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Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy

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Teacher education in Canada

Shirley Van Nuland
a a

Faculty of Education, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Canada Available online: 21 Sep 2011

To cite this article: Shirley Van Nuland (2011): Teacher education in Canada, Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 37:4, 409-421 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.611222

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Journal of Education for TeachingAquatic Insects Vol. 37, No. 4, November 2011, 409421

Teacher education in Canada

Shirley Van Nuland*
Faculty of Education, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, Canada (Final version received 11 July 2011) Teacher education programmes within Canada are markedly different in structure and duration across the provinces, which affects programme delivery for teacher candidates and their opportunities for clinical practice. This paper provides a brief overview of Canadian pre-service teacher education, a summary of new teacher induction and mentoring activities, and an outline of some issues and factors facing and inuencing these teacher education programmes, including declining enrolment, emerging technologies and practices, and equity issues. Keywords: emerging technologies; equitable access; pre-service teacher education; practicum; teacher education research

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Introduction to education in Canada Responsibility for education in Canada is within a federal system of shared powers since Canadas Constitution Act of 1867 provides that [I]n and for each province, the legislature may exclusively make Laws in relation to Education. In the 13 jurisdictions (10 provinces and three territories), the responsibility to organise, deliver and assess education at elementary, secondary and tertiary (including technical and vocational) levels lies with departments or ministries of education. As a result, there is no federal department of education and no integrated national system of education. Viewed as a nation, one notes the signicant differences in curriculum, assessment, governance and accountability policies among the jurisdictions that express the geography, history, language, culture and corresponding specialised needs of the populations served (Council of Ministers of Education Canada 2008). Within each province or territory, the many ofcials responsible for education within the education department(s) and local school boards understand their roles through statutes and regulations outlining their duties. At the provincial/territorial level, these duties include providing curricula guidelines to school boards to develop courses of study, setting diploma requirements, distributing funds allocated by the legislature, and making regulations governing organisation of schools and duties of teachers and school board ofcials. It is then the responsibility of district or local school boards to build, equip and furnish schools, to employ teachers and other staff to operate the schools, to provide special education programmes and to

*Email: shirley.vannuland@uoit.ca
ISSN 0260-7476 print/ISSN 1360-0540 online 2011 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.611222 http://www.tandfonline.com

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ensure that within their jurisdictions schools abide by the provisions of the statutes and regulations. Public education at the elementary and secondary school levels is provided free of cost to those meeting age and residency requirements. Pre-elementary education (for four- and ve-year-olds) is offered in most regions in Canada but may vary in programme delivery, e.g. a full day programme; a combination of half day programme with half day child care; a half day programme every day or full day every other day. While the local school board generally determines the programme, some programmes follow provincial curricula guidelines. Elementary and secondary school education is compulsory, but the age varies with the jurisdiction (i.e. six to 18 or graduation from secondary school). Elementary schooling consists of six or eight years with students progressively learning subjects such as language, mathematics, social studies, science, health and physical education, music and art. In recent years, additional resources and support have been directed to literacy and numeracy initiatives to develop stronger reading, writing, and math skills for elementary age children. Secondary schooling includes the nal four or six years of compulsory education. Early in secondary school, students take mostly compulsory courses with some optional courses, and in the later years undertake specialised courses that lead to the job market or the tertiary level. The specialised courses may include technical and vocational courses. It is within this Canadian landscape that pre-service teacher education is situated. Pre-service teacher education Teacher education is offered in 62 institutions in Canadas 10 provinces (a gure conrmed by the Association of Canadian Deans of Education); no programmes are offered in the three territories. Student enrolment ranges from fewer than 100 to over 4000, and faculty members number from six to 150 (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). The Crocker and Dibbon study shows that teacher education programmes are markedly different in structure and duration and that these differences have a signicant inuence on delivery, time allocation and utilisation, students learning experiences and students opportunities for clinical practice. Given the geographical, historical, linguistic and cultural diversities in Canada, no one teacher education model can meet the needs and interests of the jurisdictions. Where appropriate, English-language and French-language programmes exist. The different models of initial teacher education are affected by curricula and pedagogies, recruitment and support programmes for teacher candidates, and areas and levels of professional expertise of teacher educators. This necessitates wide programme variation (Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts 2011), as will be discussed below. Programme structures vary ranging from eight months (typically, a post-initial degree programme) to ve years (Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts 2011). Usually, students follow one of two structures: consecutive or concurrent. To achieve a Bachelor of Education (BEd), consecutive students rst complete an undergraduate degree (generally a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) of three or four years duration) followed by a two- to four-semester programme of study in teacher education. During this time, they undertake professional and methodological courses. In the concurrent education programme, students generally rst acquire an undergraduate degree in a particular discipline; this study includes some teacher education courses. They then continue on to their teacher education programme in

