principles of modern physics

principles of

modelrn physics
NEIL ASHBY STANLEY C. MILLER University of Colorado

HOLDEN-DAY, INC. San Francisco

Cambridge London Amsterdam

o Copyright 1970 by Holden-Day, 500 Sansome Inc., Street

San Francisco, California All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 71-l 13182 in Manufactured

the United States of America

HOLDEN-DAY

SERIES

IN

PHYSICS

McAllister Hull and David S. Saxon, Editors

preface
This book is intended as a general introduction to modern physics for science and engineering students. It is written at a level which presurnes a prior course integral The particles. in classical calculus. material Some of discussed here includes such as probability, relativity, and quantum probability, quaIlturn opilnion worlk meare methat nuclear physics and elementary mechanics physics, and a knowledge of elementary tull years and differential

chanics, atomic physics, statistical mechanics, these top&,

statistical

ordinarily not included in textbooks at this level. However, we have felt that for proper understanding of many topics in modern physics--such as chanics and its applications--this material is essential. It is our present-day science and engineering students should be able to

quanti-

tatively with the concepts of modern physics. Therefore, we have attempted to present these ideas in a manner which is logical and fairly rigorous. A number of topics, especially in quantum1 mechanics, are presented in greater depth than is customary. In many cases, unique ways of presentation are given which greatly simplify the discussion of there topics. However, few of the developments require more mathematics than elementary calculus and the algebra of complex bers; in a few places, familiarity with partial differentiation will be Unifying concepts which halve important applications throughout nurnnecessary. modern

physics, such as relativity, probability and the laws of conservation, have been stressed. Almost all theoretical developments are linked to examples and data taken from experiment. Summaries are included at the end of each chapter, as well as problems level. The with course wide variations be in difficulty. sophlomore for or by omitting some topics; example, This book was written for use in a one-semester course at the iunior could shortened

Chapter 7, Chapter 12, Chapters 13 through 15, and Chapter 16 contain blocks of material which are somewhat independent of each other. The system of units primarily used throughout is the meter-kilogram-second system. A table of factors for conversion to other useful units is given in Appendix 4. Atomic mass units are #defined with the C atom as

tihe

standard.

We are grateful for the helpful comments of a large number of students, who used the book in preliminary term for a number of years. We also thank our colleagues and reviewers for their constructive criticism. Finally, we wish to express our thanks to Mrs. Ruth Wilson for her careful typing of the manuscript.

vii

contents
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1 3 .4 .5 (6 :3

1 .l HISTORICAL SURVEY 1.2 NOTATION AND UNITS 1.3 UNITS OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM 1.4 ATOMIC MASS UNIT 1.5 PROPAGATION OF WAVES; PHASE AND GROUP SPEEDS 1.6 COMPLEX NUMBERS

2 PROBABILITY
2.1 DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY 2.2 SUMS OF PROBABILITIES 2.3 CALCULATION OF PROBABILITIES BY COUNTING 2.4 PROBABILITY OF SEVERAL EVENTS OC:CUF!RING TOGETHER 2.5 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CALCULATINIG 2.6 DISTRYBUTION PROBABILITIES FUNCTIONS FOR COIN FLIPPING OUTCOMES EXPECTATION VALUES 2.9 2.1 1 EXPERIWIENTAL DETERMINATION NORMALIZATION OF PROBABILITY

II
1 :2 1 :3 14 14 1:s 16 19 20 2 I 2 I 22 24 24 25 27 28 30 3:! 34 35 37 3Ei 421 42 ix

2.7 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS FOR MORE THAN TWO POSSIBLE 2.8

2.10 EXPECTATION VALUE OF THE NUMBER OF HEADS 2.12 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR 2.13 RMS DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN 2.114 RMS DEVIATION FOR COIN FLIPPING 2.15 ERRORS IN A COIN-FLIPPING EXPERIMENT 2.16 ERRORS IN AVERAGES OF REPEATED EXPERIMENTS 2.17 PROBABILITY DENSITIES 2.18 EXPECTATION VALUES FROM PROBABILITY DENSITIES 2.19 GAUSS1A.N DISTRIBUTION SUMh\ARY PROBLEMS 2.20 EXPECTATION VALUES USING A GAUSS1A.N DISTRIBUTION

3 SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

3.1 CONFLICT BETWEEN ULTIMATE SPEED AND NEWTONS LAWS

3.2 CLASSICAL MOMENTUM AND EINERGY COINFLICT 3.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS-COlNFLICT

CONSERVATIONWITH WITH EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT 43 44 47 47 49 50 51 52 53 54 54 55 57 59 59 60 64 65 67 71 74 76 79 79 80 81 83 85 85 86 87 88 89 89 90 96

3.4 CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE 3.5 INERTIAL SYSTEMS 3.6 NON-INERTIAL SYSTEMS 3.7 AXES RELATIVE TO FIXED STARS 3.8 3.9 GALILEAN 3.10 SECGND 3.11 THIRD LAW GALILEAN VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS TRANSFORMATIONS TRANSFORMATIONS TRANSFORMATIONS EXPERIMENT RELATIVITY OF

LAW OF MOTION UNDER GALILEAN UNDER GALILEAN

:3.12

MICHELSON-MORLEY 3.13 POSTULATES

3.14 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE SECOND POSTULATE 3.15 GALILEAN TRANSFORMATIONS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY 3.16 TRANSFORMATION OF LENGTHS PERPENDICULAR TO THE RELATIVE VELOCITY 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.21 LENGTH LORENTZ TIME DILATION CONTRACTION

TRANSFORMATIONS

3.20 SIMULTANEITY TRANSFORMATION OF VELOCITIES SUMMARY PROBLEMS

4 RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS AND DYNAMICS

4.1 4.2 DISCREPANCY 4.3 4.4 BETWEEN LORENTZ EXPERIMENT FROM A TRANSFORMATIONS AND NEWTONIAN MOMENTUM MOMENTUM THOUGHT EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MASS FORMULA 4.5 RELATIVISTIC SECOND LAW OF MOTION MOMENTUM RELATIVISTIC ENERGY 4.8 KINETIC ENERGY

4.6 THIRD LAW OF MOTION AND CONSERVATION OF 4.7

4.9 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 4.10 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY 4.11 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY AND OF MOMENTUM AND 4:12 R E S T M A S S (OF ilo F R O M E X P E R I M E N T 4.13 TRANSFORMATION PROPERTIES ENERGY MOMENTUM

Contents 4.14 TRANSFORMATIONS FOR FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH EFFECT 99 101 102 104 105

xi

4.15

TRANSVERSE

DijPPLER

4.16 LONGITUDINAL DOPPLER EFFECT SUMMARY PROBLIfMS

5 QUANTUM PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

5.1 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION FOR PARTICLES OF ZERO REST MASS 5.2 FORM-INVARIANCE OF E = hv 5 . 3 T H E D U A N E - H U N T L.AW 5.4 PHOTOELECTRIC 5 . 5 COMPTON EFFECT EFFECT

110
111 112 113 115 1119 123 126 128 129 131 13i 136 136 138 139 141 143 144 145 146 147 148 152 152 155 155 156 158 160 162 164 165

5.6 PAIR PRODUCTION AND ANNIHILATION 5.7 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR LIGHT WAVES 5.8 5.9 MOMENTUM, POSITION OF UNCERTAINTY AMPLITUIDES SUMMARY PROBLEMS PROBABILITY INTERPRETATION

6 MATTER WAVES
6.1 PHASE OF .4 PLANE WAVE 6.2 INVARIANCE OF THE PHASE OF .A PLANE WAVE

6.3 TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR WAVEVECTOR A,ND FREQUENCY 6.4 PHASE SPEED OF DE BROGLIE WAVES 6.5 PARTICLE INCIDENT ON INTERFACE SEPARATING DIFFERENT POTENTIAL ENERGIES 6.6 WAVE RELATION AT INTERFACE 6.7 DE BROGLIE RELATIONS 6.8 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF A 6.10 6.12 UNCERTAINTY 6 . 9 BRA.GG E Q U A T I O N DIFFRACTION OF ELECTRONS SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION UNCERTAINTY MOMENTUM OPERATORS 6.17 EXPECTATION VALUES FOR MOMENTUM IN A PARTICLE BEAM 6.18 OPERATOR FORMALISM FOR CALCULATION OF MOMENTUM EXPECTATION VALLJES 6.19 ENERGY OPERATOR AND EXPECTATION VALUES 6.20 SCHRODINGER EQUATllON

6.11 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR PARTICLES AND 6.14 6.15 6.16 PROBABILITY EIGENFUNCTIONS OF 6.13 UNCERTAINTY IN BALANCING AN OBJECT ENERGY-TIME ENERGY AND INTERPRETATION OF VVAVEFUNCTllON

xii

Contents

EQUATION FOR VARIABLE POTENTIAL 6.21 SCHRijDlNGER 6.22 SOLUTION OF THE SCHRijDlNGER EQUATION FOR A CONSTANT POTENTIAL 6.23 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS SUMMARY PROBLEMS 7 EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF SCHRiiDINGERS EQUATION 7.1 FREE PARTICLE GAUSSIAN WAVE PACKET 7.2 PACKET AT t = 0 7.3 PACKET FOR t > 0 7.4 STEP POTENTIAL; HIGH ENERGY E > V, 7.5 BEAM OF INCIDENT PARTICLES 7.6 TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENTS 7.7 ENERGY LESS THAN THE STEP HEIGHT 7.8 TUNNELING FOR A SQUARE POTENTIAL BARRIER 7.9 PARTICLE IN A BOX 7.10 BOUNDARY CONDITION WHEN POTENTIAL GOES TO INFINITY 7.11 STANDING WAVES AND DISCRETE ENERGIES 7.12 MOMENTUM AND UNCERTAINTY FOR A PARTICLE IN A BOX 7.13 LINEAR MOLECULES APPROXIMATED BY PARTICLE IN A BOX 7.14 HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 7.15 GENERAL WAVEFUNCTION AND ENERGY FOR THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 7.16 COMPARISON OF QIJANTUM AND NEWTONIAN MECHANICS FOR THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 7.17 CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE IN QUANTUM THEORY SUMMARY PROBLEMS 8 HYDROGEN ATOM AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM 8.1 PARTICLE IN A BOX 8.2 BALMERS EXPERIMENTAL FORMULA FOR THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM 8.3 SPECTRAL SERIES FOR HYDROGEN 8.4 BOHR MODEL FOR HYDROGEN 8.5 QUANTIZATION IN THE BOHR MODEL 8.6 REDUCED MASS 8.7 SCHRoDlNGER EQUATION FOR HYDROGEN 8.8 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DERIVATIVES WITH RESPECT TO r 8.9 SOLUTIONS OF THIE SCHRijDlNGER EQUATION 8.10 BINDING ENERGY AND IONIZATION ENERGY 8.11 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM MECHANICS 8.12 ANGlJLAR MOMENTUM COMPONENTS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES

167 169 170 172 175 178 178 180 181 183 185 186 187 188 190 192 192 194 195 196 198 204 207 208 209 213 213 215 216 217 218 220 221 223 225 230 230 231

C o n f e n t s ** XIII

8.13 EIGENFUNCTIONS OF L,; AZIMUTHAL QUANTU,M NUMBER 8.14 SQUARE OF THE TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM 8.15 LEGENDRE POILYNOMIALS 8.16 SlJMMARY OF QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR THE HYDROGEN ATOM 8.17 ZEEMAN EFFECT 8.18 SPLITTING OF LEVELS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 8.19 SELECTION RULES 8.20 NORMAL ZEEMAN SPLITTING 8.21 ELECTRON SPIN 8.22 SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION 8.23 HALF-INTEGRAL SPINS 8.24 STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENT 8.25 SUMS OF ANGULAR ,MOMENTA 8.26 ANOMALOUS ZEEMAN EFFECT 8.27 RIGID DIATOMIC ROTATOR SUMMARY PROBLEMS 9 PAW E X C L U S I O N P R I N C I P L E A N D T H E P E R I O D I C T A B L E 9.1 DESIGNATION OF ATOMIC STATES 9.2 NUMBER OF STATES IN AN n SHELL 9.3 INDISTINGUISHABILITY OF PARTICLES 9.4 PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE 9.5 EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE AND ATOMIC ELECTRON STATES 9.6 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 9.7 INERT GASES 9.8 HALOGENS 9 . 9 ALKAILI M E T A L S 9.10 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS 9.1 1 X-RAYS 9.12 ORTHO- AND PARA-HYDROGEN !jUMMARY PROBLEMS 10 CLASSICAL STATISTICAL MECHANICS 10.1 PROBABILITY DISTIPIBUTION IN ENERGY FOR SYSTEMS IN THERMAL EQ~UILIBRIUM 10.2 BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION 10.3 PROOF THAT P(E) IS OF EXPONENTIAL FORM 10.4 PHA!jE SPACE 10.5 PHASE SPACE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS 10.6 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION 10.7 EVALUATION OF /I 10.8 EVALUATION OIF NP(O)p lo..9 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION INCLUDING POTENTIAL ENERGY 10.10 GAS IN A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 240 241 242 242 243 244 246 249 254 255 256 256 258 260 262 263 265 265 266 270 273 273 275 279 280 281 282 283 285 287 288 291 292 293

xiv

Contenfs
10.11 DISCRETE ENERGIES

10.12 DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF MOMENTUM 10.13 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL DISTRIBUTION 10.14 DISTRIBUTION OF ONE COMPONENT OF MOMENTUM 10.15 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATORS 10.16 DETAILED BALANCE 10.17 TIME REVERSIBILITY SUMMARY PROBLEMS

