead with a spiral motif was found between two jambstones on the old floor surface at the entrance to the right recess. It was located lying in front of the stone basin, under a layer of shale. During the initial exploration of the tomb, Eogan came across the macehead while making his way down the passage for the first time. He describes it thus: "This ghostly guardian suggested that we were approaching the inner sanctum" (Eogan 1986, 32). The passage into the western tomb opens into an undifferentiated chamber (Eogan 1986, 43). The roof is not corbelled, but cross-flags project inward slightly, producing a corbelled effect (Eogan 1986, 44). The passage expands and rises in height into a chamber defined by two large sidestones, a backstone, and a sillstone. There is another sill in the middle of the chamber. Although the tomb has not been excavated, flakes of cremated bone were noticeable in the fill of soft earth over the floor. Part of an undecorated stone pestle or macehead and part of the stem of a large antler pin were recovered. A sandstone basin was found in the passage, but doesn't seem to have been in its original position. There is a hollow on the outside of the outer sillstone of the chamber that may have been the basin-stone's original position (Eogan 1986, 44). The rear wall of the chamber (Stone 41) bears a motif almost identical to that of the entrance stone, comprising concentric circles. The presence of human remains that have been mixed together suggests that the chambers of Knowth were associated with the ancestors. The high roofs and opening out of the passages into the chambers, as well as motifs marking the entrances to the chambers emphasize the perception that the chambers are unusual spaces. Grave goods suggest ritual associations.

Barclodiad y Gawres
Barclodiad y Gawres contains a cruciform chamber comprising a central/main chamber and three recesses. At the southern end of the passage, a polygonal central or main chamber is located which had a partially corbelled roof (Powell and Daniel 1956, 14). A hearth was present in the center. The remains were 6" thick at the centre

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and contained wet, sticky grey earth, ashes, and charcoal. Limpet and oyster shells were pressed into the mulch and all was overlain by flat stones, mostly quartzite (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). A pig bone and two hundred tiny bone pieces were mixed with this mulchy earth and pebbles. They were determined to be fish, amphibian, reptile, small mammal, and possibly bird bones (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). A likely scenario is posited as follows: 1. A wood fire was lit and allowed to burn until it consisted of ash with embedded fragments of flowing charcoal. 2. A libation of special stew was poured over the ashes. 3. The fire was forthwith quenched by covering it with pebbles, earth and shells (Powell and Daniel 1956, 16). The end recess is located at the southern end of the passage on the far side of the central chamber. The entrance is demarcated by a sillstone. A pit found at its centre is probably the result of grave robbing. Overlying all existant surfaces at the edges and corner was dark, sticky earth with fragments of cremated bone and charcoal (Powell and Daniel 1956, 18). Small fragments of cremated bone were also found in lower levels of the rubble infill (Powell and Daniel 1956, 18). The eastern (left) recess has no sillstone, but the area has been disturbed. Some small fragments of cremated bone and charcoal still remained in the corners and edges of the recess (Powell and Daniel 1956, 19). The back wall bears a highly visible composition concentric motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981). The western recess was least disturbed due to being carefully blocked with large stones (Powell and Daniel 1956, 19). A thin scatter of cremated bone mixed with sticky brown soil and flecks of charcoal was spread over the floor. Fragments of deliberatelybroken antler pins were scattered throughout (Powell and Daniel 1956, 21). The bone represents two
Figure 15 1. Left recess back wall 2. Right recess back wall

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young adult males, with a few sheepbone fragments (Powell and Daniel 1956, 22). A concentric motif is present on the back wall (Fig. 15). The chamber at Barclodiad y Gawres is set apart from the rest of the tomb by artistic elements present at the chamber entrance, the opening up of the passage, a possible corbelled roof, silled recesses, and the presence of a hearth. Human remains found mixed together in the several recesses indicate an association of the space with a group of ancestors. Grave goods and the enigmatic stew suggest ritual and the sacred nature of the deposit. Concentric motifs on the back walls of the side recesses may be vortices for the deceased (Dronfield 1996a, 52) (Fig.15). The hearth at this site is unique in that no other monument under consideration here yielded evidence of fire (beyond charcoal mixed with cremated bone). The use of fire inside the tomb would have been an inductive element of ASC, and would have replicated the bright light at the end of the vortex commonly reported in experiments and ethnographic studies focusing on ASC.

Knockmany
The chamber at Knockmany is a rough pentagon entered into through a short passage (Herity 1974, 82). Excavators found the tomb in a very disturbed state, with human remains dislocated from their
Figure 16: Knockmany C9 and C11 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

original deposition areas, which were impossible to

ascertain. Fragments of cremated bone were found behind stone 12 along with modern potsherds in an area of disturbance, probably the result of looting (Collins 1960, 4).

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Stones C9 and C11 bear the most complex and visible of the artistic compositions, and include many concentric motifs and lozenges (Fig. 16). C9 is located on the right side of the chamber. Based on its similarities to the roofstones at Newgrange and Loughcrew T and L, this stone could mark the original deposition site at Knockmany.

Fourknocks
The chamber at Fourknocks comprises a pear-shaped central chamber and three recesses. A posthole was found in the central chamber, possibly representing a roof support for the beehive (corbelled) construction surmounted by a cairn (Hartnett 1957, 201). The recesses are silled. The west and south recesses are roofed with slabs arrestingly decorated on the front faces, which function as lintels (Hartnett 1957, 214). The east cell may have been roofed with Stone A. Cremated and unburnt materials in a homogenous mass 10-20 cm thick with very little charcoal and admixture were found in the recesses. These were probably burnt elsewhere and deposited as a complete mass (Hartnett 1957, 214). The south recess was the principal burial chamber (Hartnett 1957, 216). Twenty centimeters of cremation materials were spread under a paving stone. Decorated antler bone was found deliberately broken into fragments. Pins made from sheep metatarsals, stone beads, a hammer-pendant, bone points/blades, pendants, and needles were also present (Hartnett 1957, 216). The west recess yielded 14 cm of cremation materials (Hartnett 1957, 215) along with an unburnt skull with some longbone and rib fragments. The few associated grave goods included a stone hammer-pendant, a shale bead, and a small shell pendant. A small amount of cremated bone and a burnt ox tooth were found under paving stone (Hartnett 1957, 215).

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The east recess yielded mixed burials beneath paving stone. Few grave goods were found, including a stone bead, a whitish marble, bone beads, pins, and a pendant. According to Cooney (2000, fig. 4.5) stone A (Fig. 17) was the lintel stone for the tomb entrance. He provides no evidence for this assignation and no evidence for its location appeared during excavation. The motifs on the bottom of the stone are similar to those appearing on roof slabs of other tombs (Newgrange, Loughcrew
Figure 17: Fourknocks Stone A (SheeTwohig 1981)

I, T) and the motifs on the front face appear similar to the lintelstones found on other recesses within Fourknocks. I argue that this stone once rested over the eastern recess. The deposition of human remains at Fourknocks is dramatic and warrants a close study of its own. The unburnt bones were mostly children while burnt bones comprise mostly adult skeletons (Hartnett 1957, 249). Some were mixed with animal bone. At least 65 individuals in total are represented throughout the tomb (chamber and passage), and probably a lot more (Hartnett 1957, 250). The adjacent mound (Fourknocks II) may cover a crematorium trench where these remains were processed. The excavator believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks represent a single event in which cremations that had been taking place over a period of time were then brought into Fourknocks I and deposited (Hartnett 1957, 250). In all 3 recesses a slab floor repository for cremations was built in (Hartnett 1957, 251). The deposit was then paved over with flat stones and each chamber sealed. The only Neolithic artwork of a human figure is thought to be present at Fourknocks. Stone C1 (Fig. 18), in the chamber close to the passage
Figure 18: Fourknocks C1 (SheeTwohig 1981)

junction is thought to represent a human face. It

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stands sentinel at the egress from the chamber into the passage, perhaps guiding the celebrant back to the daylit world, or perhaps guarding the daylit world from the deceased.

Loughcrew
F: Cairn F covers a cruciform passage grave. A sepulchral stone basin was located in the northern recess. Underneath the basin a bone pin fragment and flint flake were found. In the southwestern corner of the southern chamber, a brown, ironstone ball and bone fragments were scattered throughout (Conwell 1866, 361). Stone C1 is covered with a series of small arcs and forms the left wall of the southern recess. This is the most highly visual of all the stones in the monument. Arcs may be representative of the passage/vortex (Blundell 1998, 9). H: H is also cruciform in plan with an octagonal central chamber. A sepulchral basin was found in the western recess. Chambers yielded bone, stone and earth fill with over 5,000 finds including bone blades, combs, pendants and pins, ferrule, pins, an antler tine, burnt potsherds, flints, sea
Figure 19: Loughcrew H Sill (Shee-Twohig 1981)

shells, coloured stones, and stone balls (Conwell 1866, 363-4).