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their fourth or fth year to attain a BEd. In another form, concurrent students take courses in a particular discipline and education courses and clinical experiences throughout their years of study to become a teacher. Full-time study is the norm, with few faculties or schools of education permitting part-time studies. One programme permits candidates exibility in completing their education requirements through three summer sessions, including the practicum requirements. Programme scope and diversity: issues of delivery The intent of pre-service education programmes is to provide teacher candidates with the basic knowledge, skills and experiences needed to enter teaching. Discrete outcomes or objectives are outlined in courses to prepare teacher candidates to teach with specic foci or for specialisation. Crocker and Dibbon, in their 2008 baseline study, noted that programmes in early childhood, adult education . . . ne arts, music, kinesiology and other areas treated as requiring specialist teachers (24) were provided by faculties of education. While typically most faculties of education offer courses in a university setting with school classroom experience brought into discussion, more faculties of education are realising the value of moving offsite. A science education course is taught in a high-school science lab at the end of the school day allowing local interested teachers to participate. In this setting, student teachers prepare a learning activity appropriate for the schools students and teachers and implement the activity in the respective classroom (MacDonald 2010). Courses taught in classrooms allow course instructors and classroom teachers [to] model teaching to observing teacher candidates, who then gradually are provided with teaching opportunities in those classrooms (Falkenberg 2010, 3). By incorporating school experiences into the teaching and learning of core concepts within university courses (Sanford, Hopper and McGregor 2010, 349), teacher candidates receive real-time experiences including interaction with the classroom teachers. In addition to addressing the needs of the communities they serve, some faculties offer unique programmes which, in turn, draw students to their universities or provide needed support to teacher candidates. A sample follows. Aboriginal programmes Several faculties offer programmes suited to Aboriginal students who wish to obtain teacher certication as well as non-Aboriginal students interested in or experienced in Aboriginal education. Courses are adapted to the local context and needs (i.e. with foundational courses specic to Aboriginal education) and student teaching conducted in a First Nations school in a remote/isolated or urban community with a high Aboriginal population (Lakehead University 2010). Another faculty of education offers an Indian Teacher Education Program based in a First Nations community setting. The same faculty programme has infused First Nations and Inuit knowledge into all K-12 and post-secondary education programmes (L. Lemisko, personal communication, 24 February 2011) since 3540% of the students in that province have some First Nations ancestry. The Association of Canadian Deans of Education (ACDE) has recently signed the Accord on Indigenous Education with First Nations organisations as witnesses