294 295 296 298 300 303 305 306 308 312
313 313 315 316 318 319

11 QUANTUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS

11.1 EFFECTS OF THE EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE ON STATISTICS OF PARTICLES 11.2 DETAILED BALANCE AND FERMI-DIRAC PARTICLES 11.3 FERMI ENERGY AND FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION 11.4 ONE DIMENSIONAL DENSITY OF STATES FOR PERIODIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 11.5 DENSITY OF STATES IN THREE DIMENSIONS 11.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM DENSITIES OF STATES 11.7 EFFECT OF SPIN ON THE DENSITY OF STATES 11.8 NUMBER OF STATES PIER UNIT ENERGY INTERVAL 11.9 FREE PARTICLE FERMI ENERGY-NONDEGENERATE CASE 11.10 FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS-DEGENERATE CASE 11.11 HEAT CAPACIITY 11 .lm 11.14 PLA.NCK OF AN ELECTRON GAS 11.12 WORK FUNCTION 3 PHOTON DISTRIBUTION RADIATION FORMULA

11 .15 SPONTANEOUS EMISSION 11.16 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION 11.17 ORIGIN OF THE FACTOR 1 + II, I N B O S O N T R A N S I T I O N S 1 I .18 BOSE-EINSTEIN DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION SUMMARY PROBLEMS 112 SOLID STATE PHYSICS 12.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS 12.2 REFLECTION AIND ROTATION SYMMETRIES 12.3 CRYSTAL BINDING FORCES 12.4 SOUND WAVES IN A CONTINUOUS MEDIUM 12.5 WAVE EQUATION FOR SOUND WAVES IN A DISCRETE MEDIUM 12.6 SOLUTIONS OF THE WAVE EQUATION 12.7 FOR THE DISCRETE MEDIUM OF SOLUTIONS

320 320 321 323 324 325 326 328 331 332 333 335 336 338 341 341 342 346 347 349
351 352

NUMBER

12.8 LINEAR CHAIN WITH TWO MASSES PER UNIT CELL

354

contents
12.9 ACOUSTIC AND OPTICAL BRANCHES 12.10 ENERGY OF LATTICE VIBRATIONS 12.11 ENERGY FOR A SUPERPOSITION OF MODES 12.12 QUANTUM THIEORY 12.13 PHONONS; AVEl?AGE OF HARMONIC OSCILLATORS AND LATTICE VIBRATIONS 360 361 362 364 365 366 367 368 369 371 372 373 374 377 381 381 383 385 386 387 390 390 391 393 394 395 397 398 400 402 404 405 408 408 410 411 414 416 418 ENERGY PER MODE AS A FUNCTION O F TEMPERATIJRE 12.14 LATTICE SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SOLID 12.15 ENERGY BANDS OF ELECTRONS IN CRYSTALS 12.16 BLOCHS THEOREM 12.17 NUMBER OF BLOCH FUNCTIONS PER BAND 12.18 TYPES OF BANDS 12.19 EFFECTIVE MASS IN A BAND 12.20 CONDIJCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS 12.21 HOLES 12.2;! n-TYPE AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS EFFECT SUMMARY PROBLEMS 12.23 H.ALL 356 357 359

xv

13 PROBING THE NUCLEUS

13.1 A NUCLEAR MODEL 13.2 LIMITATIONS ON NUCLEAR SIZE FROM ATOMIC 13.3 CONSIDERATIONS SCATTERING EXPERIMENTS 13.4 CROSS-SECTIONS

13.5 DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTIONS 13.6 NUMBER OF SCATTERERS PER UNIT AREA 13.7 BARN AS A UNIT OF CROSS-SECTION 13.8 a AND @ PARTICLES 13.9 RUTHERFORD MODEL OF THE ATOM 13.10 RUTHERFORD THEORY; EQUATION OF ORBIT 113.11 RUTHERFORD SCATTERING ANGLE 13.12 RUTHERFORD DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTION 13.13 MEASUREMENT OF THE DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTION 13.14 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE RLJTHERFORD S C A T T E R I N G FORMlJLA 13.15 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS SUMMARY PROBLEMS

14
14.2

NUCLEAR
1 4 . 1 NUCLEC\R IN

STRUCTURE
MASSES NUCLEUS (,H)

NEUTRONS

THE

14.3 PROPERTIES OF THE NEUTRON AND PROTON 14.4 THE 14.5 DEUTERON NUCLEAR FORCES FORCES

1 4 . 6 YUKAWA

xvi

Contents
14.7 MODELS OF THE NUCLEUS SUMMARY PROBLEMS 421

427 429 431 431 433 433 433 441 443 447 450 452 453 454 454 456 457 458 458 461 464 464 466 467 468 472 473 474 477 478 479 483 491 496 504 505 507

1 5 TRANSFORMsATlON

OF THE NUCLEUS
15.2 HALF-LIFE SERIES

15.1 LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 15.3 LAW OF DECAY FOR UNSTABLE DAUGHTER NUCLEI 15.4 RADIOACTIVE 15.5 ALPHA-PARTICLE DECAY 15.6 THEORY OF ALPHA-DECAY 15.7 BETA DECAY 15.8 PHASE SPACE AND THE: THEORY OF BETA DECAY 15.9 ENERGY IN p+ DECAY 15.10 ELECTRON CAPTURE 15.11 GA,MMA DECAY AND INTERNAL CONVERSION 15.12 LOW ENERGY NUCLEAR REACTIONS 15.13 15.14 NUCLEAR THRESHOLD FISSION AND ENERGY FUSION

15.15 RADIOACTIVE CARBON DATING SUMMARY PROBLEMS

16

ELEMENTARY

PARTICLES

16.1 LEPTONS 16.2 MESONS 16.3 BARYONS 16.4 CONSERVATION LAWS 16.5 DETECTION OF PARTICLES 16.6 HYPERCHARGE, ISOTOPIC SPIN PLOTS 16.7 QUARKS 16.8 MESONS IN TERMS OF QUARKS SUMMARY

APPENDICES
APPENDIX APPENDIX

PROBLEMS 1 3

APPENDIX 2 APPENDIX 4

BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

principles of modern physics

1 introduction
I .1 HISTORICAL SURVEY
The term modern physics generally refers to the study <of those facts and theories developed matter, two in this and prior century, time. to that The 1900. concern three the ultimate structure of classical and interactions of space main branches mechanics physics-mechanics, with the

heat and electromagnetism---were developed over a period of approximately centuries Newtons dealt successfully motions of bodies of macroscopic size moving with low speeds, and provided a foundation for many of the engineering accomplishments of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. With Maxwells discovery of the displacement current and the completed set of electromagnetic field equations, classical technology received host Yet of new the impetus: theories the of telephone, followed. and electromagnetism were not quite consistent by the wireless, electric light and power, and a other applications

mechanics

with each other. According to the G&lean principle of relativity, recognized Newton, the laws of mecharlics

should be expressed in the same mathematical

form by observers in different inertial frames of reference, which are moving with constant velocity relative to each other. The transformation equations, relating measurements in two relatively moving inertial frames, were not consistent with the transformations applied theories. Inature of space electromagnetism obtained to by Lorentz from similclr considerations by around of form1900 a invariance of classical Maxwells equations. Furthermore,

number of phenomena had been discovered which were inexplicable on the basis The first major s t e p t o w a r d a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e tivity (1905) resolved the inconsistency between mechanics and

and time measurements was due to Albert Einstein, whose special theory of relaby showing, among other things, that Newtonian mechanics is only a first approximation to a more general set of mechanical laws; the approximation is, however, extremely good when the bodies move with speeds which are small compared to the speed of light. Among the impel-tant results obtained by Einstein was the equivalence of mass and energy, expressed in the famous e q u a t i o n E = mc2. From a logical standpoint, special relativity lies at the heart of modern physics. The hypothesis that electromagnetic radiaticmn energy is quantized in bunches of amount hu, w h e r e v is the frequency and

is a constant, enabled

introduction Planck to explain the intensity distribution of black-body radiation. This occurred several years before Einstein published his special theory of relativity in 1905. At about this time, special to Einstein also applied the quantum hypothesis to photons the in an explanation of the photoelectric effect. This hypothesis was found to be consistent enabled a with him of relativity. the and Similarly, of Bohrs postulate-that lines in electrons These first angular momentum in the hydrogen atom is quantized in discrete amountsexplain positions ad the spectral hydrogen. however, guesses at a quantum theory were followed in the first quarter of the century by number refinements hoc quantization rules; these, achieved only limited success. It was not until after 1924, when Louis de Broglie proposed, on the basis of relativity theory, that waves were associated with material particles, that the foundations of a correct quantum theory were laid. Following de Broglies suggestion, Schrodinger in 1926 proposed a wave equation describing the propagation of the new of these particle-waves, revolutionized and developed a quantitative explanation of atomic spectral line intensities. In a few years thereafter, the success wave mechanics physics. exclusion principle was rigorFollowing the discovery of electron spin, Paulis

ously established, providing the explanation for the structure of the periodic table of the elements and for many of the details of the chemical properties of the elements. Statistical properties of the systems of many particles were studied from the point of view of quantum theory, enabling Sommerfeld to explain the behavior of electrons in a metal. Blochs treatment of electron waves in crystals simplified the application of quantum theory to problems of electrons in solids. Dirac, while investigating the possible first order wave equations allowed by relativity theory, discovered that a positively charged electron should exist; this particle, called a positron, was later discovered. These are only a few of the many discoveries which were made in the decade from 1925-l 935. From one point of view, modern physics has steadily progressed toward the study of smaller and smaller features of the microscopic structure of matter, using the conceptual tools of relativity and quantum theory. Basic understanding of atomic properties was in principle achieved by means of Schrodingers equation in 1926. (In practice,. working out the implications of the Schrodinger wave mechanics for atoms and molecules is difficult, particles.) greater Starting iIn1 1932 fission with and the discovery fusion due to the large number of of are the neutron by of in Chadwick, studies, intervariables which appear in the equation for systems of more than two or three properties of atomic nuclei have become known and understood in greater and detail. of Nuclear protons, nuclear other byproducts involved these nuclear which are still extrernely active. At the present time some details of the inner structure neutrons and particles actions are just beginning to be unveiled. Over fifty of the some other type, so-called elementary particles have been discovered. These nuclei or electrons. Most of the elementary particles are particles are ordinarily created by collisions between high-energy particles of usually unstable and decay illto other more stable objects in a very short time. The study

7.2 Notation and of these particles in and their interactions forms an important branch of

unifs

present-day

research modern mentally

physics. is that of energy. laws Energy as a conserved however, quantity the was well-known variational

It should be emphasized that one of the most important unifying concepts in physics new in classical physics. From the time of Newton until Einstein, there were no fundamechanical introduced; famous principles of Hamilton and Lagrange expressed Newtonian lows in a different form, by working with mathematical expressions for the kinetic and potential energy of a system. Einstein showed that energy and momentum are closely related in relativistic transformation equations, and established the equivalence of energy and mass. De Broglies quantum relations connected the frequency and wavelength of the wave motions associated with particles, with the particles energy and momentum. S:hrb;dingers mathematical variational states of operations principles, performed which are on wave equation is obtained by certain expression energy for of the a energy system of a system. in the the

The most sophisticated expressions of modern-day relativistic quantum theory are involve states of is a expressed quantum-mechanical form. And, perhaps most important, the stable stationary quantum systems definite strictly energy. deterministic theory; with the Another very important concept used throughout modern physics is that of probability. Newtonian mechanics development of quantum theory, however, it eventually became clear that microscopic events could not be precisely predicted or controlled. Instead, they had to be described in terms of probabilities. It is somewhat ironic that probability was first introduced into quantum theory by Einstein in connection with his discovery probability of stimulated emission. Heisenbergs of the Schradinger uncertainty principle, were and the of interpretation wavefunction, sources

distress to Einstein who, not feeling comfortable with a probabilistic theory, later declared that he would never believe that God plays dice with the world. As a matter of convenience, we shall begin in Chapter 2 with a brief introduction to the concept of probability and to the rules for combining probabilities. This material will be used extensively in later chapters on the quantum theory The ond on statistical of the mechanics. present chapter consists of review and reference material remainder

on units and notation, placed here to avoid the necessity of later digressions.