The sillstone to the eastern recess (Fig. 19) is covered with three high visible spirals leading into the cell. I: I is a stalled-construction chambered tomb. The floors of cells a, b, d and e were constructed of square flags. Charred bone was spread on top of the flags. A thin drystone layer with charred bone fragments on top was located beneath the flags. Cell a yielded two stone ornaments (a bead and a pendant). No bone was located atop the flag in Cell f but some was found beneath it (Conwell 1866, 364).

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A loose stone was found in cell c. The stone is covered with a complex composition of motifs covering three sides. This may have been a roofslab with motifs on its underside, its top (facing the roof) and the edge facing the central chamber. This stone is comparable to the roofslabs at Newgrange. L. Cairn L remains intact with a corbelled roof rising 12 feet above floor and seven chambers (Conwell 1866, 366). One thousand ten bone pieces, a spear point, javelin, and potsherds were found. The passage flag had burned ashes atop it and excavators thought it to be the cremation site (Conwell 1866,
Figure 20: Loughcrew L C16 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

367). The second chamber is demarcated by a sill. Underneath a basin, human teeth and charred bone were found. In the opposite chamber a very large oval basin had charred bone and teeth beneath it (Conwell 1866, 367). The ends of 2 bone pins, several stone balls and an oval jet ornament were found in association (Conwell 1866, 369). The most complex composition is found on C16 (Fig. 20), the rear wall of the largest right-hand chambers. The motifs comprise mostly concentric circles, focusing on a central concentric circle with a second concentric circle connected to it. T: The chamber at Cairn T has a corbelled roof rising to 10' high. The floor of the central chamber is paved with 3 large flags. Underneath at least 2 of the flags, fragments of charred bone, stone, and charcoal
Figure 21: Loughcrew T Rear Recess Roofstone (Shee-Twohig 1981)

were found. Three cists or recesses open off the central chamber. Each recess is roofed by corbelling

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with a flat capstone. Each has a high sillstone. Above each sillstone is a large limestone lintel. The floor earth of each cell is mixed with charred bone. A circle of earth 12" in diameter inclosed with a hatful of burnt bone was covered with a flag at the centre of cell b (Conwell 1866, 372). Larger bones and stones were found atop the flag, possibly representing a later deposit (Conwell 1866, 372). Chamber b and c have corbelled "beehive" roofs (Conwell 1866, 373). The stones with the most complex designs can be found in the recesses. C11 is the left wall and C14 on the right wall of the right recess. C8 is the rear wall of the rear recess. C3 is the rear wall of the left recess. All bear concentrics. C11 also bears lozenges. A roofstone decorated with concentrics and other motifs was also found belonging to the rear recess (Fig. 21). Several decorated corbels and lintels are present.

U: The chamber at Cairn U is cruciform, with three recesses opening off a central chamber. The recesses are further divided by a slab through their middles. Burnt bone was found beneath paving stones in each recess (Conwell 1866, 374). The most highly visible and complex art compositions are those on the back walls of the recesses, C3 in the left recess, C6 in the back recess and C9 (Fig. 22) in the right recess. All three bear many concentrics, and C9 bears lozenges and lattices.
Figure 22: Loughcrew U C9 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Summary and Discussion


Each of the tombs under consideration has architectural as well as artistic elements delineating the chamber as a different sort of space than the rest of the tomb and than the outside world. These include high, corbelled roofs, sills, lintels, an opening into the space from the passage, and artistic motifs emphasizing these architectural elements. The presence of ritually-interred human remains in all of the tombs suggests

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that the chamber was a realm intended for the dead. Aside from Fourknocks and Newgrange, human remains were confined almost exclusively to the chamber. The visual separation of the spaces and the presence of the dead suggest that travel through the monument was not to be taken lightly. This is further emphasized by the presence of spirals and lattices/lozenges, possibly orchestrating movement through the tomb (Dronfield 1996a). Finally, all of the tombs, by their design, can be considered to be inductive to ASC via possible sonic and optic hallucination (with the presence of fire, such as at Barclodiad y Gawres, or through rhythmic sounds), by gazing at entoptic imagery, and/or by sensory homogenization, deprivation or apoxia.

Table 3: Elements of the chambers


Elements marking the chamber as a separate space X X X X X X X X X X X Human remains Grave goods Elements orchestrating movements Possible inductive elements

Newgrange Knowth E Knowth W Barclodiad y Gawres Knockmany Fourknocks LC-F LC-H LC-I LC-L LC-T LC-U

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

Leaving the Tomb


Upon completion of whatever activities take place within the chamber, the celebrant departs through the passage. As stated above, it is a matter of interest to the celebrant and to the community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the tomb into the outside world. Since the passage is open access going both ways, there must be another element added to prevent egress for the deceased through the passage. This, I will argue in the following section, is in the form of artistic motifs that act as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct,

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located at liminal zones such as the chamber/passage junction and highly visible to anyone (living) attempting to find the passage and leave the tomb.

Newgrange
Certain motifs may have been strategically placed to emphasize and guide the celebrant through the architecture. Perhaps the best known of all Neolithic motifs is the triple spiral (a misnomer as the motifs are actually concentric circles) on the right wall, stone C10 of the back recess. This motif is lined up with the passage as if illuminating the egress route. As one is leaving the chamber, several simple motifs are highly visible and appear to guide the subject out of the passage. C2 on the south wall of the west recess is highly visible, composed of a large concentric spiral/circle with lattice motif above it. The spiral is associable with the passage (Dronfield 1996a, 54). In the passage, L19 is heavily decorated with zigzags and spirals, some below ground. This would have been visible as it faces the chamber as one is exiting through the passage. L22 is also visible as one leaves the chamber, comprising zigzags on the bottom left side of the stone, facing the chamber (OKelly 1982).

Knowth
The journey out of the western passage is marked with several architectural and artistic elements. Orthostats 38, 40 and 48 are located near the sill delineating the chamber from the passage, and all are decorated, emphasizing their importance as marking a change in the type of space through which the subject is moving. The bend in the passage appears to be especially important as it is emphasized with several highly decorated orthostats (49, 50, 51, 34 and 33). Simpler motifs occur on orthostats further toward the exit from
Figure 23: Knowth, eastern tomb, stones 56 and r. jamb (Eogan 1986)

the chamber (e.g., Or 16). The chamber is delineated by a sill (Shee-Twohig, 1981). When exiting the eastern chamber, certain orthostats are visible at the junction to the passage. These are Or 36, 37, 56 and 57 and the jamb (Fig. 23) at the right recess

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entrance (Shee-Twohig, 1981). These all bear simple motifs, and emphasize the passage/chamber junction. This tomb has a sill demarcating the left recess.

Barclodiad y Gawres
C1, C18 and L8 bear artistic motifs visible while moving from the chamber to the passage (Shee-Twohig, 1981). They are all located at the chamber/passage junction, emphasizing the transition from chamber to passage.

Knockmany
When exiting the chamber toward the passage at Knockmany, C3 and C10 stand out visually. C3 is located on the left chamber wall, facing inward toward the chamber. C10 is located on the right chamber wall facing inward toward the back of the chamber. C11 is located on the right chamber wall, adjacent to the passage and facing inward toward the rear wall of the chamber. These appear to emphasize the difference between the passage and the chamber.

Fourknocks:
C1 is a well-known stone of this era because it is supposed to be an anthropomorphic figure (a human face). This would be the only example of such a motif yet found in Neolithic Britain or Ireland. This stone is adjacent to the passage/chamber junction and is highly visible when exiting the chamber, seeming to guard the passage. Stones B, D and C are highly visible, emphasizing the exit from the chamber. A lintel demarcates the main chamber from the passage.

Loughcrew
F R2 in the passage is highly visible on the way out. L4 faces inward and has a strip of short vertical parallel lines going across the center of the stone. L1 (Fig. 24) has horizontal parallel lines and is adjacent to the tomb entrance. These motifs are
Figure 24: Loughcrew F L1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

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visible and simple, oriented toward the exit. Sills were possibly originally in place at the southern and western recesses. H Two orthostats stand out visually when exiting Cairn H. These are L2, facing in toward the chamber and bearing two large arcs with smaller dots inside, and R2, with a more complex composition of a large circles. These stones are located close to the tomb entrance. A sill separates the right recess from the central chamber. I When leaving Monument I, C1 is visible on the left wall of the left chamber, adjacent to the chamber/passage junction. C17 is located on the right wall of the right chamber, adjacent to the chamber/passage junction (Fig.
Figure 25: Loughcrew I C17 and C1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

25). Both appear to orient the subject toward the passage/exit.