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to ensure that the content reects the First Nations and to provide opportunities for First Nations teachers (ACDE 2010a; J. Greenlaw, personal communication, 26 January 2011). The intent is to guide program review and transformation, working collaboratively to prioritize the educational purposes and values of Indigenous communities and people (ACDE 2010a, 9). In addition, the Accord calls for respectful learning environments, inclusive curricula, culturally responsive pedagogies and assessment, and promotion of indigenous languages and leadership (Sharpe 2010, 1). Ecology and wellness: environmental stewardship Through the ecology and wellness model, student teachers plan and implement a number of environmental-related activities to help them better understand and experience the transfer of theory into practice (Ontario College of Teachers 2010, 28). Family of schools cohort model In this model of delivery, a selected family of schools (i.e. schools clustered in close geographical proximity) works with a cohort of students, generally 20 or more and, collectively, become a concurrent teacher education site. An assigned site faculty member works with the student teachers, teachers and students in the school. Once the required community practicum is completed, the student teachers may elect to return to these schools for placement in their professional year. One school cohort model To provide intensive support for a group of 20 teacher education candidates, one faculty places them in the same school and provides professional development for the classroom teachers in that practicum experience. We need to recognize that there are realities in the classroom that we cant ignore but we also need to recognize that if we dont get what we need into schools then they wont change (T. Goddard, personal communication, 9 March 2011). This model ensures that a critical mass is present in the school for professional learning and support. Jewish teacher education programme Concurrent teacher candidates complete studies allowing them to develop a career in Jewish schools by completing additional credits in Hebrew and Jewish studies. Partnership with learning disabilities associations One concurrent programme requires third year students to complete a placement with a focus on learning disabilities after receiving 12 hours of training on learning disabilities provided by the community partners. Each teacher candidate either works in a school or coaches one student with identied needs for two hours per week.

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Urban education partnership Urban realities require that student teachers know theories about social difference and second language learning and teaching in urban communities characterized by economic disparity, as well as ethnic, cultural, religious and social diversity (Ontario College of Teachers 2010, 16). Specic placements in these schools allow teacher candidates to understand that such communities have limited resources, and lack access to opportunities to overcome their education, employment and economic realities. Practicum, internship or student teaching experiences All teacher education programmes require some form of teaching experience in a school setting (Crocker and Dibbon 2008; Falkenberg 2010), the practicum referenced also as internship or student teaching. Through the practice teaching component of their programme, teacher candidates observe and practise teaching in a school and apply theoretical, practical and experiential knowledge to construct understanding of professional issues. These learning opportunities allow teacher candidates to immerse themselves in the daily teaching and learning process (Ontario College of Teachers 2010) and to understand a classroom setting with support provided by an experienced teacher and an advisor assigned by the faculty or school of education. The associate teacher (an experienced teacher with whom the teacher candidate works closely during practicum, sometimes termed the mentor teacher, advising teacher or co-operating teacher) observes student teaching and provides focused feedback; often the faculty advisor fulls a similar role. The duration of practicum varies greatly throughout Canada since it is determined by provincial teacher certication requirements. In Western Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) and Ontario, two or three placements are the norm. Quebec requires four or more, while in Eastern Canada (Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), there is a more even division between one, two and three or more placements. The schedule of practicum experiences varies among faculties and by structure (i.e. concurrent or consecutive): in the West and East, 1320 weeks is most common; in Ontario, 812 weeks is most prevalent; and in Quebec, 21 weeks or more is required (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). The activities within the schedule also uctuate: in certain consecutive programmes, students observe in the rst week of school while, in other programmes, observation is later in the rst month before they begin to teach; and still others observe only when their rst formal placement begins. One of three different structures for practicum blocks is generally selected by a faculty of education. Practicum blocks extend over the course of the programme: coursework and practicum blocks alternate, beginning with coursework. A second option provides that observation placement begins the programme, followed by alternate coursework and practicum blocks. A third option provides for practicum ongoing throughout the duration of the full programme (Falkenberg 2010). Practicum placements are most often found in elementary and secondary schools. Student teaching responsibilities gradually increase over the time of each practicum period, usually ending with the teacher candidate assuming full responsibility for the teaching day(s). When the provincial teacher certication requirements