1.2 NOTATION AND UNITS

The well-known meter-kiloglram-second (MKS) system of units will be used in this book. Vectors will be denoted by boldface type, Isuch per second, at a point where the electric field is netic field is as

for force. In these

units, the force on a point charge of Q coulombs, moving with velocity v in meters

volts per meter and the mag-

webers per square meter, is the Lorentz force:

F = Q(E + v x 6)

(1.1)

Introduction

where v x B denotes the vector cross-product of v and B. The potential in volts produced by a point charge Q at a distance r from the position of the charge is given by Coulombs law: V ( r ) = 2.; II where the constant t0 is given by I (4Tto) - 9 x lo9 newtons-m2/coulomb2

(4

(1.3)

These particular expressions from electromagnetic theory are mentioned here because they will be used in subsequent chapters. In conformity with modern notation, a temperature such as 300 degrees Kelvin k ,, , with k, = 1 . 3 8 x 10mz3 joules/molecule-K (1.4) will be denoted by 300K. Boltzmanns constant will be denoted by

A table of the fundammental constants is given in Appendix 4.

1.3

UNITS

OF

ENERGY

AND

MOMENTUM

While in the MKS system of units the basic energy unit is the joule, in atomic and nuclear elecfron Thus 1 eV = e x V = e(coulombs) = 1.602 x lo-l9 joules x 1 volt (1.5) physics several other units of energy have found widespread use. Most of the energies occurring in atomic physics are given conveniently in terms of the volt, abbreviated eV. The electron volt is defined as the amount of work done upon an electron as it moves through a potential difference of one volt.

The electron volt is an amount of energy in joules equal to the numerical value of the electrons charge in coulombs. To convert energies from joules to eV, or from eV to joules, one divides or multiplies by e, respectively. For example, for a particle with the mass of the electron, moving with a speed of 1% of the speed of light, the kinetic energy would be 1 2 mv! = 1 9 11 2(. x 10m3 kg)(3 x lo6 m/sec)2

= 4 . 1 x 1 O-l8 ioules 4 . 1 = (1.6 x lo-l8 i i/eV) (1.6)

x lo-I9

= 2 . 6 eV

In nuclear physics most energies are of the order of several million electron volts, leading to the definition of a unit called the MeV:

1.4 Atomic moss unit 1 MeV = 1 m i l l i o n eV = 106eV = 1.6 x lo-l3 ioules = ( 1 06e)joules (1.7)

For example, a proton of rnass 1.667 x speed of light, would ; Mv2 have zx a kinetic

10mz7 kg, traveling with 10% of the of approximately

energy

1 ( 1 . 6 7 x 10m2 kg)(3 x IO7 m/sec)2 ;i -~( 1 . 6 x lo-l3 i/EheV) (1.8) (speed)2, while momentum has units of that

= 4 . 7 MeV Since energy has units of mass x a unit of momentum called ,UeV/c

mass x speed, for mony applications in nuclear and elementary particle physics is defined in such o sway

1 MeV - - lo6 e kg-m/set

C C

5.351

x lo-l8 kg-m/set

(1.9)

where c and e are the numerical values of the speed of light and electronic charge, respectively, in MKS units. This unit of momentum is particularly conmomenturrl p in MeV/c is known, the venient when working with relativistic relations between energy and momentum, such as E = pc, for photons. Then if the energy in MeV is numerically equal to p. E(in MeV) Thus, in general, for photons MeV/c) (1.10) kg-m/set. T h e

= p(in

Suppose, for instance, that a photon hos a momentum of 10m2 energy would be

pc = 3

lo-l3 joules = 1.9

MeV,

after using Equation (1.7).

On the other hand, if p is expressed in MeV/c,

using Equation (1.9) we find that 1 . 9 MeV/c = 1.9 MeV.

p =

10m2

kg-m/set =

The photon energy is then E =

pc =

(1.9 MeV/c)(c)

1.4 ATOMIC MASS UNIT

T h e a t o m i c m a s s u n i t , a b b r e v i a t e d amu, i s c h o s e n i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e m a s s of the most common atom of carbon, containing six protons and six neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by six electrons, is exactly 12.000000000 . . amu. This unit is convenient when discussing atomic masses, which are then always very close to an integer. An older atomic mass unit, based on on atomic mass of exactly 16 units for the oxygen atclm with 8 protons, 8 neutrons, and 8 electrons, is no longer in use in physics reselzrch. In addition, a slightly different choice of atomic All atomic masses appearing in this mass unit is commonly useu in chemistry.

book are based on the physical scale, using carbon as the standard. The conversion from amu on the physical scale to kilograms may be obtained

by using the fact that one gram-molecular weight of a substance contains

fntroduction Avogadros number, grams of C* At,, = 6.022 x 10z3, of molecules. Thus, exactly 12.000 . . .

atoms contains N, atoms, and 1 amu = +2 x = 1 . 6 6 0 x 10m2 k g (1.11)

1.5

PROPAGATION OF WAVES; PHASE AND GROUP SPEEDS

In later chapters, many different types of wave propagation will be considered: the de Broglie probability waves of quantum theory, lattice vibrations in solids, light waves, and so on. These wave motions can be described by a displacement, or amplitude of vibration of #(x, some physical quantity, of the form (1.12)

t) = A cos ( k x z t z of + 4)

where A and 4 a r e c o n s t a n t s , a n d w h e r e t h e w a v e l e n g t h a n d f r e q u e n c y o f t h e wave are given by (1.13) Here the angular frequency is denoted by o = o(k), to indicate that the freq u e n c y i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e w a v e l e n g t h , o r w a v e n u m b e r k . T h i s frequencyw a v e l e n g t h r e l a t i o n , 01 = w(k), is called a dispersion relation and arises because of the basic physical laws satisfied by the particular wave phenomenon under investigation. For example, for sound waves in air, Newtons second law of motion and the adiabatic gas law imply that the dispersion relation is w = vk where v is a constant. If the negative sign is chosen in Equation (omitting the phase constant b,) #(x, is (1.15) (1.12), the resulting displacement (1.14)

t) = A c o s ( k x - w t ) = A c o s

[+ - -

(f)f,]

This represents a wave propagating in the positive x direction. Individual crests and troughs in the waves propagate with a speed called the phase speed, given by

w=o
k principle the of superposition-namely, from the that if waves from two or more

(1.16)

In nearly all cases, the wave phenomena which we shall discuss obey the sources arrive at the same physical point, then the net displacement is simply the sum of displacements individual waves. Consider two or more wave trains propagating in the same direction. If the angular frequency w is a function of

Propagation of waves; phase and group speeds

the wavelength or wavenumber, then the phase speed can be a function of the wavelength, and waves Reinforcement another of or destructive different of differing wavelengths travel at different speeds. interference The can then with

occur
which

as the

one regions

wave of

gains

on

wavelength.

speed

constructive

or destructive interference advance is known as the (1.15), such as of the same amplitude but of slightly

group speed.
wavelength and frequency,

To calculate this speed, consider two trains of waves of the form of Equation different

I), = A <OS [(k + % Ak)x - (o -F % AC+] I,L~ =

Here, k and A

(OS [(k - % Ak)x - (w -- Yz Aw)t]

(1.17)

u are the central wavenumber and

angular frequency, and Ak,

Ao are the differences between the wavenumbers and angular frequencies of t h e t w o w a v e s . T h e r e s u l t a n t d i s p l a c e m e n t , u s i n g t h e identity 2 cos A cos B =
cos

(A + 13) + cos (A - B), is

$ q

= $1 + ti2 =: (2

A cos /2

(Akx - Awt) I} cos

(kx - w t )

(1.18)

This expression represents a w a v e t r a v e l i n g w i t h p h a s e s p e e d w / k , a n d w i t h a n amplitude given by A cos /2 Ik (1.19)

2 A cos % (Akx - Awt) = 2

The amplitude is a cosine curve; the spatial distance between two successive zeros of

this curve at a given instant is r/Ak, and is the distance between two sucregions propagate with the , given by

cessive regions of destructive interference. These group speed vg

AU vg = A k
in the limit of sufficiently small Ak.

dw (k) ak=-o dk

(1.20)

Thus, for sound waves in air, since w = vk, we derive d (vk) =----FYw

dk

(1.21)

and the phase and group speeds are equal. On the other hand, for surface gravity waves in a deep seo, the dispersion relation is

w =

{gk

+ k3J/p)2 J
is the surface tension and p is the

where g is the gravitational acceleration, density. Then the phase speed is

wTw= k

(1.23)

Introduction whereas the group speed is

dw 1 cl=-=dk
2
wavelength, then the phase speed is

g + 3k2J/p (gk + k3J/p]2

than the group speed, and

(1.24)

If the phase speed is a decreasing function of k, or an increasing function of greater individual crests within a region of constructive interference-i.e. within a group of w a v e s - t r a v e l f r o m remcrr of water. to front, crests disappearing at the front and reappearing at the rear of the group. This can easily be observed for waves on a pool

1.6 COMPLEX NUMBER!; Because the use of complex numbers is essential in the discussion of the wavelike

character of particles, a brief review of the elementary properties of complex numbers is given here. A complex number is of the form # = a + ib, where u a n d b a r e r e a l n u m b e r s a n d i is the imaginary unit, iz = - 1. The real part of $ is a, and the imaginary part is

b:

Re(a + ib) = a Im(a A complex number $ == + ib) = b (1.25)

a + ib can be represented as a vector in two dimensions, and the y component

with the x component of the vector identified with Re($),

Figure 1 .l.

Two-dimensional vector representation of o complex number 1c/ = o + ib.

of the vector identified with Im (Ic/), as in Figure 1 .l . The square of the magnitude of the vector is ( # 1 = a2 The complex conjugate of $ = a + + bZ (1.26) #* a n d i s o b -

ib

is denoted by the symbol

tained by replacing the imaginary unit i by -i: I,L* = a - ib

I .6 Complex numbers We can calculate the magnitude of the square of the vector by multiplying its complex conjugate: I$ 1 =: #*$ = a2 - (jb) = a2 + b2 (1.28) $ by

The complex exponential function, e, o r e x p (i@, w h e r e 0 is a real function or number, is of particula* power series e Ia = , + (j(q) + 0 2! + 03 3! + . . . importance; this function may be defined by the

=km n=O n!
imaginary terms, we find that

(1.29)

Then, replacing i2 e v e r y w h e r e t h a t i t a p p e a r s b y - - 1 a n d c o l l e c t i n g r e a l a n d

e i6

= 1 +s+.. .+;o-$+li)+... 5! ) (

cos 0 + i sin /3

(1.30)

Since {e} = eIns, we have de Moivres theorem: e in8 = co5 f-10 + i sin n0 = (cos 0 t i sin 01 (1.31)

Since (e)* = e-j8, we also love the following identities: Re eia =: ~0s 0 = i (e Im e / ea _ 1 _ = sin (j = + (e =: ,-a,fj _ + em) - em) (1.32) (1.33) (1.34) (1.35)

12

= 10 = 1

(a + ib)

1= ___ x - a -- ib a - ib = .-__ + ib a - ib a2 + b2 is

The integral of an exponential function of the form ecX = C + constant

C

L1

ecx

(1.36)

and this is also valid when c is complex. For example,

* edfj s 0 =: $8 * % =

e - e ~ i

I*

i
(Cos

x + i sin T - 1)

i
=(-I +0-l) -2 __ = -

(1.37) =

.+2;

IO

introduction
The complex exponential function is a periodic function with period 2~. Thus

etszr) = c o s (19 + 2 7 r ) + i s i n (0 + 27r) z cos 0 + i sin 0 18 More generally, if n is any positive integer or negative integer, e i(o+zr) = eo (1.39) (1.38)

or exp (2nlri) = 1. Conversely, if exp 0 are B = 2rn,

(i0)

= 1, the only possible solutions for (1.40)

n = 0,*1,~2,&3 ,...