L While exiting the chamber, C1 is highly visible, comprised of three large concentric motifs oriented toward the passage. In the passage itself, several orthostats are visually obvious on the way out of the tomb, especially L4, with two large circular motifs; L3 near the chamber/entrance junction with a complex though
Figure 26: Loughcrew L R1 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

scattered composition of several concentrics and a flower-shaped radial; and R1 (Figure 26) adjacent to the tomb entrance with a large concentric circle motif. All are

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oriented toward the exit. A sill demarcates the second recess from the central chamber. T Starting from the back chamber and moving outward, C9 is visible on the right wall of the back chamber. This stone faces in toward the rear wall, and bears several large concentric designs with radials. These motifs are concentrated on the upper portion of the stone. As one moves toward the passage C15 becomes obvious. C15 is adjacent to the chamber/passage junction. The edge is highly visible and has small, incised concentrics. All of these stones are found at liminal zones. Each recess and the central chamber are demarcated by sills.
Figure 27: Loughcrew T Passage edge-set stones (Shee-Twohig 1981)

In the passage, L5, and R5, adjacent to the chamber/passage junction, are both highly visible. Both bear designs covering most of the stone face including lots of small incised concentrics mixed in and joining with pecked concentrics. R4, L4 and L3 (R3 is missing) are edge set, forming a delineation of space about two thirds of the way between the tomb entrance and the chamber/passage junction (Fig. 27). All of these stones bear varied, faint motifs scattered along the edge-face. R2 is highly visible while moving out through the passage, and bears several concentric motics concentrated on the center of the stone-face, moving toward the top.

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U The most visible elements upon leaving Cairn U are C10 and C11, adjacent to the passage/chamber junction (Fig. 28). C10 and C11 comprise small, simple motifs and are oriented toward the passage.
Figure 28: Loughcrew U egress motifs (Shee-Twohig 1981)

In the passage, R3 (Fig. 29) and R2 are highly visible when looking out toward the tomb entrance. These both bear small, isolated concentric circles and arcs.
Figure 29: Loughcrew U R3 (Shee-twohig 1981)

Summary and Discussion


Table 4: Elements of the passage/egress
Simple, highly visible motifs at liminal areas Newgrange Knowth E Knowth W Barclodiad y Gawres Knockmany Fourknocks LC-F LC-H LC-I LC-L LC-T LC-U X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Architectural elements at liminal areas and passage X X Passage Blocked X

All of the tombs under consideration bear motifs emphasizing movement toward the passage and exit. Exiting the tomb is of considerable importance. Simple, highly visible motifs appear to be associated with the passage and movement to the outside

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world. These are associated with liminal zones such as the passage/chamber junction, the passage, and in some cases, are visible when exiting recesses and moving toward the chamber (C10s triple spiral at Newgrange). Architectural elements such as end-set stones in the passage at Loughcrew T, sill stones, lintels, and passage blocking further emphasize the difference between spaces.

Discussion:
Each of the four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to the locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt (world of the living), the passage (vortex), the inner chambers (world of the dead). Leaving the tomb will be addressed in the following chapter due to the proofs reliance on art motifs.

Artwork and composition

Motifs emphasize architectural elements


Lewis-Williams and Pearce (2005, 271) and Dronfield (1996a, 52) argue that the neurologically generated vortex as an access route between the realms, the architectural passage, and the spiral motif are closely related. The very nature of ...entoptic spirals and vortex experiences suggests passage. It seems highly likely that Neolithic spirals similarly had movement between realms as part of their meaning (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 271). Dronfield suggests that spirals (and concentric images) and passages were intended to be representations and reconstructions of neurologically-generated vortex experiences (Dronfield 1996, 52). The spiral may be perceived as the actual passageway (vortex) between the tiers. Dronfield suggests that since the tunnel and spiral are both functions of the V5 motion analysis, they are neurologically closely related (Dronfield 1996, 52). The spiral motif in art and myth also attests to this association. Clinically and cross-culturally, the spiral and similar concentric designs are graphic representations of the tunnel experience. For example, the motifs are seen in Tukano artwork, specifically a basketry pot-stand which the Tukano claim represents the spiraling whirlpool leading

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to another dimension (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 33). Dronfield (1996a) attempts to prove the association of the spiral (and other concentric motifs) with the tunnel in Neolithic passage graves. To this end, he examined the spatial distributions of motif types in three major tomb groups (Newgrange, Knowth and Loughcrew) His findings indicated "significant relationships between the placing of spiral and other dense concentric motifs and the location of the passage" (Dronfield 1996a, 41). Dronfield (1996a, 51) also found an association between lattices and chambers, or realms of the dead, at Knowth and Newgrange. His findings prove that certain motifs are associated with specific architectural elements of the tombs, emphasizing a relationship to the tiered cosmos generated by ASC.

Navigating the tomb: Signposts for the Dead, Signposts for the Living
Perhaps Dronfields argument (1996a) may be taken further. The artistic motifs may have their origins in ASC, but rather than being merely symbolic, they function as maps or guides through a living tiered cosmos which is replicated by the architecture of the passage grave. Their association with entoptic imagery may imbue them with sacred power, legible only to those privy to such sacred information. This argument may be supported by Hodgsons (2000) position that geometric markmaking arises from the neurophysiological mechanism responsible for navigation of the environment. These motifs may represent or function as navigational aids through the tomb. It is widely reported that while in deep ASC, subjects interact with spirits or ancestors, emphasizing the perception that alternate reality is the realm of the dead (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). Many believe that the subject actually dies upon entering trance or non-ordinary states. S/he enters the world of the beyond only to be reborn there and to return to his ordinary existence on this earth when the trance is over (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13). The Tukano actually refer to the vessel containing the hallucinogen (yaje) as the place of death (Reichel-Dolmatoff 1978, 13).

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This may be perceived as hazardous. In shamanic contexts, it is possible for the subject to get caught in the land of the dead (Eliade 1954, 36), or for a spirit to follow her/him back to the land of the living (Harner 1980, Ch. 1). Naturally, this must be avoided. In the Neolithic passage grave context, upon completion of whatever activities take place within the chamber, the celebrant departs through the passage. Since the passage is open access going both ways, there must be another element added to prevent egress for the deceased through the passage. This may be in the form of artistic motifs acting as shields or traps. Concurrently, some motifs also serve to guide the celebrant back out through the passage. The motifs serve to accentuate various architectural elements in order to orchestrate these movements. These motifs are simple and direct, while those directing the movements of the deceased are complex. The four locales experienced during ASC have been shown to correspond to the locales within a chambered tomb. These are the entrance or forecourt, the passage (vortex), the inner chambers relating to the world of the ancestors, and the passage back to the outside world. Different composition types may serve different purposes within the architecture, mainly to orchestrate the movements of the celebrants as well as the deceased who, it is hoped, will remain confined to the tomb, or least unable to exit the same way they were brought in. Evidence that the movement of humans is being orchestrated may include simple, visible compositions associated with the passage and egress. Evidence that the movements of the deceased were being orchestrated includes hidden compositions in areas inaccessible to humans, and complex compositions in areas in which the deceased were meant to remain. The location of the complex compositions or traps suggests that the deceased were meant to remain in the tomb or land of the dead, rather than travel outside of it, perhaps even to another realm. The complex compositions may act as traps, attracting the deceased and compelling them toward the composition, preventing passage.