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are met, some faculties allow candidates other practicum choices, which may include international schools, alternative schools, First Nations cultural centres, libraries, literacy programmes, museum programmes, teaching studios (art, dance, defence, exercise, etc.) and others as approved by faculty. One programme requires that teacher candidates complete a supplementary alternative placement at the end of their programme and select from a variety of settings including traditional classroom, community-based programmes, non-prot organizations, cultural institutions and international experiences (Ontario College of Teachers 2010, 28) or participate in a guided alternative practicum experience in which teacher candidates work with faculty on research projects or community outreach projects. Practicum reports, outlining how the teacher candidate is developing as a teacher, often describe how the teacher candidate demonstrates teaching requirements, supports school activities, acts within the regulations, demonstrates initiative, plans collaboratively with the associate teacher, etc. Again, these expectations vary in both approach and emphasis depending on the individual faculty. The reports can be in various formats: detailed checklists of expectations, anecdotal reports and grading scales, and are frequently accompanied by oral feedback. One pre-service programme requires that the teacher candidate and the associate teacher develop the report together, analysing the progress made and evaluating achievements as related to the programme goals established (Lemisko, personal communication 2011). Induction and mentoring programmes for new teachers The continuum of teacher development raises concerns whereby more support and resources are required from all partners once new teachers are teaching. In the last several years, school districts provide induction and mentoring programmes for new teachers which afford valuable support as these teachers continue their learning as teachers. Crocker and Dibbon (2008) report that more induction programmes were provided for new teachers than new teachers were assigned mentors. These induction programmes include formal board orientation and individual school-level orientation. Typically, new teachers receive professional development in priority areas including literacy and numeracy, assessment and evaluation, safe schools, student success, classroom management, teaching students with special needs and communication with parents, as reported by new teachers in a recent Ontario survey (Ontario College of Teachers 2011). Glassford and Salinitri (2007) cite W. Douglas Wilson, former registrar of the Ontario College of Teachers, explaining the importance of induction and mentoring: [the] early years particularly the rst two of our members teaching careers as a continuum of the learning process that begins in the faculty of education classrooms, continues with practice teaching and intensies as new teachers learn on the job (8). School principals supporting new teachers by advising them and conducting assessment and evaluation are also, in some school districts, considered part of the new teacher induction process. New teachers highly regard the support of experienced mentor teachers who provide coaching, information and demonstration of teaching methods (Ontario College of Teachers 2011, 14) and rate mentoring as more effective when compared to induction (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). Preference for mentoring to induction is reasonable since mentoring consists of a formal long-term relationship with another individual while induction is often associated with orientation (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). Areas where mentor teachers provided the greatest support included

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assistance with report-card planning, curriculum planning, nding effective teaching resources and advice on helping individual students. New teachers found observing teachers and receiving feedback from the mentor to be very helpful or helpful. The new teachers top dozen on mentoring support also included mentoring on classroom management, instruction methods, student evaluation, information on administrative matters and preparing for parent communication (Ontario College of Teachers 2011). Some mentor teachers receive either additional pay or release from classroom duties to perform their work as mentors (OECD 2011) since mentoring activities most often occurred outside the classroom. Where new teachers had concerns about mentoring, they centred on lack of access or quality time with mentors (Ontario College of Teachers 2011, 14). Crocker and Dibbon (2008) suggest that an extended paid internship occur before a new teacher assumes full responsibility in teaching. In addition, the expectations placed on beginning teachers are identical to those placed on very experienced teachers, a situation unheard of in other professions (117). Canadian jurisdictions with standards of practice require the same standard of new teachers as seasoned members, while some districts outside Canada have different standards of practice based on the level of experience of the practitioner. In general, the induction support for occasional teachers (i.e. teachers who teach when called to replace a regular classroom teacher who is absent) is sporadic at best. Some new occasional teachers benet from new teacher programmes through invitations of principals to attend or by requesting an invitation to attend. Issues and factors facing and inuencing Canadian teacher education programmes Education in Canada has changed in the past 15 years, with declining school enrolment, teachers staying in their jobs longer, increase in the number of students identied with special needs, students from other countries enrolling in schools, societal issues (e.g. poverty, abuse, bullying) in classrooms, and the use and abuse of technology and social media. Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts (2011) determined other factors: a strong American inuence on the teacher education research and practice, certication standards and competencies which are provincially administered, and the Federal Governments 2009 work mobility legislation mandating that qualied workers be given access to comparable employment opportunities anywhere in Canada. Crocker and Dibbon (2008) identify using technology in teacher education with practical application to classrooms, accommodating diversity in teaching, and lack of depth of programmes in content and length (e.g. classroom management, motivation, teaching methods), along with issues around clinical practice including length and quality of placement, and types of placement, as concerns for teacher educators. Further issues include accepting students into programmes when few teaching positions are available, diversication of teacher education programmes, the urbanrural divide, the theorypractice divide and accessibility to teacher education programmes. While faculties of education have responded to some of these changes by offering courses that address these needs (e.g. students identied with special needs, new-to-Canada students, societal issues), other issues still need to be addressed.