probability
We have ninety chances in a hundred. Napoleon at Waterloo, 1815 The commonplace meaning of the word chance i:j probably already familiar to the reader. In everyday life, most situations in which we act are characterized by uncertain knowledge of the facts and of the outcomes of our actions. We are thus forced to make guesses, and to take chances. In the theory of probability, the concepts of probability and chance are given precise meanings. The theory not only provides a systematic way of improving our guesses, it is also an indispensable the tool of in studying the on of abstract concepts during theory. of modern later physics. To avoid of necessity to the digressions elements probability probability the development

statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics, we present here a brief introduction basic When Napoleon utterecl t h e s t a t e m e n t a b o v e , h e d i d n o t m e a n t h a t i f t h e

Battle of Waterloo were fought a hundred times, he would win it ninety times. He was expressing an intuitive feeling about the outcome, which was based on years of experience and on the facts as he knew them. Had he known enemy reinforcements would arrive, and French would not, he would have revised the estimate of his chances downward. Probability is thus seen to be a relative thing, depending on the state of knowledge of the observer. As another example, a student might decide to study only certain sectiom of the text for an exam, whereas if he knew what the professor knew-namely, which questions were to be on the exam-he could probably improve his chances of passing by studying some other sections. There are several reasons for this. For a example, great it is frequently of In physics, quantitative application of the concept of chance is of great importance. necessary to describe quclntitatively systems with many degrees

freedom, such as a jar containing 10z3 molecules; however, it is, as a practical matter, impossible to know exactly the positions or velocities of all molecules in the jar, and so it is impossible to predict exactly whalt will happen to each molecule. This is simply because the number of molecules is so great. It is then necessary to develop some approximate, statistical way to describe the behavior of the molecules, using only a few variables. Such studies Jorm the subject matter of a branch of physics called stofistical mechanics. mechanics has indicated Secondly, since 1926 the development of quantum be given in terms of probclbilities. These results frown

that the description of mechanical properties of elementary particles can only quantum mechanics have

11

Probability

profoundly

affected

the

physicists

picture

of

nature,

which

is

now

conceived

and

interpreted using probabilities. Thirdly, experimental measurements are always subject to errors of one sort or another, so the quantitative measurements we make always have some uncertainties associated with them. Thus, a persons weight might be measured as 176.7 lb, but most scales are not accurate enough to tell whether the weight is 176.72 lb, have similar or 176.68 lb, or something in between. All measuring instruments limitations. Further, repeated measurements of a quantity will

frequently give different values for the quantity. Such uncertainties can usually be best described in telrms of probabilities.

2.1 DEFINITION OF PRCIBABILITY

To make precise quaniii,tative statements about nature, we must define the concept of probability in a q u a n t i t a t i v e w a y . C o n s i d e r a n e x p e r i m e n t h a v i n g a number of different possible outcomes or results. Here, the probability of a particular result is simply the expected fraction of occurrences of that result out of a very large number of repetitions or trials of the experiment. Thus, one could experimentally determine the probability by making a large number of trials and finding the fraction of occurrences of the desired result. It may, however, be impractical to actually repeat the experiment many times (consider for example the impossibility of fighting the Battle of Waterloo more than once). We then use the theory of probability; that is a mathematical approach based on a simple set of assumptions, or postulates, by means of which, given a limited amount of information about the situation, the probabilities of various outcomes may be computed. It is hoped that the assumptions hold to a good approximation in the actual physical situatiomn. and the assumptions of probability theory may be simple games. Consider flipping a silver dollar ten The theory of probability was originally developed to aid gamblers interested in improving their inc~ome, naturally illustrated v&th

times. If the silver dollar is not loaded, on the average it will come down heads five times out of ten. The fraction of occurrences of heads on the average is ,,, or % T h e n w e s a y t h a t p r o b a b i l i t y P(heads) P(heads) P(tails) = = % . of flipping CI head in one try is % . Similarly, the probability of flipping a tail in one try is

In this example, it is assumed that the coin is not loaded. This is equivalent to saying that the two sides of the coin are essentially identical, with a plane of symmetry; It
IS

then reasonable to assume that since neither side of the coin is

favored over the other, on the average one side will turn up as often as the other. This illustrates an important assumption of probability theory: When there are several possible alternatives and there is no apparent reason why they should occur with different frequencies, they sometimes called the postulate of equal are a assigned priori equal probabilities. This is probabilities.

2.2 Sums of probabilities

13

2.2 SUMS OF PROBABILITIES

Some general rules for combining probabilities are also illustrated by the coin-

flipping experiment. In every trial, it is certain that either heads or tails will turn up. The fraction of occurrences of the result either heads, or tails must be unity, and so P(either heads or tails) = 1 (2.1)

In other words, the probability of an event which is certain is taken to be 1. Further, the fraction of lheads added to the fraction of tails must equal the fraction of either heads or tails, and so P(either heads or tails) = P(heads) + P(tails)

(2.2)

In the special case of the fak c o i n , b o t h P ( h e a d s ) a n d P(tails) are /:t, a n d t h e above equation reduces to 1 = % + %. events that occur with probabilities M o r e g e n e r a l l y , i f A , B, C,. . . a r e by the sum of the probabilities: P(either A or B) = P ( A ) + I(B) Similarly, the probability of elither A or B or C occurring will be P(either A or 6 or C) = (2.3)

P(A), P(B), P(C), . . . , then the probability of either A or B occurring will be given

P ( A ) + P ( B ) + P(C)

(2.4)

Here it is assumed that the labels A, 6, C, . . . refer to mutually exclusive alternat i v e s , s o t h a t i f t h e e v e n t A o c c u r s , t h e e v e n t s B , C , .cannot occur, and so on. The above relation for combining probabilities simply amounts to addition of the fractions of occurrences of the various events A, B a n d C , t o f i n d t h e t o t a l f r a c tion of occurrences of some one of the events in the set A, 6, C. These relations may easily be generalized for any number of alternatives. For example, consider an experiment with six possible outcomes, such as the six possible faces of a die which could be turned up wheil the die is thrown. Imagine t h e f a c e s n u m b e r e d b y a n i n d e x i that varies from 1 to 6 , a n d l e t P , b e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t f a c e i turns up when the die is thrown. Some one face will definitely turn up, and so the total probability that some one face will turn up will be equal to unity, Also, the probability that some one face will turn up is the same as the probability that either face one, or face two, or face three, or,. . . , or face six will turn up. This will be equal to the sum of the individual probabilities P,. M a t h e m a t i a l l y ,

1 =f:P, ,=I
In words, this equation expresses the convention that the probability of an which is certain is equal to .I, It also utilizes a generalization probabilities of A and of B.

(2.5)
event of the rule given in

E q u a t i o n (2.3), which says the probability of either A or B is the sum of the

Probability

2.3 CALCULATION OF PROBABILITIES BY COUNTING

Given a fair die, there is no reason why the side with the single dot should come up more often than the side with five dots, or any other side. Hence, according to the postulate of equal a priori probabilities, we may say that P, indeed, PI = that P, = P2 = P3 = P, = P, =: P,. Then ~~=I = P,, and, = 1, or

P, = 6P,

/, a n d h e n c e

.P, =

/, f o r a l l i . T h i s s i m p l e c a l c u l a t i o n h a s y i e l d e d

the numerical values of the probabilities P,. A general rule which is very useful in such calculations may be stated as follows: The probability of a particular event is the ratio of the number of ways this event can occur, to the fatal number of ways o/l possible events can occur.

Thus, when a die is thrown,, six faces can turn up. There is only one face that has two dots on it. Therefore, the number of ways a two dot face can turn up, divided by the total number of ways all faces can turn up, is /, . If one card is drawn at random from a pack of cards, what is the probability that it will be the ace of spades? Since the ace of spades can be drawn in only one way, out of a total of 52 ways for all possible cards, the answer is p = (1 ace of spades) (52 possible cards) o r P = %,. Likewise, if one card is drawn from a pack, the probability that it will be an ace is (4 aces),1(52 possible cards) or P = /:, = I/,,. We can also consider this to be the sum of the probabilities of drawing each of the four aces.

2.4 PROBABILITY OF SEVERAL EVENTS OCCURRING TOGETHER

Next we shall consider o slightly more complicated situation: flipping a coin twice. What is the probability of flipping two heads in succession? The possible outcomes of this experiment are listed in Table 2.1.

TABLE o~utcomes Krst F l i p heads heads tails tails

2.1

Different

possible

for flipping a coin twice. Second heads tails heads tails Flip

Since there are two possible outcomes for each flip, there are two times two or four possible outcomes for the succession of two coin flips. Since there is no reason to assume that one of these four outcomes is more probable than another, we may assign each of the four outcomes equal probabilities of VI. T h e t o t a l

2.5 Calculating probabilities number of outcomes is the product of the number of outcomes on the first flip and the number of outcomes on the second flip, while the number of ways of getting two heads is the product of the number of ways of getting a head on the first flip and the number of ways of getting a head on the second flip. Thus, P(two = heads in succession)

15

# of ways for heads on flip 2 # of ways for head,; on flip 1 _--~ x # of 0Jtcomes on flip 2 # of outcomes on flip 1 t I t P(heads on flip 2) (2.7) what is the probability of rolling the snake

= P(heads on flip 1) x 1 1 1 =- X-=2 2 4

lp/e If a die is rolled twice in suc:ession, eye both times? t;on P(snake eye twice) = (/,)

(I/,) =

/,b.

T h e s e r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t e allother g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s : I f t w o events A and 6 are independent-that is, if they do not influence each other i n a n y w a y - t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f b o t h A a n d 6 occurring is P(A and 6) = P(A)P(B)

(2.8)

In words, the probability of two independent events both occurring is equal to the nple product of the probabilities of the individual events.

If you throw a six-sided die and draw one card from a pack, the probability that you throw a six and pick an ace (any ace) is equal to

Another way to obtain the answer is to divide the number Iof six and any ace (1 x results (6 x 52), or (1x4) (6 in this case. x 52) = 1 78

ways of getting the

4), by the total number of ways of getting all possible

2.5 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CALCULATING PROBABILITIES

We may summarize the important features of the probability theory disf:ussed far in the following rules: (1) The probability of an event that is certain is equal to 1. ( 2 ) I n a s e t o f e v e n t s that c a n o c c u r i n s e v e r a l w a y s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a particular event is the number of ways the particular event may occur, dilvided the total number of ways all possible events may occur. by so

hbobi/;ty
(3) (Postulate of equal a priori probabilities): In the absence of any contrary information, equivalent possibilities may be assumed to have equal probabilities. (4) If A and B a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e e v e n t s t h a t o c c u r w i t h p r o b a b i l i t i e s P(A) and P(6), then the probability of either A o r 6 occurring is the sum of the individual probabilities: P ( A o r 6) = P ( A ) + P ( B )

(2.9)

(5) If A and 8 are independent events that occur with probabilities P(A) a n d P ( B ) , t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f b o t h A a n d 6 occurring is the product of the individual probabilities: P(A and B) = P(A)P(B) (2.10)

2.6 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS FOR COIN FLIPPING

In order to introduce the idea of a distribution function, we continue with some examples of coin-tossing. Distribution functions are functions of one or more independent variables which label the outcomes of some experiment; the distribution functions themselves are proportional to the probabilities of the various outcomes (in some cases they are equal to the probabilities). The variables might be discrete or continuous. Imagine, for example, a single experiment consisting of flipping a coin N times, when N might be some large integer. Let nH b e t h e number of times heads turns up in a particular experiment. If we repeat this experiment many times, then nH probability will be denoted by a n d t h e q u a n t i t y P,{n,), can vary from experiment to experiment. We n,, heads will turn up out of N flips; this P,., (rt). H e r e t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e i s nH; shall calculate the probability that

which for fixed N is a function of n,,, i s a n e x a m p l e than N. we define PHI t o b e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y

of a distribution function. In this case, the function only has meaning if nH i s a nonegative integer not glreater To get at the problem of finding P,(nH),

of getting a head in the first toss and PT1 to be the probability of getting a tail ( b o t h a r e % for a fair coin but differ from, % for a weighted coin). Then P,, + P T1 = 1. Likewise folr the second toss, P HZ $- Pr2 = 1 . I f t h e s e t w o e x p r e s s i o n s PHIPK + PTlPH2 + PT1PT2 = 1. are multiplied together, we get P HlPHP +

Note that these four ,termls correspond to the four possibilities in Table 1, and that each term gives the probability of getting the heads and tails in a particular order. In N tosses, (PHI + PTI)(PH? + Pn)**-(PHN + PrrJ) = 1

(2.11)

and when the products on the left are carried out, the various terms give the probabilities of getting heads and tails in a particular order. For example, in three tosses, the product of Equation (2.1 1) contains eight terms, one of which is PT,PH2PT3. This is equal to the probability of getting a tail, a head and a tail, in that order, in three tosses. If we were interested only in the probability of