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Complex motifs as traps


According to Gell (1998, 81), complex patterns are engaging to the human brain. When presented with a complex pattern, the observer feels compelled to analyze its composition until it can be grasped mathematically or geometrically. We attempt to understand the process of its construction. Although Gells argument suffers somewhat from lack of neurological evidence, perhaps Hodgsons (2000) argument can be applied. He indicates that this compulsion may be a process of the magno system in the visual cortex in which lines are analyzed in order to distinguish objects in the environment (Hodgson 2000, 869). Due to the release of dopamines, humans experience the compulsion as a pleasurable frustration; we are drawn into the pattern and held inside it, impaled, as it were, on its brisling hooks and spines. This pattern is a mind-trap (Gell 1998, 80). The cognitive obsession is accompanied by an attribution of supernatural origin. Even if the subject watches the pattern being created, because s/he cannot retrace the process by which the design was constructed, the artists seemingly effortless movements are presumed to be guided by a spiritual entity (Gell 1998, 86). These objects (e.g. mandalas) are thus imbued with the sacred. In many cases, the designs are used to ensnare or ward off demons, keeping them in their own world and preventing access to ours. These are apotropaic patterns, used as protective devices, defensive screens or obstacles impeding passage, and depend on the patterns adhesiveness to demons or other spirits. The spirits become so fascinated that they lose interest in whatever malevolent plan it had entertained previously (Gell 1998, 84). The demon, like a human, becomes entranced by the pattern, attempting to interpret the process by which it was created. The demon would then remain caught in the pattern, unable to exit its world into the world of the living (Gell 1998, 86). Examples include Celtic knotwork, South Indian kolam, Egyptian talisman, the Minoan labyrinth, and many others too numerous to list (Layard 1937, 116; Gell 1998, 86). If in the passage graves, the deceased are meant to stay within the tomb, particularly the chamber, apotropaic patterns may be in use. One would expect to find the most complicated motifs in locations directing the deceased away from the passage and exit. For example, very complex motifs often appear on the underside of roofslabs in

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the recesses of the main chamber. Dronfield suggested that these slabs guided the movement of the dead up through the motifs, the spirals acting as vortices to the afterworld (Dronfield 1996a, 54). I suggest that these may have served as an apotropaic pattern meant to entrance the decedent, persuading her/him to remain in the recess. Additionally, complicated patterns might be expected to be found on passages-stones facing back into the chamber, serving to ensnare the deceased before they have a chance to pass through the passage to the outside world. They might also be found on stone-faces that are not visible to the living (e.g., the upperside of roofslabs facing into the roof structure, or the backs of kerbstones facing the cairn and the inside of the tomb). These would only have been visible to spirits wandering inside the monument.

Simple motifs as guides


Simple motifs would appear where the living are meant to go (leading in and out of passage). These would be simple, obvious, and highly visible motifs. Upon completion of whatever activities took place within the chamber, the celebrant would have departed through the passage. It is a matter of interest to the celebrant and to the community not to have the deceased follow the celebrant back out of the tomb into the outside world. If certain motifs were intended to guide the celebrant through the tomb, then these motifs would have to have been inherently different than those meant to direct the movement of the deceased. These motifs would have to have been of little interest to the deceased so instructions meant for living would not be scrutinized by the eyes of the dead. Evidence that the movements of humans were orchestrated may include visible motifs associated with the passage and egress. Stone C17 of Loughcrew I is a great example of this (Fig. 25). The stone bears a large, highly visible and fairly simple, straightforward motif. The motif occurs directly to the left of the passage, almost seeming to point the way out. Another example is Stone C5 at Loughcrew H (Fig. 30). This stone bears eight scattered concentric circle motifs, very visible and straightforward. The composition occurs on the far wall of the left recess and appears to beckon one from the passage into the recess, directing the movements of the celebrant into the chamber.

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We will show that in the observed passage graves, motifs leading into the tomb, down the passage, into the chamber and, most importantly, back out through the passage were simple motifs that would have been obvious to the celebrant, and would not have had an entrancing effect on the deceased.

Figure 30: Loughcrew H C5 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Data and findings


We will look at eight passage graves observed during May, 2007, at which sufficient access and time afforded a thorough examination. These are: Barclodiad y Gawres, Fourknocks, Knockmany, and Loughcrew H, I, L, T and U. Several factors will be under consideration: visibility of the composition, its complexity, its location, and where it faces in the tomb (what architectural element is being emphasized). The first discussion will focus on the association between complexity and location, and the second discussion will focus on complexity, visibility and location. The complexity of the composition adorning each stone was calculated by adding the total number of motifs to the number of different motifs. This was multiplied by a number representing the percentage of stone face covered: 1-24% coverage = 1 25-50% = 2 50-75% = 3 Greater than 75%= 4

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This total will be known as the complexity index (CI). The tomb has been divided into visibility areas. Motifs will be classified according to what parts of the tomb they are visible from: A: visible at entrance (including kerbstones) (Fig. 31, lavender) B: visible from passage, going into chamber (Fig. 31, green) C: visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, corbels, lintels, etc. (Fig. 32, red) D. visible from chamber and passage while exiting (Fig. 33, yellow)

Figure 31: Areas A and B

Figure 32: Area C

Figure 33: Area D

It is expected that simpler motifs will be classified as B, while the more complex motifs will be classified as C, and D area stones will bear both simple, highly visible designs guiding the celebrant out of the tomb, and complex compositions on passagestones facing back into the chamber in order to keep the deceased inside the tomb structure. D will therefore have an average CI as it will comprise both highly complex and very simple compositions. Differences between these two types of compositions will be addressed by comparing their visibility. The CIs were not compared between tombs, but within them. Stones with the highest CIs in a certain tomb may be lower than those in another tomb, but would still be characterized as highly complex by comparison with its compatriots. The compositions in the highest third of all CI averages within a tomb were said to be 65

highly complex, while those in the lower third were said to be simple. This assists in illustrating locations of more and less complex stones within tombs. All numbers were entered without alteration when calculating averages between the tombs. A note must be added regarding the determination of numbers and variety of motifs on each stone. This is an extremely subjective endeavor. No two observers will arrive at the same numbers. Shee-Twohigs (1981) illustrations as well as personal observations at the tombs were the source of the numbers appearing in this paper. These differ from those arrived at by Dronfield (1995, 1996a, 1996b). Attempts were made to identify and rectify the discrepancies, with no satisfying result. Numbers arrived at by this author are offered here with the understanding that they are not, nor could they ever be, truly representative of the original designs, but that they come as close as possible. Table 5: Complexity indices by area for each tomb Loughcrew H Loughcrew I Loughcrew L Loughcrew U Loughcrew T Fourknocks Barclodiad y Gawres Knockmany Total A 24.00 0.00 33.00 0.00 109.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 55.50 B 11.33 44.00 17.88 2.00 41.75 42.22 24.00 31.50 26.84 C 7.00 46.14 38.54 42.36 42.25 48.88 39.00 46.70 38.86 D 47.00 46.50 35.25 30.75 53.00 50.00 39.33 92.50 30.33

Figure 34: Compexity Indices by Area Area Complexity Indices by


60 55.50

50

Complexity Indices

40

38.86

30.33 30 26.84

20

10

0 a b Visibility Areas c combined d

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High CI Medium

Figure 35: CI Proportions by tomb


Barclodiad y Gawres (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Low CI Four Knocks (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Knockmany (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew I (Shee-Twohig 1981) Loughcrew H (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew L (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew T (Shee-Twohig 1981)

Loughcrew U (Shee-Twohig 1981)

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Figure 36: Stones with low ci B

C D

E F

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

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Figure 37: Plans with mid ci A B

C D

E F

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

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Figure 38: Stones with high ci

A B

C D

E F

A. Barclodiad y Gawres, B Fourknocks, C. Knockmany, D. Loughcrew H, E. Loughcrwe I, F. Loughcrew L, G. Loughcrew T, H., Loughcrew U.

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Area A: Visible at entrance

This area bears a high average CI of 55.5. There are very few stones that are visible at the entrance: two passage stones at Loughcrew T (Fig. 40), one at Loughcrew L, and a kerbstone at Loughcrew I. The high CI may indicate that these stones were not meant to be passed by the
Figure 39: Loughcrew T L1 and L2 (Shee-Twohig 1981)

uninitiated. A highly complicated

pattern may function as an apotropaic motif designed to ensnare the average observer, preventing passage. Recall the carved kerbstones at Knowth and Newgrange, especially the formidable entrance stones decorated with large, complex designs. These are effective barriers to the tomb, traversable only by the celebrant and by the deceased. It is relatively safe for the celebrant to enter the tomb, as s/he would have been instructed in its navigation as well as in proper methods for interacting with the dead and spirits, while it may have been somewhat more risky for an uneducated citizen. The entrance serves as a barrier. The stones at Loughcrew may serve the same purpose though not in so physical a manner (they do not have to be clambered over).