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Declining school enrolment, decline in teacher retirements, students in education programmes and diversication of teacher education programmes Headlines such as teaching grads face slim prospects in crowded job market (Dedyna 2011) and two-thirds of new teachers cant nd full-time work (Dehaas 2011) underscore the concern that many more graduates are competing for jobs than there are teaching positions. The result is unemployment or underemployment, the outcome of fewer school-aged children, fewer teachers retiring, the end of mandatory retirement in several jurisdictions and, to a lesser extent, government policy and funding decisions. Even utilising the now normal entry into teaching, that of daily supply teaching or term contract (i.e. a contract of less than one year), is not available to many education graduates since these short-term opportunities are lled by teachers who have been on the occasional teacher lists longer. The careers of the latest graduates will be delayed further and the situation is not expected to change until 20172022 (Dedyna 2011) when an anticipated gradual increase in enrolment is expected in 2016. This experience of surplus of teachers is not new to Canada; it has occurred in previous times (most recently in the 1980s) and is part of the cyclic nature of teaching. With the surplus of teachers, part-time teaching is commonplace, as is teaching in two or three schools for rst year graduates who have secured positions. More rst year teachers are teaching in settings outside publicly funded systems (i.e. private or independent schools, out of their home province but in Canada, or out of the country) than in the past. New teachers seeking positions have, as one teacher reports, volunteered, networked, canvassed schools and applied to more than one board, private schools and still no job (Ontario College of Teachers 2011, 20). These new teachers know that there are too many teacher education graduates, . . . who you know, not what you know that is considered for hiring, and too many retired teachers in LTO (Long Term Occasional positions) and preferred daily supply opportunities (Ontario College of Teachers 2011, 19). Ontarios Ministry of Education has taken the stand that it will, effective from 2012, place a hard cap on funding for newly enrolled education students, thus decreasing enrolment in Ontarios faculties of education by approximately 9% (Dehaas 2011, paras 3 and 5) which, in turn, has an impact on reduced funding of universities. To date, this action has not been followed by other provinces governments. Even though some jurisdictions are limiting how many days per year retired teachers can teach, still many are found on occasional teacher lists and teaching in classrooms. It would seem that severely limiting the number of days (e.g. to 10 per year) that retired teachers can teach would ease one concern of new teachers; in most provinces, legislative action would be required. Since new teachers are nding it necessary to turn to other areas for livelihood, preparation for teaching in other elds could occur, such as coursework specic to college-level teaching, work in museums, libraries and literacy councils, and corporate and/or industry training. Some teacher education programmes have addressed this need by offering different programmes and opportunities for alternative placements (see Programme scope and diversity, above) but additional work needs to occur for students to understand and prepare for other applications of their degree rather than the traditional classroom.

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Emerging technologies and practices Johnson, Adams and Haywood (2011) have determined some trends and challenges that schools will face: digital media literacy, economic pressures and new models of education, the demand for personalised learning and learning and education activities outside the traditional classroom (46). They highlight six emerging technologies they believe will affect schools over the next ve years: cloud computing, mobiles, game-based learning, open content, learning analytics and personal learning environments (1033). Since some of these exist in schools today teacher candidates must understand the trends and are competent in applying these technologies in their teaching practice. The cost of some programmes is no longer prohibitive as software to support the technologies and practices can be found often at no or low cost (e.g. Jing, ArtRage, Prezi). The new tools provide the potential to communicate, to use for knowledge development and for alternative course delivery in online (synchronous or asynchronous instruction; Barbour 2010) or blended-learning courses (W. Hunter, personal communication, 27 January 2011). Given the declining enrolment in some specialised courses in elementary and secondary schools, online or blended courses offered through virtual schools provide a solution to learning. Teaching these courses requires a different way of teaching, yet few faculties offer coursework in how to develop these courses or how effectively to engage student participation in such courses. Such a module needs to be included in the technology courses offered as part of each facultys education programme.