2.6 Disfribulion functions for coin flipping

getting a given total number of heads nH in N tosse,j %would take all the terms which contain nH factors of regardless of order, we

17

the

form P,,,, regardless of

the subscript numbers, and simply find their sum. This is equivalent to dropping all numerical subscripts and combining terms with similar powers of P,. If the expression on the left of the equation, (P, t Pr) the term proportional to (PH)H(PT)N-nH ond theorem. (PH + Pry = 2 H=o N ! [rlH!(N t rlH)!] 1 PH N-H pr (2.12) .I S the probability of = 1, is expanded, getting nH heads to the binomial

N - n,, tails in N tosses, regardless of order. I\ccording

where zero factorial (O!) is defined to be one and n! = n(n - l)(n - 2) * * * 3.2~1. The reader may recognize the binomial coefficient N!/n,!(N - n,)! as the number of ways of selecting n,., objects from a total of N objects, regardless of order, or in our case, the number of ways of getting nH heads in N tosses. Thus, a given term is the total number of different ways of getting nH heads times the probability, (P,.,)H(PT)NmH, of getting nn h e a d s i n ane PT = of these ways. There!/2, the probability of fore, in the special case of a fair coin when P,, = getting nH heads in N tosses, regardless of order, is N ! PN(H) = ;,,!(N - n,)! 1

2N

In Figures 2.1 through 2.4, the probability P,.,(nH) of Equation 2.13 is plotted as o function of nH for N = 5, I 0, 30 and 100. It may he seen that as N becomes larger, the graph approaches a continuous curve with a symmetrical bell-like ,shape. The function P,.,(n,) i:, c a l l e d a p r o b a b i l i t y disfribution f u n c t i o n , because

id gives a probability as a function of some parameter, in this case n,,.

lple l(a) Consider a coin which is l o a d e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y What is the probability of flipping two heads in four tries? lion U s e E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 3 ) w i t h N = 4 , nH = 2; the required probability is = 0.2646

PH of

flipping a head is PH = 0.3. The probability of flipping a tail is then PT = 0.7.

;I& (PH)(P,)* IPI~ 1 (b) What is the probability <of

getting at least one head in four tries, i.e. either

one or two or three or four heads? ion The probability of getting at least one head is the same as the probability of not getting four tails, which is one minus the probability of getting four tails. In this case, P (getting all four tails) = & (P,,)(P,)4 = ~0.2401; Therefore, P ( a t l e a s t o n e h e a d ) = 1 - 0.2401 = 0.7599

.3 P5 fflH 1 .2

0
Figure

2.1.

Probability of getting nH heads

Figure

2.2.

Probability of getting nH heads

in 5 tosses.

in 10 tosses.

.3 P 30 (""I .2 P 100
In,)

.3

.2

0 0
Figure 2.3. i n 30 tosses.

I 6 12

I I I-:A.rl.l 0 20 40 60

I I

I
100

ia

24

30
Figure

a0

Probability of getting nH heads

2.4.

Probobility of getting nH heads

in 100 tosses.

2.7 More

than t w o p o s s i b l e

oufcomes

19

p/e

2(a) If the probability of getting during registrations in three

ail the forms filled out correctly at registration terms?

is 0.1, what is the probability of getting all forms filled out properly only once successive

ion

The probability of not getting the forms correct is 0.9 each time. Then the desired probability is {is (0.1)(0.9) = 0.243

p/e

2(b) What is the probability of filling out the forms correctly in one or more of the three registrations?

ion

This is one minus the probability of doing it incorrectly every time or 1 - (0.9)3 = 0.271

!.7 DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS FOR MORE THAN TWO POSSIBLE OUTCOMES

Suppose we consider another experiment in which therl? are four possible results, A, B, C, and D, in o single tricrl. The probabilities for each result in this trial ore, respectively, PA, Pg, PC a n d Pr, = 1 side of the equation (PA + PB is expanded, the term proportional + PC + PD)N to = 1 (2.14)

PA

- Ps -

P,.

If the quantity on the left

is the probability that in N trials result A occurs nA times, 6 occurs n, times, C occurs nc times and, of course, D occurs no times, with nr, = N -~ nA - ns - nc. A generalized multinomial expansion may be written
OS

follows:

(x + y + z + W)N =

y A
p+pdT,rrlN,

N! [
p!q!r!(N - p - q - r)!

N-p-q-,

xpyqzw (2.15)

T h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t A occclrs nA t i m e s , 6 o c c u r s n,, t i m e s , a n d C o c c u r s nc times in N trials is therefore

PN(nA,nBtnC)

nA!nB!nc!l:N

N! - flA - nn - nc)!

(2.16)

The generalizotion to the case o f a n y n u m b e r o f a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e r e s u l t s o f a single trial is obvious.

20

Probobi/ify In throwing a die three times, with six possible outcomes on each throw, the probability of throwling two fours and a three is

2.8

EXPECTATION

VALUES

One of the important uses of a probability distribution function arises in the computation of averages. We shall obtain a general formula for the computation of an average using a distribution function. Suppose that over several months a student took ten examinations and made the following grades: 91 once, 92 twice, 93 once, 94 four times, 95 twice. Figure 2.5 is a plot of the number,

5-

90 IFigure

91 2.5.

92

93

94

95

Grade distribution function.

f(n), of times the grade n was made, as a function of n. This function f(n) is also called a distribution function, but it is not a probability distribution function, since f ( n ) is the number of occurrences of the grade n, rather than the probability of occurrences of the grade n. To compute the average grade, one must add up all the numerlical grades and divide by the total number of grades. Using the symbol ( n ) to d enote the average of n, we have 91 + = 92

(n)

t--__ 93 + 94 + 94 + 94 + 94 + 95 + 92 + 1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1

95

(2.17)

In the numerator, the grade 91 occurs once, the grade 92 occurs twice, 94 occurs four times, and, in general, the grade n occurs f(n) times. Thus, the numerator may be written as (1 x in terms of n and 91) + (2 x 92) + (1 x 93) + (4 x 94) + (2 x 95) or,

f(n),

the numerator is c n f(n), where the summation is over

all possible n. In the denominator, there is a 1 for each occurrence of an exam. The denominator is then the total number of exams or the sum of all the f(n). Thus, a formula for the denominator is c f ( n ) , s u m m e d o v e r a l l n . N o w w e c a n

2.9

Normolizotion

write a general expression iq terms of n and f(n) for the average value of n. It is c n f(n) (2.18) ( = 5 f ( n )

In this case, the average grtgde turns out to be 93.4. If the student were to take several more examinations, then, on the basis of past (experience, it could be expected that the average grade on these new examinations would be 93.4. For this reason, the average, (n), .I S aI so called the expectafion tion values are of considerable importance in quonturn mechanics. 90, 80, and 90 on three be (80 + 2 x 90)/ As a further example, suppose you made grades of e x a m i n a t i o n s . T h e expectation (1 + 2) = 86.67. value of your grade value. Expecta-

Nould

2 . 9 NORMAUZATION
For any distribution function f(n), the value of the reciproc:al f(n) is normalized to the value N, and the function, it is normalllzed to Jnity: Cf(n) = 1 of the sum c f(n) is

called the normalization of the distribution function. It 1: f(n) == N , w e s a y t h a t normalization is l/N. Since the sum of the probabilities of all events is unity, when f(n) is a probability distribution

E q u ation (2. 18) r efer s to the expec tation of the nd ep endent va ri a b l e, (n). However, in some applications it might be necessary to know the expectation values of n2, or n3, or of some other function of n. In general, to find the average or expectation value of a function of n, such as A(n), one rnay use the equation:

(A(n)) =

c n n

$p

(2.20)

.lO EXPECTATION VALUE

OIF

THE NUMBER OF HEADS

For a more detailed example of an expectation valut: calculation, we return to the flipping of a coin. As was seen before, if a number of experiments are performed in each of which the coin is flipped N times, we result mathematically using Equation (2.18), we shall would expect that, on the the sum average, the number of heads would be N/2, or (17~) = N/2. To obtain this evaluate

(nH) = 2 hP,(nH) TO

(2.21)

Probobi/ify

Herexf(n)

cP+,(n,,) =

1 , since

P,.,(n,)

is

probability

distribution

function

w i t h a n o r m a l i z a t i o n Iof u n i t y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e d e n o m i n a t o r h a s b e e n o m i t t e d . F r o m E q u a t i o n (2.13), PN(n,) = N!/[2N n,!(N - n,,)!! f o r a f a i r c o i n . H e n c e ,

(nH) = C ~ [2NnH!(N
of the calculation can skip to Equation (2.26).

n,N! - nH)!j (2.22)

The result is indeed N/:2. The reader who is not interested in the rest of the details

W e h a v e t o e v a l u a t e t h e s u m m a t i o n i n (n,+) = ~~~=on,N!/[2NnH!(N

- n,)!].

We can calculate this by a little bit of relabeling. First, note that the term corres p o n d i n g t o nH = 0 does not contribute to the sum because the factor nH is inside the sum, and in the denominator there is O!, which is defined to be 1. Therefore, instead of going from 0 to N, the sum goes effectively from 1 to N. It is easily verified that after usinlg N! = N(N I)!; the following identities: s = (nH ; - l)! (N n,)! = (N 1 [nH -

nH
and

II)!
(2.23)

p
Then factoring out an N/2, we get

2.-p

(2.24)

()

= :i N $,

[~N-Q,,

- ,&-m;!

[nH

- I])!]

(2.25)

Then, for as follows:

m = n,, - 1 , t h e s u m m a t i o n o v e r

nH f r o m 1 t o N c a n b e r e w r i t t e n

N - l

(n,,) =

i N

g0 F-$~--),!

_ m)!, = i N(i +

1) = i N (2.26)

This result agrees with our intuitive idea of an expectation value. The result does not mean that, in an actual experiment, heads will come up exactly % N times, b u t h e a d s w i l l o n l y c:ome N tosses many times. up /2 N t i m e s o n t h e uverage after repeating the

2.11 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF PROBABILITY

Our previous discussion has suggested that we could experimentally measure the probability of some particular result by repeating the experiment many times.

That is, the probability of an event should be equal to the fractional number of times it occurs in a series of trials. For example, if you know a coin is loaded, you c a n n o t a s s u m e t h a t P(heads) these probabilities theoretically. = P(tails), way and it might be difficult to calculate to find out what P(heads) is, would be

One

2.1 I Experimenftrl to flip the coin many times, compute n,/N, Thus, if N is very large, we should find that !k =-(nH) N N /(heads)

de)erminofion

of probability

23

and set the result equal to P(heads).

(2.27)

0.6 -

0.5

0.4 % N 0.3

ti

N Figure 2.6. Graph of fractional number of t eads in N tosses.

Figure 2.6 is a graph of n,/N as a function of N in an actual experiment. Note the logarithmic horizontal scale. From the graph we see that for

N=l,
N = 1 0 ,

=o; N
H=O.3; N N = 0.52 tends to % . In this case, therefore, !k = N 1 2 (2.28) one may

100,

As N becomes very large, it is seen that n,/N P(heods) = (n,> N =

lim N-X

Although, as N - ~5, o n e w o u l d o b t a i n a u n i q u e v a l u e f o r P(heads), see from the graph that in actual practjce be greater or less thman

the value of n,/N for any finite N may

I?, and generally could oscillate about % in some ran-

24

Probability dom fashion; the amplitude of these oscillations should decrease, however, as N increases.

2.12 EXPERIMENTAL ERROR

Since, in practice, we have to stop an experiment after some finite number of repetitions of the measurements, we would like to know how much error we are making on the average when we do this. In Figures 2.7 and 2.8 are given the l&l/N 1 N=z:4 n,/N l.O-N - 1 0

1 Experiment number Figure t2.7.

2 3 4 5 Experiment number Figure 2.8.

actual fractions n,/N, obtained in several repetitions of an experiment in which a c o i n w a s f l i p p e d I N times. In the first experiment, N = 4; in the second, N = 10. One can see qualitatively that the points in the N = 10 case lie generally closer to the mean value of % t h a n t h e y d o i n t h e N = 4 c a s e . J u d g i n g roughly from the scatter of the values of n,,lN in Figure 2.7, one might expect the error made in stopping at N = 4 to be about 0.2, whereas in Figure 2.8 it would be as slightly the smaller. of Thus, generally of the speaking, we expect increases. the error to decrease number repetitions measurement

2.13 RMS DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN

How can we define a precise numerical measure of the error? One way would be to average the distances of the points n,/N from the mean value (nH)/N. In using such a measure we would have to be careful to take the magnitude of the distances; if we took !some distances as positive and others as negative, we might calculate that the error was zero, which is not reasonable. A similar measure of error which is better ior many purposes is the square root of the average of the squared differences of the points from the mean value. This is called the mean squared deviation from the mean. root

To illustrate what is meant, let us imagine that a coin is flipped N times. The mean called the for a large number of experiments N should be M N. Consider the - (nH) for a the single mean. experiment The squared with N flips. from This the difference mean is deviafion from deviation would difference nH

b e j u s t (nH - (nH)).