Area B: Visible from passage, going into chamber

The CI for this area is 26.04. This indicates a relatively low complexity in art compositions in the passage and on chamber stones visible from the passage. C6 at Loughcrew T, for example, is a highly visible composition that is nevertheless simple, having a low CI. This composition may have served to guide the celebrant from the passage into the chamber to interact with the deceased. C2 in Loughcrew U is another example. This is a simple motif with a CI of 2, and is highly visible from the passage. With three exceptions (Barclodiad y Gawres C13, Loughcrew T C4, and Loughcrew L C18 (no longer there)), all 38 stones with the lowest CIs are intervisible with or in the passage (Fig. 36). 34 stones are visible while entering through the passage. Of these, only seven are highly complex, with a CI of 80 or higher. A complicating factor 71

to these calculations, I believe, is Fourknocks which has three highly visible and complex lintels over the recesses off the main chamber, raising the CI average. These are obvious from the passage and, in fact, are the first thing one notices when entering the chamber. These are clearly placed on liminal zones, delineating the border between the central chamber and the recesses, a symbolic place of the dead. In its layout Fourknocks is not so very different from the other passage tombs under consideration. The liminal zones are emphasized by architectural and artistic motifs. The difference lies in both the complexity of these designs as well as in the tombs usage. Hartnett (1957, 251) believes that all of the depositions at Fourknocks represent a single event. The deposit was then paved over with flat stones and each chamber was sealed. There is no suggestion that any of the other tombs contain possible single-event depositions, though this has not been discussed. There would have been no need to place simple, highly visible motifs at strategic points in the tomb, as there would have been no need for guidance. If Hartnett was correct, no-one would have been navigating the tomb besides the deceased. With the majority of compositions visible from the passage while moving toward the chamber having low CIs, these may be interpreted as guideposts. The relative lack of high CI compositions (excluding those at Fourknocks) indicates a lack of necessity to prohibit or prevent passage into the chamber once the subject has traversed the entrance stone and entered the tomb.

Area C: Visible in chamber, recesses, backs of kerbs, inside corbels, lintels, etc.

The average CI for this area is 38.86. One can observe from the plans of the tombs under consideration that with few exceptions, the most highly complex compositions occur within the chamber and recesses and in areas invisible to the living people in the tomb (structural stones such as corbels are not shown on these plans). The only exceptions are five stones located in the passages (the complex stones discussed above that are visible at the entrance, and L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and R2 at Loughcrew H which will be discussed below). Structural stones in the tombs under consideration have an average CI of 32.75, close to the overall CI of area C. These range, however, from 3 to 188. Consequently, it is difficult to say with certainty whether these display a trend of higher CIs. Their placement alone, in areas not 72

visible to living subjects, might be argued to be evidence of communication with the dead. It is easier to argue that highly complex compositions within the ground architecture display a tendency to cluster within the chambers, especially the recesses of the tomb (Fig. 38). L5 at Loughcrew T, R2 at Loughcrew I and R2 at Loughcrew H exist in the passages. R2 at Loughcrew I and L5 at Loughcrew T face back toward the chamber and may be a preventative measure against the deceased exiting through the passage. Several stones with medium CIs exist in the passage in stones that face the back of the chamber. These include R4, R3 and L3 at Loughcrew L, L2 at Loughcrew H, L8 at Barclodiad y Gawres, L4 and R5 at Loughcrew T. These may serve a similar purpose as those with higher CIs, as apotropaic patterns. R2 at Loughcrew H doesnt seem to fit this pattern, as it doesnt face inwards toward the back of the chamber. These may have been placed there to keep the dead in what was thought to be their proper place. In addition to the magnificent examples at Loughcrew, the roofslabs at Newgrange illustrate this function. Dronfield (1996a, 54) suggests that the spirals on the roofslabs at Newgrange functioned as passages through which selected individuals could travel to the next dimension. It seems as if the otherworld could be accessed only through the tomb, then, as the location of complex motifs such as those found on the roofslabs are placed strategically around the tomb to prevent the deceased from exiting through the door. Whether the tomb was thought to BE the land of the dead or function as a passage is not certain. What appears to be certain is that the deceased were expected to remain within the monument for a specified amount of time. Table 6: CI of hidden compositions
Tomb LCT LCI LCT LCT LCI LCT LCI LCT LCT LCT LCT LCL Average CI Stone Roofstone Cell 2 Loose stone, probably roofstone (upper surface) Co1/C2 Lintel cell 2 Loose stone, probably roofstone (lower surface) Co2/C2 Loose stone, probably roofstones (edge) Lintel cell 1 Co2/C4 Roofstone Cell 3 lintel cell 3 Co4/c2-4 CI 188 36 33 30 28 26 20 11 8 6 4 3 32.75

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Area D: Visible from chamber and passage while exiting

The average CI for compositions visible from the chamber and passage while exiting (in other words, those motifs facing back toward the chamber) is 30.33, indicating a lower overall complexity in compositions than in some other areas of the tomb. This average is not sufficient to illustrate the function of stones in this visibility area, however, as it includes both highly complex and very simple compositions. Highly complex compositions may function as a last-ditch attempt to prevent egress of the deceased through the passage, while highly simple motifs may function as guides for the celebrant exiting the tomb. Both are expected to be found in this area. If simple motifs were to function as guides for the living, it would have to be visible as the subject moves through the tomb. Motifs intended for the dead would not necessarily be visible to the living. Simple motifs located at liminal zones would therefore be more highly visible than any other motifs if they are intended as guides throughout the monument. Motifs occurring at these locations will be compared to visibility ratings of other motifs taken at the tombs. Visibility ratings are given to each composition based on observation at the tombs. These were assigned based on visibility from certain vantage points, in this case, as one is exiting the tomb. These are: 1= faintly visible 2=medium visible 3=highly conspicuous These ratings were given to every composition in every tomb. Figure 37 below illustrates the comparison between the visibility of simple motifs encountered while exiting the tomb, to the visibility of all other motifs within the tomb. In all but two cases, the simple motifs exhibit higher visibility. Fourknocks and Knockmany are the exceptions. Fourknocks again, may exhibit different tendencies than the other tombs because of the possibility that it was only used once and then closed, making the erection of guidestones unnecessary. Knockmany is a uniquely shaped tomb among the tombs under consideration. Use is ambiguous due to the highly disturbed nature and looting of the artifacts. Reasons for the differences, therefore, in the use of complex and simple compositions within the tomb are elusive. It would appear, 74

however, that simple motifs in liminal zones visible while exiting the chamber exhibit a higher visibility than do other compositions within the tomb. This may indicate that the compositions were meant to be viewed and interpreted by the living individuals navigating the tomb. Figure 40: Motif Visibility of Compositions Motif Visibility
Visibility Rating 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 LCH LCI LCL LCT LCU FK BYG KM Simple/Liminal v. Other Motif Visibility

Conclusion

It was found that stones visible at the entrance had the highest CI, while those leading into the chamber through the passage had the lowest. C has the highest CI of the tomb interior and, as expected, area D exhibits an average CI, combining simple and complex compositions present in that visibility area. This may be interpreted as follows. The compositions at the entrance and kerb serve to keep the uninitiated from entering the tomb. If Gell (1998) is to be believed, these motifs function as neurological traps, causing an observer to become entranced due to cognitive functions resulting from selective adaptive traits as outlined by Hodgson (2000). Compositions visible while moving through the passage to the chamber have the lowest CI, indicating that they do not function as apotropaic patterns, and may instead serve to guide the subject into the chamber. The prevalence of complex motifs in the chamber and especially the recesses may indicate an attempt to contain the deceased within the central part of the tomb. Finally, low CIs combined with high visibility of motifs encountered while exiting the chamber may function as navigational tools for the celebrant, while high CIs combined with a lower visibility may serve as final attempts to trap the deceased, preventing her/his egress through the front door. 75

Discussion
The four locales of a chambered tomb have been shown to correspond to the four locales experienced during ASC. These include the entrance, the passage, the inner chambers or world of the dead, and the passage back to the outside world. Architectural elements emphasize the differences in these areas further suggesting that the tomb is a reflection of ASC. Dronfield (1996a) argued that certain endogenous diagnostic motifs were associated with certain areas of the tomb, further emphasizing their association with ASC. I have attempted to show above that motifs also function to orchestrate both the movements of the celebrants and the movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb or the land of the dead or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in. The placement of these motifs reiterates the notion that the tomb incorporates or reifies the tiered cosmos arising from ASC. The entrance, the vortex, the land of the dead and the exit are emphasized and delineated by the deliberate placement of simpler and more complex compositions of motifs in association with specific, corresponding architectural areas of the tomb. These may have been perceived as real zones by those who constructed the tomb and placed the artwork. The artwork itself has been shown to be associated with ASC (Dronfield 1995, 1996a, 1996b). This would imbue the motifs with a sacredness. It may have been believed that they originated in another world and were infused with spiritual powers. If the architecture has been seen up to now as a representation of the tiered cosmos, then the artwork transforms it into a living, working manifestation of that cosmos. These tombs were not mere receptacles for bones to be placed inside and forgotten. Motifs were deliberately placed inside the tombs, perhaps intended to engage in communication long after the chambers were sealed and the entrance blocked. Placed on the permanent material of stone, the artwork maintains transitional spaces and guards borders, simultaneously opening up vortices and access routes. The artwork facilitates movement, gives breath and voice to the stones. These stones are not ancient text. They are eternal dialogue between past and present, living and dead.