The theorypractice divide This divide is described by Falkenberg (2010) as the divide between learning experiences in university-based coursework and those in school-based eld experiences (4). Some teacher educators have developed strategies to overcome the gap between theory and practice. In one example, the faculty attempts to connect the experiences found in the university-based courses and school-based practica. The practicum occurs throughout, concurrent with the courses found in the university programme, such that links can be established between the course and practicum. Teacher candidates use issues that arise in their practicum as the basis for assignments with three of the university courses occurring throughout the full year, thus allowing for practica topics to be examined in the same courses. University faculty members are encouraged to be associate teachers and regular meetings are held with those responsible for the practicum (Falkenberg 2010). A second method for integration occurs in individual courses where courses have been redesigned or located in placements where the direct link between the course and eld experiences can be clearly discerned. In the eld-based courses teacher candidates work in schools and the content of the seminar course [university-based coursework] is determined by those very experiences (Falkenberg 2010, 15). Falkenberg explains that the third method for integration occurs in the professional development school model, whereby university-based faculty members, teacher candidates and school-based teachers meet frequently to participate in joint professional learning (15). All three methods allow for reection-in-action rather than reection-after-the-fact of teaching and learning. These methods encourage

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the view that the school becomes the site of new learning, rather than a place where the knowledge from university courses is applied (Falkenberg 2010, 16, emphasis in original). A practical way to connect theory and practice occurs when guided portfolios are developed based on the programme goals and outlining progress and growth as a teacher. This activity challenges students to analyse and reect on what they do in practice. They comment on what they would change or do differently and provide evidence from both placements and coursework to corroborate their reection. They are to demonstrate growth toward teaching competencies (Lemisko, personal communication 2011).

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Agreement on Internal Trade The Agreement on Internal Trade (AIT), an intergovernmental trade agreement signed by Canadian First Ministers (provincial, territorial and federal), became effective on 1 July 1995 (Government of Canada 2011). The purpose of this agreement was to reduce and eliminate, as far as possible, barriers to the free movement of persons, goods, services and investments within Canada and to establish an open, efcient and stable Canadian market. To effect the AIT, specically Chapter 7 on Labour Mobility, the Canadian ministers of education agreed in principle:
. . . to reduce barriers to teacher mobility. It is intended to allow any teacher who holds a teaching credential in one province or territory to have access to teacher certication in any other province or territory in order to be eligible for employment opportunities in the teaching profession. (Council of Minister of Education, n.d.)

Specically, Chapter 7 states that:

. . . a certied, licensed, registered or ofcially recognized worker in one province or territory, upon application, will be certied, licensed, registered or ofcially recognized for that same occupation by any other province or territory without the worker being required to undertake additional requirements, such as education, training or examination. (Government of Manitoba 2011)

Several concerns have arisen since this Agreement came into force because teacher education programmes and teacher certication requirements for each province differ. For example, Ontarios consecutive teacher education students study over two semesters to complete their programme while consecutive students in other provinces take three or four semesters. With AIT now in force, teachers of both longer and shorter programmes are considered equal regarding qualications to teach in Canada. Ontarios deans of education have long argued for an extended programme. By increasing their consecutive programmes to three or four semesters, Ontario would be more in line with other provinces; the surplus of teachers (at least in Ontario) would be reduced for one year since no consecutive teacher candidates would graduate from faculties of education for that year; and Ontario-educated teachers moving to other provinces would be closer in similar programme delivery with other provinces. This agreement has already caused two faculties of education to change their programmes for fear that not changing would have an impact on enrolment, since