H e r e (nH), as usual, is the average of nH

over many

2.14 RMS deviation for coin ffipping

experiments, and (n,, - (n))*, the II,, is the result for any one experiment. If we repeated the ((n,, - (nH:))), then this averaged

25

experiment many times and averaged this squared deviation from the mean, over the experiments to obtain error. Thus, squared deviation from the mean would be a measure of the square of expected o measure of the expected error would be from the mean, or r m s V/h - (n,,))), t h e r o o t mean s q u a r e d deviaticn

e r r o r for short. The mean squared error may be reduced to another form which is also sometimes useful. First, write 1 nH out the square as follows: i- (n,J (2.29)

- (n,))

= fli - 2n,(n,)

I f w e t a k e t h e a v e r a g e o f tloth

sides of this equation, then, since the average

of a sum of terms may be computed term by term, we have (2.30) But from Equation 2.20, the average of a constant is s o ((#) = (H)Z. (CnH) = obtain ((h - (%/))2) = (4) - (q (2.31) C(n,)and hence (?n,,(n,)) = 2(n,)(n,). iust the same constant,

A l so f r o m E q u a t i o n 2 . 2 0 , f o r a n y c o n s t a n t C w e h a v e Combining these results, we

This result is quite general, for the mean squared errsr o f a n y q u a n t i t y ; i t w a s derived here using the variable I-I,,, b u t t h e d e r i v a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e s a m e f o r mean s q u a r e d d e v i a t i o n f r o m a n y o t h e r v a r i a b l e . l-he e q u a t i o n s t a t e s t h a t t h e of the average of the variable.

the mean is equal to the average of the square of the variable, minus the square

.14 R M S D E V I A T I O N F O R C O I N F L I P P I N G To illustrate the use of rms error as a measure of el.ror, we shall consider the case of coin flipping with a fair coin, and use the probability

P,i,nff) =

N ! n,!(N

- n,.,)! p

to calculate the rms error as CI function of N. We knolv t h a t (nH) = N/2; hence, in this case, (n,.,) = N2/4. To calculate (II;), we need to find

go n,!(Z!,,)! The result of the calculation IS ni = details of this calculation should skip

VI N2 + % N. Anyorle not interested in the to the result in Equation 2.38.

As in the evaluation of nH p r e v i o u s l y , w e s h a l l u s e o relabelling trick to evalu-

ate the sum. We write n,?, := nH(nH - 1) + nH, arid use the fact that the
average of a sum is the sum of averages. Then (nj!+:) = (nH(nH - 1)) + (nH).

Probability

Since (nH(nH

we

already

k.now t h a t

(nn) =

Yz N ,

we

need

to

calculate

only

- 1)). This is (nH(nH - 1 ) ) = 2

nH(nH - l)PN(nti)

=O

(2.33) The terms corresponding to n,, = 0 a n d the presence of the fac:tor nH(nH nH = 1 do not contribute because of

1) in the numerator. The sum then goes only

o v e r v a l u e s o f n,, from 2 through N. Now we will use the following identities to reduce the sum to something we can evaluate:

nH(nH - 1)
n,! (N -

1 (nH - n,)!

; 2)! =

N ! (N
get

= 2

N ( N - l)(N - 2)!; [II,, 2])!; 2N = 4*2N-2 (2.34)

Factoring out /4 N(N - l), w e (nH(nH - I)) = ahf(N -

1) 2 nH=2 [2N-2(nH

( N - 2)! - - 2)!(N -2 - In, - 2])!] (2.35)

The sum may be evaluated by letting m = nH

- 2. Then

(2.36) Collecting the results, we have

(ni) =

(nH(nH - 1 ) )

+ (nH) =

$N(N - 1) +

fN =

~N(N

1)

(2.37)

Finally, the root mean squared deviation from the mean is Gy (nH))) =z VT;) - (n,.,) = .{s+ 1) - aN2 = k fi (2.38) This rms deviation from the mean is the approximate number of heads by w h i c h w e c o u l d u s u a l l y e x p e c t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f nH to differ from the expectat i o n v a l u e , (nH) = N / 2 , in one series of N flips. We could call this the approximate error in finding the expectation value experimentally if we do one experiment with N flips. The fractional error in N tosses, i.e. the error in finding (nH)/N, tempting is then the error divided by the number of tosses, or l/N times the rms m/N = we 1/(2~%). would have Thus, in atto say that to measure a probability such as P(heads), deviation. The fractional error is therefore Yz after N flips in which nH

heads turned up, the probability would be equal to the

2.15 Ernxs in a coin-ffipping experimenf

fraction nH/N P(Heads) = but with a fractional error (nH/N) f l/(2%%). what would be the rms error in the measured l/(26). H e n c e , w e w o u l d w r i t e

27

mpk

1. A f t e r o n e f l i p o f a f a i r c#Din, probability?

ution Yz / v x

= % (1) = 0.5. coirl to reduce the uncertainty

mp/e

2. How many times would you have to flip the in the measured probability from 0.5 to 0.05?

ufion

0 . 0 5

% /vTi o r N =

/I /(0.05)

= 100 flips.

In Figure 2.6 the dashed lines are drawn at % =I= 1/2/.fl t o g i v e a n i d e a o f the limits within which one could expect the graph to vary. This square root type behavior of an error occurs in many other places in physics. For example, in experiments in which the rate of decay of radioactive substances is measured, one simply counts the number N of decays in some time t. The measured counting rate is then N/f, and it can be shown by arguments very similar to those for coin f l i p p i n g t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n a l terror l/ v% to three in the measured rate is of order of magnitude Thus, to obtain good statistics, i.e. low error, in counting experiments, significant figures or a fractional error of 0.001, one would need

it is necessary to take large numbers of counts. To get the counting rate correct around one million cfounts.

1.15 E R R O R S I N A COIN-FLIPIPING

EXPERIMENT

We may now compare this theory of the rms error with the experiments depicted in Figures 2.7 and 2.8. In Figure 2.7, each experiment (corresponds to N = 4. For this value of IV, the theory gives the fractional rms deviation to be % /fi = 0.25. Next, we will use the data of Figure 2.7 to find the experimental rms fractional deviation for this particular set of trails. To do this, we simply calculate the square root of ,the a v e r a g e o f experiments. The exipectation value [(nH/N) - (n,/N)] 2.2: over the seven

(nH/N)

is just the average of the results of

these experiments and is 0.571. We may then obtain roblIe

~-Experiment Number ~-1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TABLE 2.2 Deviation 0.179 0.179 -0.071 -0.071 0.179 -0.321 0.071 !ium (Deviation) 0.0320 0.0320 0.0050 0.0050 0.0320 0.1030 0.0050 = 0.2140

28

Probability
T h e a v e r a g e d e v i a t i o n s q u a r e d i s t h e n 0.21417 = 0 . 0 3 0 6 , a n d t h e r m s d e v i a t i o n is -06 experiment = 0.175. Based on these seven experiments, the result of the first be expressed as could the11

nH 0
77

= 0.750

f 0.175

(2.39)

Likewise for the third experiment, (n,/N)

= 0.500 & 0.175. This is in reason-

able agreement with the theory, which supposes a very large number of experiments instead of seven and gives for the case N = 4, = 0.500 + 0.25 The reader can perform similar calculations for the data given in Figure 2.8 in the case N = 10. Here the experimental result for the rms deviation from the mean is 0.105. The theoretical result is = 0.500 zt 0 . 1 5 8

2.16 ERRORS IN AVERA.GES

OF REPEATED EXPERIMENTS
also arise when of some physical

Errors of the type we have described, depending on l/a, repeating experiments which measure the average value

quantity, such as the diameter of a cylinder or the length of an object. Suppose that an experiment is performed in which the quantity x is measured N times. It must be kept in mind here that a single experiment means N measurements of the value of the quantity, and the result of an experiment is the average value of the quantity for these N measurements. Then we ask: What is the error in the average value? If the experiment is repeated, it should give a new average value that does not differ from the previous one by much more than the error. What is being measured here is an average itself. This average is not the same as the expectation vallue. The expectation value would be equal to the average N, approached infinity. x1 ,x2, sup(x1 + x2 + * * * + x,.,)/N. if the number of mearurements,

S u p p o s e t h a t t h e ,N individual measurements in one experiment are . . , x,.,. The result of the experiment is then

pose the true, or expectation, value of the quantity is X. This would be the average of an extremely large number of measurements. The deviation from the true value X in a particular experiment is x, + x2 + *-* N + XN ~- X

We can then get a measure of the experimental error by computing the rms error, averaged over many experiments of N measurements each. Call the error EN.

2.16 Errors in overages of repeated experiments

Then

29

To illustrate how this may be worked out, we shall take the case N == 2, only two EN = measurements in an experiment. Then

(((x, - X)) + 2((.K, ----1 - X)(x, - x,) + ((x2 - X))]

N2
(x1 - X ) Since the is negative about as often as it is values of (x, X) and (x2 X)

f o r N = 2 . C o n s i d e r t h e t e r m ((x1 - X ) ( x , - X ) ) . W h e r e a s c~ t e r m l i k e ( ( x , - X ) ) i s a l w a y s positive, positive, and so is (x2 - X).

are independent of each other,, their product will also be negative as often as it i s p o s i t i v e , a n d t h e expecta,tion the only remaining E, terms = produce: & - - - 1/ This was for the case N = w> + ((x2 N2 Xl)1 (2.44) silmilar arguv a l u e ((x1 - X ) ( x , - X)) will be zero. Hence

:2. H o w e v e r i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h a t a

ment applies for any N; 011 a r i s e i n t h e s q u a r e [(x1

the expectation values of the cross-terms which - X ) + * . . + (x,., - X)] w i l l b e n e a r l y

- X ) + (x2

zero. Therefore,, for any N, we can say -~_~~__ I((+ - X)) t ((x2 --x,) + . EN = ~__-. N2 li However, since the svbscrip-ts on the xs denote

* +

((XN - X))} ~.

(2.45) order in

nothing

more

than

the .the

which the measurements are made, we expect that, on the average, ((x; - X)) will be the same for ail x,, or

quantity

((x, - X)) = ((x2 - x,) = ((XN - Jo) = E:

ment, averaged over many experiments. That is, consider that the experiment consists of one ments. Then, since there are N terms like ((x,

(2.46)

We call this average ET, since it is the mean squared error of a singlle measureE, i s t h e r m s d e v i a t i o n i f w e rather than N rneasuremeasurement - X)), (2.47)

Probobil;ty
Thus, the error in the result of an N-measurement experiment is less than the error in the result of (1 one-measurement experiment by CI factor of l/-\/N. To see how this works in practice, Table 2.3 gives the actual results of 24 measure-

TABLE 2.3

Results of Six Experiments, Each Consisting of Four Measurements of the Lellgth of CI Cylinder. Distances in Cenfimeters.

4.11 4.06 4.06 4.08

(1)

Av. = 4.0775 Av. = 4.065 Av. = 4.090 Av. = 4.075 Av. = 4.0675 Av. = 4.0775 Overall average of the results = 4.0754 cm
ments of the diameter, in centimeters, of Q cylinder, using vernier calipers. I f w e regard these as 24 separate experiments in which N = 1, then we can compute the mean value and the error for these 24 experiments. The mean of the 24 measurements, which we shall take rms error El for one measurement is li, =: x(deviations) = 0.018 cm
OS

4.07 4.05 4.06 4.08 -_-.

(2)

(3) 4.08 4.10 4.09 4.09

(4) 4.05 4.06 4.09 4.10

(5) 4.09 4.08 4.06 4.04

4.06 4.10 4.07 4.08

(5)

the true value, is X = 4.0754 cm and the

24

Let us next regard the data as six experiments of four measurements each, in which the quantity being measured is the average of four measurements. In this case, N = 4, so ,the error in the average of the four measurements should b e a b o u t E4 = E,/-6 = 0.009 cm. By subtracting the overall average, 4.0754 cm, from each of the averages of the six experiments, we can find the experimental deviations of the averages from the mean. Then the experimental

E4 i s
E., = . ,,[Bevlation;f averages)l = 0.0081 cm

(2.49)
Equation

This compares favorably

with

the

result,

0.009

cm,

obtained

using

(2.47). Actually, while we used the mean of 24 experiments as the true value, this itself has an rms error associated with it. An estimate of this error, again using E q u a t i o n (2.47), i s El/v/24 = 0.018/4.90 =: .0037 c m . T h e r e a d e r m a y w e l l reflect that these differing measures of error for the same data look somewhat suspicious; however, this simply means that quoted errors often depend on the method of data handling.