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Conclusion and Discussion


Brain processes during altered states of consciousness result in heightened emotions, blurred boundaries between self and other, misattribution of sensorial stimuli, and the experience of a journey through different realms often accessed by a vortex. These same neurological processes are responsible for heightened memory formation and belief in the reality of perceived stimuli. Together these brain processes may have manifested in the cross-cultural belief in a tiered cosmos, thought to be the origin of shamanism and many other religions. Elements within the tiered cosmos bear a striking resemblance to the elements within Neolithic passage graves in Ireland and Wales. Through the investigation of Newgrange, Knowth, Knockmany, Loughcrew F, H, I, L, T, U, and Fourknocks in Ireland, and Barclodiad y Gawres in Wales, an association with the tiered cosmos has been shown. A number of characteristics are shared between the two. First, an association with ASC was shown to exist via the presence of entoptic motifs in the tombs, and the possible presence of audial and optic inductive elements. Evidence that the tomb is itself functioning as a tiered cosmos has been shown by a favourable comparison between the locales experienced during ASC and those experienced in the tombs. Applying Gells (1998) apotropaic model to Knockmany, Fourknocks, Loughcrew H, I, L, S, T, and U in Ireland has been demonstrated that many of the artistic compositions functioned to orchestrate both the movements of the celebrants and the movements of the deceased, containing them within the tomb or the land of the dead or at least preventing them from leaving the way they came in.

Ramifications on Social Behaviour The same neurological processes that are responsible for ASC and the tiered cosmos also facilitate the very social behaviours that have enabled our species survival in the face of economic and environmental change: social cohesion. In Homo sapiens and other mammals ritual behaviour is one way of overcoming social distance between individuals, to coordinate group action, socialize young, and

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communicate status and social structure (Marshall 2002, 360). Our neural pathways have evolved in such a way as to facilitate this behaviour efficiently. For example, the human compulsion to gather together during times of stress has obvious survival benefits (e.g. a large group is better able to ward off large predators). During such gatherings, the human brain activates neural processes rewarding this behaviour (e.g. dopamine and other analgesic hormones are released providing a respite from anxiety), causing a continued desire to engage in this activity. Freedom from fear is a powerful motivation. The pleasure and necessity of co-presence is enhanced by activities causing varying degrees of AUB and religious awe such as rhythmic drumming, etc. This behaviour predisposes humans toward ritual practice. It is not by neurology alone that Homo sapiens engage in spirituality and communal behaviours. A ritual must involve culturally significant experience in order to generate the emotional atmosphere necessary for transcendence, unity with one's conspecifics and the formation of spiritually potent memory. Newberg et al (2001, 89) have found that rhythmic ritual behaviours relying on culturally meaningful events activate the autonomic system to a higher degree than chemical stimulation (Newberg et. al. 2001, 89). It is during ritual that local myth and legend are maintained. Mithen (1996) argues that the resolution of paradoxes (that humans can fly, trees can talk, etc.) is essential to symbolic thought. It is during "spillover" (deafferentation) experiences that paradoxes presented through myth become resolved by the simultaneous functioning of both hemispheres of the brain. In ritual stimulation of the arousal system, for example, the presentation of what is an unresolvable logical problem in the left brain (the shaman brings messages from the community's ancestors) is experienced as unified in the holistic operation of the right brain. The myths become experienced fact. In this state, cultural symbols such as the designs on the entrance stone at Newgrange are totems imbued with sacred significance. The effervescence (heightened emotions) experienced by the community is misattributed to the totem (in this case the stones) as a causal factor (Marshall 2002, 366). This is remembered in ritual context by a community whose neurological processes are functioning in an altered state, and are predisposed to the increased formation of memories imbued with religious and emotional significance (Newberg et. al. 2001, 96). Social integration and a sense of 78

unity are amoung the most noted outcomes and functions of ritual, according to Durkheim (1912, in Marshall 2002, 363). Ritual requires attentional focus, according to Marshall (2002, 365). The use of rhythm (optic, audial, dance, etc.) and spectacle are common tools. These produce unified movement via behavioural entrainment, creating rapport and a sense of belonging. Those who control this attention are in a position of great power, able to influence the beliefs and behaviours of their community through a generalized neurological manipulation. This is heightened at the tombs "because death is, as Berger puts it, 'the marginal situation par excellence,' it makes sense that it is closely associated with the most radical techniques of attentional control (Berger 1969, 23 in Marshall 2002, 365). The community may experience fear at the death of one of its members. This causes a desire for congregation. The funeral rite then provides a release from fear and provides effervescent states attributed to the sacred power of the totem and the celebrants ability to harness that power. The experience of ASC upon individuals in a group may facilitate the affectation of desired social conditions upon that group. In other words, the consciousness of an individual may be altered in such a way that the conditions suggested during the ritual experience become integral to the individual's perception of self within society. These conditions become so associated with the community and (perhaps) the spiritual, that they seem unquestionable by/to the individual. To question such conditions may appear to be anti-social. In this way, certain social conditions may be carried out without public challenge, although the individual may privately maintain adversity. It's not necessary for everyone to believe it, just to have it as a necessary condition of action (Shennan 1982, 156). An analysis of theta:gamma activity during emotionally charged experience suggests a neurological process behind the social one for keeping such subversiveness hidden. This is not to suggest that individuals did not have their own thoughts, knowledge, and understanding of any situation they experience. Nor is it argued that ideology is a purely gratuitous invention of consciousness intentionally manipulating reality, nor is the result of a conspiracy on the part of those whose interests it serves (Shanks and

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Tilley, 1987, 181). This argument merely suggests the possible neurological underpinnings of how social behaviours become translated into ritual behaviours. Neolithic practices reflect Upper Palaeolithic ceremonial practice in many ways. During the Upper Palaeolithic, people used caves with labyrinthine passages, small chambers and large open rooms for ceremonial purposes. According to Lewis Williams and Pearce these caves and subterranean passageways represented the neurologically-generated cosmos. They believe it is no coincidence that passage graves resemble caves. The cave in the tomb is replicated by the cave in the mind (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 218). The authors contend that by constructing their own cave, Neolithic people gained greater control over the cosmos and were able to 'adjust' beliefs about it to suit social and personal needs" (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85). Neolithic people did not could not challenge the tiered nature of their universe: it was wired into their brains. Nor could they ignore notions of passing through a vortex and flight: those experiences, too, were 'hard-wired.' So the new, 'above-ground' arrangements for representing and for accessing the tiers of the cosmos, arrangements that sometimes necessitated major construction, became an acceptable way of accommodating a burgeoning new social and religious dispensation without jettisoning the fundamental structure of the cosmos. (Lewis-Williams and Pearce 2005, 85-86) Though this may have been controlled by a few knowledgeable persons, ceremony and symbol would have changed along with the needs of the community. The careful construction of the tombs, placement of artistic motifs and architectural elements and use of inductive elements may have been perceived as maintaining the land of the dead as a separate but contemporary realm within the Neolithic landscape. This may have had crucial importance, providing comfort, a basis for social cohesion and perhaps a political structure to Irish and British Neolithic communities during a period of economic change.

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Appendix

88

Motif Counts
Barclodiad y Gawres
BYG C16
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 2 sets of 2 vertical Location Right chamber at entrance to passage

Set of 4 nested

2 concentric lozenges

BYG C13
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Set of 3 nested Location Back wall of western chamber

Set of 3 nested

BYG C3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Number Location Back wall of eastern chamber

1 (?)

2nd and 4th from left

BYG3 continued Shape Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

1, 1 nested (form dependent)

BYG C1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Number Location East wall of chamber, adjacent to passage entrance

3 1

1 concentric connected to multiple spiral, 2 concentric with angled tops, 1 connected to arc loop, with angled top, 1 form dependent 1 concentric 1 set of 2 horizontal

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

BYG L8
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left passage 1

Fourknocks
FK R2 (incised shapes)
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Passage right Almost invisible motifs Invisible from chamber or passage

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 vertical set of 6-7

1, missing 1 edge, cross inside, possible lattice

FK R5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Passage right adjacent to chamber Faintly visible on way out Faintly visible in passage

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 (or lozenges)

1 incised concentric

south face of stone, facing chamber

FK A
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Central chamber Visible from central chamber and on the way out toward passage. May not be in original position. Highly visible motifs. The edge is covered with markings that are very similar to other lintel stones and may have been a lintel stone at one time.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree

1 inside circle Zigzag and lozenge motif possibly a fortification

FKA continued Shape Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 2

Location

1 1

Vertical line of 8 lozenges 1 set of 3 horizontal inside circle 2 sets of 2,vertical and facing each other

FK F
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Lintel stone of western chamber Highly visible from chamber and passage (on the way in)

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Zigzags possible fortification (?)