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other faculties have a shorter programme length. Other faculties of education are reviewing or intending to review their programmes. With this agreement in place, teacher candidates shopping for shorter education programmes can continue since all jurisdictions must honour the certicate acquired. ACDE has also identied AIT as a signicant challenge to all education faculties (Sharpe 2010, 2). Accord on Initial Teacher Education The ACDE has developed and the deans individually are signatories to the Accord on Initial Teacher Education, which ACDE describes as a strong framework of normative principles for initial teacher education (ACDE 2006, 2). The Accord has been used by some faculties in their programme review of goals and basis for foundational principles in their own context (Lemisko, personal communication 2011; Pitt, personal communication, 16 August 2011). While an optional document for use by faculties of education, it reveals what some faculties of education are thinking about. ... It (the Accord) represents a commitment to thinking about the big principles as opposed to always staying close to the local and for the big principles to be based in a Canadian conversation (Pitt, personal communication). Crocker and Dibbon (2008, 116) believe that the Accord is the rst effort on the part of a nationally-representative body to develop a set of principles upon which an initial teacher education programme might be built. To outline a blueprint for teacher education as Crocker and Dibbon suggest, faculties of education should engage in consultative manner with school systems, teacher regulatory agencies and other stakeholders. It would be a large-scale groundbreaking initiative, but could result in a more cohesive system than currently exists (Crocker and Dibbon 2008). Teacher education research Sloat, Hirschkorn, and Colpitts (2011) acknowledge the strong American inuence on Canadian teacher education research and practice and call for more Canadianbased research. Further research is occurring, with the works of Falkenberg, Smits, and others (2008 and 2010) with their recent volumes on teacher education and eld experience following in the footsteps of some Canadian researchers (e.g. Hargreaves, Fullan, Leithwood, and Grimmett). But many, many questions remain unanswered or underresearched on issues such as those cited by Grimmett: professional governance of teaching, . . . policy and governance in teacher education, and . . . policy context of teacher education (Falkenberg 2008, 11) and to this trio Grimmett adds the potential of the ACDEs Accord [of Initial Teacher Education] which he believes can assist teacher education institutions . . . bridge as well as buffer external demands (Falkenberg 2008). To further the research agenda, the ACDE has developed an Accord on Research in Education (ACDE 2010b). Equity in access to teacher education Most of Canadas population lives within 150 kilometres of the CanadianAmerican border, leaving the northern areas sparsely populated. Preparing teacher candidates for outlying areas or rural parts of Canada requires changes in how teacher education is delivered. For example, a two-day-per-week placement of candidates in

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schools is not feasible given the distances some candidates must travel, and where candidates accept urban placements these do not prepare them for a rural setting. Accessibility to teacher education programmes is an issue for those wanting a midcareer change, with the requirement that these individuals must follow the provinces requirements for teaching. It can be a great nancial hardship for students from low-income families to undertake a ve- or six-year programme of study. Internationally trained teachers are often required to complete a full teacher education programme to be licensed to teach in Canada when they have already proven their ability to teach in their country of origin. Some who have taken an approved abbreviated route to certication nd that it would be quicker to complete a consecutive programme in teacher education. Each of these four problems requires a made-in-province or made-in-faculty solution.
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Conclusion Many challenges face teacher education programmes but solutions do exist within the academy and outside it in order to cultivate thinking, responsive, creative and knowledgeable teachers who in turn will ensure that future students are prepared to receive a needed post-secondary education. Developing and providing solutions to the challenges is not a simple task but it is a necessary task. More Canadian-based teacher education research is a prerequisite to advance a made-in-Canada programme responsive to regional needs. Equitable access to teacher education may require that programmes expand or new programmes be instituted to guarantee well-qualied teachers in all parts of the country. Technology is prevalent in all education programmes and its appropriate use can assist in delivering instruction to students, thus, new ways of teaching using technology require further study. This too may address a theory-practice divide by providing links between course work and practicum. To date, the deans of education have developed a General Accord in which they agree to advance Canadian education; from the General Accord ow the Accord on Initial Teacher Education, the Accord on Educational Research and the Accord on Indigenous Education which articulate goals, values and principles that serve to guide a national discussion on teacher education. Canada has a strong history of teacher education and programmes supporting the needs of students and teachers. Great variety exists in the scope and direction of the pre-service teacher education programmes and there are issues of delivery in course instruction and in eld placement. Matters facing faculties of education resolved with a made-in-Canada solution will ensure a healthy future for teacher education. References
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