2.17 PROBABILITY DENSITIES

So far, we have consi,dered variable. In many cases, the distribution functions which are functions of a discrete independent variables are continuous. Consider, for

2.17

Probability

densities

31

example, a thin circular disc on a horizontal axle. If the disc is given a spin and then allowed io come to rest, what is the probability that some one point on the rim of the disc will be exS3ctly on top? Obviously, since one point is only one of an uncountable infinity o,f points along the rim, the probability will be zero. However, let us introduce a coordinate system fixed in the wheel, and describe points on the rim in terms of bcrn of the disc should come to probability by that is some portion angle 0, with 0 varying continuously from 0 to 2s one portion up,, denoted top more often than any other portion, then the the infinitesimal range to describe all different points on the rim. If there is no reason ,why

the
in

d0

will

come

P,,o,

P.,o

= d8/2rr.

The factor 27r in the denominator is chosen so that the

total probability that some point (any point) on the rim comes to the top is unity. We can check this because

(2.50)
Once an infinitesimal probaloility of this nature is known, it can be used to find the probability that an event takes place in a given range.. Thus, the probability that some point in the portion of the rim between ?r/6 alld T h e r e s u l t i s 5/12. The coefficient of e r a l , f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s variablle d0 i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r s will come to the top will be the integral of d8/2r between the limits of x/6 and H. P& i s c a l l e d o 0 in the range ~(19) i s c a l l e d probability density. In this spec:ial case, the probability density is l/:271.. In gen0, if the probability of finding d0 is given by an expression of the form Pdo = p(H)do, thei?

the probability density. In our example, the probability density, p(B),. was a constant; but if, for instance, there were more friction on one side of the axle than the other, the wheel w(ould be more likely to stop in certain positions, and p(0) would not be independent of 8. Similarly, with a different plhysical range dx will be P& = p(x) situation described by a variable x, and given the probability density p(x), the probability that x is to be found in the

dx.

A probability density is thus the probability

per unit x, for the continuous variable x. Moreover, the probability that x w i l l b e

Figure 2.9. Crosshatched area

Jnder

the

probability

density

curve

is

the lpobobility

that a measurement of x will yield a value between x1 and x2

Probability

found in the range between

x1 a n d xz w i l l b e g i v e n b y

s x1

p(x) dx. This is just xz (see over all

t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e o f p ( x ) , v e r s u s x b e t w e e n t h e l i m i t s x1 a n d Figure 2.9). Probability densities have the property that, when integrated

possible values of x, the result must be the total probability that some value of x occurs, or / p(x)c/x =: 1 .

2.18 EXPECTATION VALUES FROM PROBABILITY DENSITIES

We shall next show how to compute an average using a probability density. You recall that for a discrete probability distribution function, crete variable x;, the rneon value of x is given by P(x,), of the dis-

@) = c xi Phi)
where c,,rIX; P(x,) i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t xi occurs. P(x;) It is unnecessary to divide by here, since the sum of the probabilities is unity. Now consider the entire range of the continuous variable x to be broken up into small increments Ax,. If x, is a point in Ax,, t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P(x,) that it lies in the range Ax, will be given approximately by density. Thus, (x) = P(x;) = p(x;) Ax,, where p(x) is the probability c., x,p(xi) Ax;. Taking the limit as Ax, 4 0, we get

(x)

/xp(x)dx.

(2.51)

example

1. Consider the probability density defined for 0 5 x 5 1 b y

P(X)

= o t.

O<Xl%

1% 5 x 2 1

A plot for p(x) is given i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 . I f w e w i s h t o c o m p u t e t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e of some quantity using the given p(x), we should first check to see that p(x) is correctly normalized. It will be correctly normalized if the integral

asx p (X:I dx l
is equal to one. In this case, j-p(x)dx = s 2 d x = 1, so the normalization is 0 /2, because in this special case, correct. The limits on the integral are 0 and compute the integral ,/xp(x:)dx. when x > % , p(x) is equal to zero. To find the expectation value (x), we should In this case also, the limits on the integral will be from 0 to /2 The integration may then be performed as follows: (x) = /- J2 2 x d x = ; 0

2.78 Expecfofion

voloes from probability densities

33

p(x)

.x 1
Figure 2.10. b o x w i t h e n d s a t x == 0 and x = 2 . 2. Consider a particle in a one ,dimensional The probability density for finding the particle outside the box is zero. In quantum mechanics the probability density is 1G(x) 1 , w h e r e t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n #(x) s a t i s f i e s a w a v e e q u a t i o n callled t h e Schrtidinger bility density, 1 G(x) / ?, i s g i v e n b y equation. S u p p o s e t h e p r o b a -

/ #(x) / 2 = p(x) =
for 0 5 x 5 2. Outside this range, p ( x ) in Figure 2.1 1. This probability p(x) is zero. A plot of this p(x) is correctly fulnction is, s h o w n so that

density

normalized

1 Figure 2.11.

as follows:

2 s0 p(x)dx = . w

Probabi/ity

e can calculate the averuge value or expectation value of x

x p ( x ) d x = ; J,x(x2 - $ x4) d x

lb2 --x

24

)I ,=I

Let us also calculate the rms deviation of x from the mean. This is a measure of the spread of the wave function q(x). The rms deviation is

((x - (x),) 2
We know that the expectation value of x, +), is /,. the expectation value Hence we wish to calculate

(i:x - :)) = (x) -- (x) = G) - g

(x2)p(x)dx - ; = 5 12(x4 - ; x)dx - ;

from Equation (2.31) It is

Then the rms deviation from the mean is

j/qzs)3 = ~
~5.1518 ((x - ;)3 =12(x2 -

= 0.390

The same result can be obtained by straightforward calculation of

2+ y)p(x)dx

but the algebra is more tedious.

2.19

GAUSSIAN

DISTRIBUTION
distribution, a r i s e s w h e n a random errors. In

An interesting probability density, called the gaussian arises f-l lpping in the majority of physical measurements

fair coin is flipped an extremely large number of times. This same distribution involving a coin N times, the discrete probability distribution function was, from

Equation (2.13),

PN(H) = (2Nqy - Q]

(2.52)

2.22 Expectation values

using CI gaussion

distribufion

35

In the limit of very large N, this distribution function is sharply peaked about the average 2.1 value through of 2.4. nH, % IN. T h i s t e n d e n c y m a y b e s e e n b y r e f e r r i n g t o

Figures

W e c a n o b t a i n a n a p p r o x i m a t e a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r PN(nH), f o r l a r g e N , by using Stirlings approximation for the factorials: For large n, In (n!) E % In (2x) + (n + Y2)ln
/2

(n)

n.

This,

together

with

the

approximation

In (1 + for

b) PN(nH):

E h -

b2

for small b, leads to the following approximate result

p,(n,) 2

-$ exp I-.kN* If [
%

w h e n N i s l a r g e a n d nH i s n e o r i t s a v e r o g e ,

N. A graph of Equation (2.53) Fig-

(2.53)

is shown for N = 100 in Figure 2.12. The corresponding discrete curve of pm n, 0.1 r---

0.06 (

1 L - A? 0 40
Figure 2.12.

50

60

70 (n,,) with op-

Comparison of the discrete probability distribution PI,,

proximate function, a Gaussian. The Gaussian curve is drawn with o dashed line. ure 4 is shown on the some graph. It may be seen that for N = 100, the opproximotion of Equation (2.53) is olready extremely good.

T h e e x p o n e n t i a l c u r v e o f E q u a t i o n (2.53), called a goussian or normal distribution. It

p e a k e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y a b o u t Yz N, is occurs often in probability theory and on

in classical statistical mechanics. Although nH is still a discrete variable ,toking

integral volues, when N is sufficiently large we can lump many of these integral values together and regard Pr.,(n) as a probability density.

20 EXPECTATION VALUES USING A GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION

In other chapters we will need o number of expectation values using the goussian distribution. To illustrate the types of integrals which arise, let us find the root

Probability
mecrn squared deviation of x for the gaussian probability density p(x), given by dx

pf:x) d x = & e x p [y(x2izx1)?]

Here x ranges from -- 2 to LC, a n d t h e q u a n t i t i e s x1 a n d c are constonfs. First, we check that this probability density is normolized to unity. Referring to t h e table of definite integrals, Table 2.4,

TABLE

2.4

Tobleof

Integrals

a n d l e t t i n g y = x - x1 w i t h d x = d y , w e f i n d t h a t

In calculating the rms deviation from the mean of x, we need first to fincl t h e mean. Since the distribution is symmetric about x = xl, it is clear that (x) =: x1. If this were not equation obvimous, the average value of x could be calculated by the I-

(x) = J_, XPb)dX

In the case of the gaussian, this is

(2.54)

( x - x , ) e x p [*2+] dx

+ & 1: e x p [3(x]

d x

(21.55)

The first integral on

the

right is zero because the integrand is odd in (x - xl). Thus, for a goussian peaked about xl, of the peak: (x) = x1. Cl ,h the average value

The second term is x1.

of x is just the position of the center

Let us next calculate the rms deviation from the mean. This is !jo we first need to calculate the expectation value,

( ( x - x1)) = -----;; j m ( x - x1)2 e x p --li

[mm2i2x)2

d x ] (1.56)

Summary 37 Again, with the substitution y = x Table 2.4. Therefore,((x - x1, this reduces to the second integral in

- x1)) = r~. Hence, the rms deviation from the mean

is equal to u. As a characteristic width of the gaussion curve, we might take the distance from x1 to x x, = ~5 the polsnt where the curve is half its maximum. This is at = 1.180. Thus we see that the width at holf-maximum ln2&

and the rms deviation are about the same.

CALCULATION

OF

PROBABILITY

The probability of an event is equal to the number of possible ways of getting the particular result, divided by the total number of ways of getting all possible results. If A and 6 a r e t w o i n d e p e n d e n t e v e n t s , t h e t o t a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f g e t t i n g either the result A or the result is is equal to the sum of the probabilities of getting A and of gettiny 6 separately: P ( e i t h e r A o r 8) = P ( A ) + P ( B ) The probability of getting both A and B is equal to the product of the probabilities of getting A and of getting B separately: P(both The total probability of getting A a n d 8) = P ( A ) P ( 6 ) all possible results in a given situation is unity.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS AND DENSITIES

A probability P(n), which is a function of some discrete variable n, and which g i v e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e e v e n t characterized unity: C P(n) = 1
all

by n, is called a probability function is

distribution function. The normalization of a probability distribmutiorl

A quantity p(x), which is a function of the continuous variable x, such that p(x) dx is the probability of finding x in the infinitesimal interval dx, is called a probability density.

.II II

p(x) dx = 1 funsction P ( n )

If f (n) is a distribution function, then the probability distribution is given by P(n) = f (n)/xC,li able x, then likewise, p(x) = f (x)/If(x) dx.

n f (n). If f (x ) .I S a function of the continuous vori-

~robobilit~ EXPECTATION VALUES

The average value of any quantity g(n) or g(x) is defined as:

(9) = Cg(n)f(n) = Cg(n)P(n) I Cf(n)

or

(ah =z . ,

Jgg(x) f(x) dx) =: jg(x) p(x) dx

/.f(x)dx

The average value is also called an expectation value, because in repetitions of the experiment, wherl average values are computed, it is to be expected that their values are equal to the expectation value.

EXPERIMENTAL DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY

If an experiment is performed which is repeated N times, and the event Ii occurs a total of nH times, then the experimental definition of the probability of the event f-f is Jim - = P(H) N-X N The root mean square (rms) deviation of nH l/((n, -nH )) = from the mean is defined as V(Ti> (nH ) nf+

The rms deviation from the mean of a measured quantity is a good measure of the error, or uncertainty, in the measured value of the quantity. If a measurement is repeated N times, the probable error in the average is proportional to l/V?7 times the probable error for one measurement.

1.

If you draw 4 cards from a standard deck of playing cards, what is the probability that they are all aces? Answer: (4 .3 .2 . 1)/(52 * 51 .50 .49) = l/270,725.

2.

If you draw 4 carcls from a standard deck of playing cards, what is the probability that none is an ace? Answer: ( 4 8 .4:7 .46 .45)/(52 - 5 1 -50 .49) = 38,916/54,145.

3.

If you draw 4 carcls from a standard deck of playing cords, what is the probability that exactly one is Ban ace? Answer: 4 . (48 * 47 .46 .4)/(52 .5 1 .50 .49) = 69,184,270,725.