Set of 10 horizontal 2 sets of 3 horizontal facing each other

Vertical line of 9 above and 7 below, form dependent

FK E
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Lintel stone of back chamber Highly visible from passage and central chamber

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle

Zigzags possibly fortification (?)

4 sets nested 2 sets nested (4 above, 2 below) horizontal

2 above, 3 below, form dependent

FK C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location From the diagram it looks like this stone was decorated on the back. I find no record of decorations.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

FK D
Possibly weathered/eroded Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Lintel stone, east wall central chamber Almost invisible

2-3

2-3

Set of 2 on edge

edge

FK C1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Chamber west, adjacent to passage. Highly visible from central chamber and passage, especially on the way out.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge

8, 1 concentric 1 concentric, 1

FK C1 continued Shape Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

FK B
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location East passage Chamber entrance Lintel (?) stone above orthostat at entrance to central chamber. May not be in original position. Different type of motif from all other lintel stones. Very highly visible from chamber and passage especially on the way out to passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square FK L4 Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 simple, 6 concentric 1 simple, 2 concentric

Number

Location Left passage close to chamber entrance Very faintly visible from passage

Zigzags possible fortification (?)

Set of 5 horizontal

Set of 3 incised vertical

Knockmany
KM Stone 12
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right passage at chamber entrance Almost invisible

2 horizontal lines , 3 sets of 6 vertical lines, 2 lines at right angle 2 dots

KM C11
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location right side of chamber, entrance highly visible as one exits chamber into passage. One of the most striking stones in the tomb.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 2 2 4 7+

5 2+, 1 concentric

1 set of 3

KM C10
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right side of chamber Not visible from passage. Visible when exiting chamber out into passage. Probably medium visibility, fairly faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

1 1

Edge Face

KM C10 continued Shape Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 1 2 concentric

Location Face Face

KM C9
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location East wall of chamber Beautifully visible in chamber. Slightly visible from passage/entrance to central chamber.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

3 1 2-3 3 2 1 set of 3, 5

3 concentric

1 set of 8-10 in square 1 nested 11 dots

3 concentric 3 concentric

KM C7
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location back wall chamber. Very faint, almost invisible.

1 possible 1 2

Circle with dot 1, 2 concentric

Back face

Misc lines

KM C6
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Number Location Northwestern wall of chamber. Lines highly visible from passage.

3 conjoined 1

4 1 on back

4 on face 1 on back

Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 concentric

2 sets of 7 horizon, 2 sets of 2 vert, 1 set of two vert (one above the other) 7 dots

KM C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location West wall of chamber. Nicely visible from chamber, especially radial/flower motif.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

11

1, 1 concentric on back

1 on face, 1 on back

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 set of 5 vertical Many small dots

KM C4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Number Location West wall of chamber. Almost invisible.

KM C4 continued Shape Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 2 sets 1 dot

Location

KM C3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Southwestern wall of chamber, adjacent passage. Visible from passage, fairly faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 possible

1 6 with dots

1 with dot 1 with dot

1 set of 9 vertical, 1 set of 5 horiz Several dots

Loughcrew H
LC H R2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Circles,Location Passage right: highly visible, striking in passage and exiting tomb from chamber to passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 concentric, 1 with dot, 1 2

1 set of 5 with a vertical line down the middle 5 dots

LC H C18
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Southeastern (right) wall of eastern chamber: faint. Not visible from central chambers. Visible only when inside right side chamber, as the motif faces into the cell.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 or more incised

1 dot

LC H Sill
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Eastern chamber entrance: by far the most striking stone in the tomb. Very visible from central chamber and passage, even though low to the ground.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC H C14
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left side (wall?) of eastern chamber: visible in passage and central chamber. Not striking, but visible.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

Circle LC C14 continued Shape Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

LC H C11
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Eastern wall of back chamber: visible in central chamber, looking out toward passage. Only seen if crouched down. Fairly faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Possible fortification of (2 sets) arcs connected by horizontal line 1

LC H C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left side chamber wall. Very visible from passage. Nice, strong motifs. Striking, especially the two larger circles.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

6 concentric 1 with dot, 1 simple

LC H L2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Passage left: almost invisible.

At least 5 tiny, incised 2

LC H K8
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 1 Location Kerb: Couldn't find this stone.

1 1 with dot

2 sets inside circle

Loughcrew I
LC I R2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right passage: visible from passage. Medium visibility. Not particularly striking.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge

1 concentric incised

LC I R2 continued Shape Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 1 set of 3 vertical

Location

LC I C17
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right side of 1st chamber: highly visible going out toward passage. Striking.

Set of 6

LC I C15
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right side of 2nd chamber and left side of 1st chamber: not very visible.

LC I C13
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location left side of 2nd chamber, right side of 3rd chamber: edge not visible. Face slightly visible from inside chamber, especially when stooping.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

3-10; 2

East face; south face

10, 2 with dots; One with parallel lines, 1 concentric 1; 1, 1 concentric 1 1 set inside a loop, 1 set

East face; south face East face; South face East face South face

1; 3

East face; south face

LC I C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right wall of 6th chamber: highly visible from passage and central chamber.

6 Possible fortification of meanders or small circular arcs

3 sets

3 concentric

LC I C4 (after Du Noyer)
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall of 6th chamber: slightly visible from central chamber and cross chamber, though overgrown with lichen and weeds.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

LCI C4 continued Shape Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 6 concentric 1 concentric

Location

LC I C1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall of 7th chamber: highly visible looking out at passage. Probably the most striking motifs in the tomb.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

4 sets concentric, 2; 2 sets concentric

Face; edge

I Loose stone (probable roofslab of chamber 5)


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 2 sets vertical; 2 Location Found in 5th passage, probably roofslab Upper surface; lower surface

1; 6

Upper surface; lower surface

2 concentric; 2 concentric; 3

Upper surface; edge; lower surface

6 sets

edge

Upper surface

Loughcrew Cairn L
LC L R1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right passage

LC L R3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 1 Location Right passage

2 concentric 1 concentric

LC L R4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Number Location Right passage at chamber entrance

LC L R4 continued Shape Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number Many possible incised circles, possible dots

Location

LC L C19 East Face


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location East Face: left wall of 1st chamber, right wall of 2nd chamber

9 1

4 concentric, 5 simple 1 1

LC L C19 West face


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location West face! Facing 2nd chamber

2 large regions lozenge/lattice shaped

LC L C17 east
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Number Location Left wall 2nd chamber, right wall 3rd chamber

LC L C17 east continued Shape Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

1 with dot, 6 possible incised circles 3

2 2 dots

LC L C17 west
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location

1 3, 1 incised 2 simple, 1 concentric 1

LC L C17 south
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location

1 concentric, 1 with parallel lines 1 concentric

LC L C16
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 1 1 (triangles) 3? 3 5-6 Location Back wall of 3rd chamber

10 concentric (1 on back), 10 simple 7 simple, 3 concentric 1 set of 7 vertical, 1 incised, 1 incised on edge/back

LC L C11
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left wall of 3rd chamber, right wall of 4th chamber

1 concentric, 1 incised

LC L C9
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Number 5 sets (possible fortification) Location Back wall of 5th chamber

1 concentric, 1

LC L C8
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left, back wall of 5th chamber

1 with dot

LC L C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left wall of 6th chamber, right wall of 7th chamber

4 east side, 1 north 2

East face

1 set of 3, 1 set of 7

East face

LC L C4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Number Location Back wall 7th chamber

2-3 2

3 concentric, 3 simple 1 concentric, 1 with lines inside

LC LC3 (east)
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location

LC C3 (west)
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location

1 simple, 6 concentric

LC L C18
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Number Location

4 dots

LC L C3 edge
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right wall 8th chamber, left wall 7th chamber

1 2 concentric

LC L C1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left wall 8th chamber

2, 3 incised 2 concentric incised

LC L L4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Number 1 inside circle Location Left passage at chamber entrance

1 1 with motifs inside

Set of 4 inside circle, set of 3, set of 2

LC L L3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 1 Location Left passage

4 possible incised 3 concentric

1 flower

LC L L1 looks very weathered


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left passage

1+ 1

1 concentric, 4 + simple

Loughcrew T
LC T R2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Number Location Right passage: highly visible inside passage, especially exiting.

6 1

4 concentric, 1 simple

LC T R2 continued Shape Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

LC T R4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right passage

1 simple, 1 with dot

LC T R5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Number Location Right passage, entrance to chamber: highly visible in passage.

1 3

1 with dot 3 simple, 1 concentric

6 sets

2 incised (1 formed to existing parallel line set)

Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

LC T Sill 1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Entrance to central chamber: not visible. Motifs indiscernible.

1 possible incised 3 concentric, 2 concentric incised

9 possible incised tiny circles

LC T C15
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Entrance to central chamber: top edge very faint. Side edge highly visible from passage. Face visible when exiting from chamber into passage, especially double arc and loop art motif on the right side of the face.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

1 2 5-6

2-3

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

4 simple, 3 concentric, 1 oval with 5 parallel lines inside, 1 oval with 4 lines inside; 3 concentric on edge (2 with incised design inside), 10 concentric incised on edge 1 concentric on edge; 2 concentric on face 1 set of 7 horizontal Set of 4 8 dots on edge 1

LC T C14
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right wall north (right side) chamber: visible from back, right and central chambers.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc)

4-5

LC T C14 continued Shape Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

2 concentric with dots, 1 embellished with parallel lines and dot, 1 simple 1 concentric embellished with parallel lines

1 set bordered by arcs, 1 set of 6, 1 set adjacent to spiral

LC T C11
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall of northern (right side) chamber: fairly visible from passage and central chamber, espcially 2 concentric circles and radial motif on left side of stone face.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 possible 2-4 1 2-3

4 concentric with dots, 10 incised circles 3-4 1 possibly part of a fortification

1 inside circle

LC T C10
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location North wall central chamber: fairly visible from passage and central chamber.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial

1 concentric, 2 simple, 1 concentric incised 1 concentric

Diagnostic Nonendogenous

(none)

LC T Sill 3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Entrance to back chamber: lightly visible from passage and central chamber. Radial design most pronounced, but still faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 with radial, 1 with dot

2 dots 1 inside circle

LC T C9
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right wall of back chamber: visible from back and central chamber (when crouched and looking in)

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 1 concentric , 2 concentric with radials

7-10 vertical on edge

2 radiating from concentric arcs

LC T C8
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall of back chamber: highly visible from central chamber and passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

4 with flowers, 4 with dots, 1

concentric, 3 with parallel lines divided by vertical line, 1 simple LC T C8 continued Shape Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 1 concentric, 1 concentric with parallel lines inside Location

1 set of 4 5

LC T C6
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left wall of back chamber: (No record)???

LC T C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall of central chamber: highly visible from passage and central chamber.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

5 with dots 2

LC T C4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right wall of southern chamber: slightly visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage. Fairly faint markings.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 with dots, 1 concentric 1

LC T C3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall of southern chamber: highly visible from central chamber. Not visible from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 concentric, 5 with dots, 5 with incised motifs inside 3 concentric

Set of 6-8 horizontal 12 tiny concentric incised circles 2 inside circles, 1

LC T C2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall of southern chamber: visible from central chamber. Not visible when exiting chamber into passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

3 incised concentric, 3 oval concentric incised

LC T C2 continued Shape Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number 2 simple, 2 concentric, 2 with dots, 1 with lines radiating from 1 side

Location

Set of 3 divided by line, set of 3, set of 4 with arc

LC T C1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall of central chamber at entrance to passage: not visible from chamber. Almost invisible from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Set of 3

LC T L5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left passage by chamber entrance: highly visible in passage and exiting chamber to passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 2 simple, 1 concentric, 4 with incised circles inside, 2 with dots 1 concentric, 1 with incised circle inside

@50 tiny concentric incised circles

LC T L4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left passage: faint. Only visible in passage.

1 3 with dots, 1 simple; 2 with dots on edge

3 tiny circles, 2 dots

LC T L3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left chamber: very slightly visible in passage, especially exiting to outside.

3-4

Set of 3

LC T L2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left passage: highly visible in passage, especially entering as stone faces entrance.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line

2 1 4 2

3 concentric, 3 with dots, 3 simple 2 with dots, 4 concentric,

LC T L2 continued Shape Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number At least 10 dots

Location

LC T L1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left passage at entrance to tomb: highly visible in passage, especially entering as stone faces entrance.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

4 concentric, 5 with dots, 1 with a row of circles with dots lining the inside and radial lines with dots, 1 with a radial inside 3 concentric, 1 simple

1 with dits, 1 inside circle

LC T co2/C2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Very faint

Oval with circle, oval and closed arc shape inside 2 concentric

LC T C01/C4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Faint/couldn't find

1 1 with dot

LC T Co1/c2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 2 Location Faint/couldn't find

1 with dot on edge or back

Set of 7 3 dots

LC T Fragment (after Conwell)


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Number Location Not there

1 with dot 1, 1 with dot

(none)

LC T Lintel Cell 1
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number 2 Location Almost invisible

4 sets

LC T Roofstone Cell 3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Very faint

Set of 4 nested horizontal, 1 vertical

LC T Lintel cell 2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Number Location Very faint

2 concentric, 2 incised (?)

1 set of 8 vertical, 1 set of 4 vertical

(none)

LC T Roofstone Cell 2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Roofstone, back chamber: beautifully visible when crouched in central or back chamber. Highly defined. Looked like the eastern chamber ceiling in Newgrange!

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 4 concentric, 2 with dots, 1 with radial, 3 simple, 1 oval with parallel lines and radials coming out 2 with dots, 1 concentric 1 with dot Set of 6 vertical divided by line, set of 5 connected by line, set of 3

3, 1 flower

2 ovals with parallel lines,

LC T K29 after Du Noyer


Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Number Location

2 concentric, 1 on back 1 with parallel lines inside, 1 concentric, 3 with incised circles inside, 2 conjoinedconcentric

Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

18incised small circles

Loughcrew U
LC U R2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Number Location Right passage: visible when exiting chamber into passage

LCU R2 continued Shape Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number Set of 7

Location

2 concentric

LC U R3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Visible when looking out at passage from chamber.

1 concentric 1 concentric

LC U C11
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right central chamber at entrance to passage: south face invisible. East face visible when crouched.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Set of at least 10 on south face

1 concentric on east face

LC U C10
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right wall of northern side chamber: slightly visible exiting chamber into passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

5 possible 1 concentric

LC U C9
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall of northern side chamber: most striking stone in the tomb. Not visible from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line

1 on edge; 5 or 6 on face

@5

Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

8 concentric 13 concentric 1 set of 3 concentric lozenges 1 concentric 1 set of 4 diagonal inside arc, All other parallel lines appear to be part of the zigzag/lattice/lozenge design Set of 5 with lattice/lozenge design 3-5 dots 1

LC U C8
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left side of northern side chamber: almost invisible. Would be visible from passage if motifs were more heavily carved.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral

Set of 6

Circle LC U C8 continued Shape Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

2 concentric, 1 simple Number 1 Location

LC U C7
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Right wall of back chamber: almost invisible. Right wall of back chamber. Not visible from passage, but passage can be seen from it.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Set of 6

LC U C6
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location back wall of back chamber: visible when crouched. Fairly faint motifs.

2 concentric, 1 arc with radial lines, 2 simple

Set of 5 vertical 1tiny circle

LC U C5
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall of back chamber: barely visible. Easier to see when crouched. Can't be seen from passage.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Set of 6, 2 1 6

1 with radial inside 2 concentric 1 Set of 7

1 inside circle

LC U C4
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Right wall of southern chamber: neither face is visible. Very faint.

1 east face; 2 north face

1 east face; 1 north face

LC U C3
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Back wall, southern chamber: visible when crouched. Medium visible...not too faint.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

Arc Lattice

4 concentric, 1 simple, 1 with radial lines inside, 10 concentric incised 2 concentric, 3 simple

Lozenge LC U C3 Continued Shape Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

Number

Location

LC U C2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Number Location Left wall in left chamber: faint. West face partially visible while exiting the chamber toward passage, easier to see when crouched. Concentric arcs, 2 of the circles, and oval with parallel lines more visible. East face plainly visible from passage, especially when crouched.

Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle

3 west face

Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square

1 concentric west face, 3 ovals with parallel lines west face, set of 11 simple running vertically up west face, 7 simple west face 1 concentriceast face, 1 concentric west face

3 sets inside ovals

LC U L2
Shape Diagnostic endogenous Meander Fortification Arc-spiral Filigree Arc (loop) Spiral (multiple) Small circular (arc) Undiagnostic Spiral Circle Arc Lattice Lozenge Parallel line Zigzag Small circular radial Diagnostic Nonendogenous Triangle Square Number Location Left passage, near entrance to chamber: almost invisible.

Finish fish.

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