4. A jar contains 3 black balls and 4 white balls. If you draw 1 ball out of the iar, what is the probability that it will be white? Answer: 4/7.

I-

--

Problems

39

5. A jar contains 4 black balls and 10 white balls. If you draw 2 balls out of the iar, what is the probability thai both will be white? Answer: (10 x 9)(14 :x: 1 3 ) = 45/91. in deep 6. A blind mon in ~1 cafeteria comes to pick up his silverware, which is stosred

cans. Two of the cans contain forks. One can contains 1 salad fork, the other contains 99 regular forks and I salad fork. He sticks his hand at random into CI can and picks a fork at random from the forks in the can. What is the probability that he will pick a salad fork? Answer: 0.505. 7. If the probability of missing the bulls-eye target shooting is 0.96, how many bulls-eyes would you expec:t Answer: 8. Answer: 14. 10!55/(5!)2CIO = 21,875/1,679,616. up 5 .times and CI to hit in 350 shots?

What is the probability hat in 10 throws of CI die, o 2 comes up 5 times?

9. What is the probability that in 10 throws of a die, a 2 come:: 3 comes up 2 times? Answer: 10. 10!43/5!2!3!6o = 35/13122.

If o rabbit runs past you and the probability of catching it is 0.05, then what is the probability of catching clt least 2 rabbits if a herd of 160 rabbits runs by one at CI time? What is the probat)lllity of catching exactly 2 rabbits? Answer: 1 - (0.95)Iea ~- 160(0.95)59 160!(0.95)5~(0.05)2/158!2! o(O.05) = 0 . 9 9 7 4 3 ; = 0.00961 momen-

1 1.

According to quantum mech~anics,

o free atom may hove on intrinsic ongu~lar

tum G + 2)A/2 associated with it, where n is an integer and Pi a constant. If a particular component IIS measured, it can have with equal probability n + 1 equally spaced values from - % nh to % ni?. If there are N such noninteracting a t o m s , w h a t i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e a r e ml w i t h z components of % nA, mzwith(%n Answer: - l)Ii,....N N!/(n - (ml + m2 + e..+ m,)with
-1znfi?

+ l)Nml !mz! . . . [N - (m, + mz + . . . + m,)]!

12. A crystal is grown by evaporating A and 8 type atoms, and then letting them condense to form the crystal. If, because of the forces involved, on A as likely to stick to the crystal
OS

atom

is twice

a B atom, what is the probability that the final

crystal wiil consist of %A atoms if there ore 3N total atoms? What is the probability in terms of N that it will consist of % B atoms? Find the ratio of these prsobabihties if N = 10. Answer: (3N)!22N/331qN!(2N)!;
21022 = 10(3 * 102')

(3N)!2N/33NN!(2N)!;

13. Suppose a prism whose cross section is on equilateral triangle has the three faces forming the triangle marked A, 6 and C. If the triangle is dropped on a table, it is equally likely that any of these faces is on the bottom. If it is dropped N times, find an expression for the probability that the A face is on the bottom n times, H m times, and C (N - n - m) times. Answer:
N!/3Nn!m!(EJ --n - m)!

14. If, in the previous problem, the triangular cross section is not equilateral but is such that in one drop of the prism the probability that side A is down is 1, and that side 6 is down is q, what is; the probability of n As and m 6s in N trials? Answer: 15. N!pq(l - p -

q) N-mm/n!m!(N

- n - m ) !

A particle can move along the x axis, and is moved successively by the fixed amount ,&I with equal probability either in the positive or the negative x direction. If

40

Probability i t i s m o v e d N t i m e s , w h a t i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t i t i s n LL i n t h e p o s i t i v e x direction away from where it started? Assume N and n are both even integers. Answer: N!/2N (!F)! (!+L)!

16. If in a trial the probability of getting result 1 is p and that of getting result 2 is q = 1 - p, show that in N trials the expectation value of the number of times one gets result 1 is

Find this expectation ,value. Answer:

Also find the expectation value of the square of the

number of times one gets result 1. N p ; N2p2 t- N p q . it is found that a harmonic oscillator consisting of a mass m where Ii is a 17. In quantum mechanics,

and a spring of constant k can have energies of E, = (n + %)Xtiw, mechanics chapter, the probability that it has an temperature is J, is em (-E.lk~

constant, w = Qrk/m, and n is an integer or zero. As you will see in the statistical energy L, when the Kelvin

J)

f: ev(-WhJ) n=O
where k, is a constant called Boltzmanns series whose sum is given by constant. The denominator is a geometric

Show that the expectation value of the energy is given by

and evaluate it. Answer: hw(1 + l/[exp(hw/ksJ) 111. 18. Suppose N noninteracting particles are confined in a volume V. What is the iprobability that any one particle will be found Inside a volume V, which is inside V? What is the probability of finding all N particles in V? Answer: 19. VI/V; (V/V)N. An unfair coin is tcssed 10 times, with the mean of nH. See Problem 16. Answer: 20. 1.549. and p. + f:, Suppose N noninteracting particles are confined in a volume V, and all momenta are equally probable so long as their components lie between p. and pY + PY, and

p(H)

=: 0.6. Calculate the rms deviation from

pr

pz

and pz + P,. What is the probability that the ith particle Ilies in

the volume dx,dy,dz, inside V and lies in the momentum range dp,,, dp,;, dp,, inside the momentum bounds? What is the total probability that these N particles are in

Problems 4 1 dx,,dy, ,dz,, ,dxN, dyN a n d dzN, a n d dp,,, ,,dp,,? T h i s is called phase space. dxl dy, . . . dzN dp, dp,, . . . dp,,., 6 N dilnensional

space of coordinates and Imomenta Answer:

dx, dy, dzi dp, +r, dp,. -:-_.I. vP,P,f:

(VPj,PJN

-
cos tit. of

21. The displacement of a A half period is r/w.

mc~ss executing harmonic motion is given by x = xg In terms of dx, t, w, xg, what is the

The time it spends in dx is dx/

1v ) In a given half cycle, where 1 Y ) = 1 wxc, sin wt ) . probability

finding the mass in dx? This probability can be written as f(x) dx, where f(x) is the distribution function. Find f(x). Find the expectation value for x and x2. Answer: dx/ 1x0 sin cllt ) ; = 1/2x& w h e r e 0 5 x 5 J. W h a t i s t h e normalizaf(x) = l/,fl-x2, (xj = 0, (x)

22. The distribution of weights x i n l b , of a large set of objects is given by the distribution function f(x) = e-lox, tion constant C such that Cf(x) Answer: 23. the 10; /,o; /,,). where the probability that it points in the increment is the probability density? What is the average value

of the weight x? What is the rms deviation from the mean? If an arrow is dropped on a uniform table, all directions are equally probable. Find distribution function t(H) d% i s f ( % ) d % . F i n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f 8, a n d o f %* if % v a r i e s b e t w e e n - H and P. Answer: 1/(2a); 0 ; 7ri/3. 24. A piece of sand falls in an hourglass a distance h. At the instant it hits, another piece starts falling, etc. What in terms of the distance y down from the top, is the probability of finding a piece of sand in the increment dy at the distance y < h? What is the expectation value of y for a moving piece of sand? Answer: dy/2 dhy; hl3. times. Estimate the ratio of the probability that heads 25. A fair coin is tossed 360,C~OO the gaussian Answer: distribution).

turn up 179,000 times, to the probability that heads turns up 180,000 timsea (assume

0.00387.

3 special theory of relativity

In this chapter it will be seen that the laws of Newtonian mechanics, when used to describe objects of very high energies, or traveling at very high speeds, give predictions which disagree with experiment. The understanding of the fundamental reasons for these disagreements and the discovery of the theory of relativity, which agrees with experiment, are due to Albert Einstein (1879-l 955). His theory is based on some simple experimental facts and on a careful analysis of the processes of measurement of length and time. We shall discuss how length and time measurements are related in frames of r e f e r e n c e whic4 are moving with respect to each other. These relationships are called the Lorenfz transformation equations and are basic to the later development of the laws of physics, when speeds are comparable to that of liight. Historically, the primary experiment which helped convince other physicists that Einsteins theory was correct was the Michelson-Morley experiment, to be disc u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 3.12!. Howe ve r, we shall first look at some other discrepancies between the predictions of classical physics and experiment; such discrepancies also necessitate the introduction of the theory of relativity.

3.1 CONFLICT BETWEEN ULTIMATE SPEED AND NEWTONS LAWS

In Newtonian or classilcal any particle of mass lrll mechanics, the basic law which describes the motion of under the action of a net applied force

and with1

ac-

celeration a is Newtons second law of motion, such as for particles going at very high speeds.

= ma. This law agrees with

experiment for most ordinary situations, but it breaks down in extreme situations, Imagine, for example, an electron of mass 9.1 1 electric field of lo6 times the field or 1.6

x 10w3 kg acted on by an

volts/m over a distance of ten meters. The force is the charge

x IO-l3 nt. By Newtons second law, the acceleration is

w h e r e s is the distance the particle has experi-

F/m = 1.76 x 1017 m/set. If the electron starts from rest, the kinematic expression for the speed v is v = v?%, moved. In this example for s = 10 m, the final speed is v = 1.9 x 1 O9 m/set. However, it is now a well-known fact, substantiated by multitudes of 4 2

3.2 Classical

momcsnfum and energy conservofion-connict

wifh experiment

4 3

ments with cyclotrons and other accelerating machines, that no particle can be made to go faster than the speed of light, c = 2.9974 we will use 3 x 10 m/set experiment. The error is eithtsr
x

10 m/set (hereafter

for c). Thus, Newtonian mechanics disagrees with in the second law of motion, or in the kinematics,

o r b o t h . H o w e v e r , since the kinematical relation follows directly from the definit i o n s o f v e l o c i t y a n d a c c e l e r a t i o n , w e w o u l d e x p e c t t h a t i t i s t h e law Iof motion which must somehow be modified in order to resolve the discrepancy.

3.2

CLASSICAL CONFLICT The laws of

MOMENTUM WITH

AND

ENERGY

CONSERVATION-

EXPERIMENT of mechanical energy and momentum follow from

conservation

Newtons laws of motion, w h i c h w e r e s e e n t o b e o f s u s p e c t v a l i d i t y b y t h e preceding example. Now we shall apply these classical conservation principles to the problem of an elastic collision between two bodies of equal mass. Comparison of our prediction for high speed experiments will show a discrepancy, giving further evidence that the laws of motion must be modified, and that the definitions of energy and momentum will also have to be modified if we are to retain our concept of the existence of conserved physical quantities. For a particle of mass m and velocity v colliding elastically with another of the same mass initially at rest, conservation of energy gives

w h e r e v, a n d vz a r e t h e v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e t w o particles a f t e r t h e c o l l i s i o n . (See Figure 3.1 .:I Likewise, mv = conservation

171y~

of

momentum or v = v.

gives + v2

us (3.2)

mvz

----X

Before
Figure 3.1. Collision of particles with equal

After
rest moss.

V2

4 4

Special fheory

of relotivify

The scalar product of the latter equation with itself leads to

2 = v: + 2v,

V2

+ v:

l(3.3)

Comparison with Equation (3.1) shows that v , *v2 i s z e r o . T h e n , i f n e i t h e r f i n a l velocity is zero, the angle between the final velocities must be ninety degrees. The photographs in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show some experimental results. Figu r e 3 . 2 i s a multiple flash photograph of two colliding billiard balls of equal mass. The angle between the paths of the outgoing balls can be measured directly from the photographs; it is found to be essentially ninety degrees, as predicted. In Figure 3 a track is shown in a nuclear emulsion of a c o l l i s i o n between an electron traveling with a speed of nearly 3 10 m/set, and an

electron initially at rest in the emulsion. We would expect energy to be conserved in this collision, because conservative forces are involved and little radiation is emitted during the collision. As in Figure 3.2, the plane of motion is the same CIS the plane of the paper. From the photograph, the angle between the outgoing particles is found to be around 19 degrees, much different from the prediicted ninety degrees. Into the classical prediction went the classical laws of energy and momentum conservation. Also, since the same mass was used on both !sides of the equations, conservation of mass was assumed. Therefore, one or more of these classical laws must be incorrect.

3.3

CONSERVATION Let us finally look

OF at

MASS-CONFLICT relating

WITH to

EXPERIMENT the conservation of mass. In

experiments

directly

chemical reactions, such as experiment that the .total mass Law. before In such the reaction. chemical This

2H2 + O2 + 2H20, mass the conservation forces

i t i s w e l l s u b s t a n t i a t e d ifrom law is are sometimes electrical called in Daltons and

mass after the reaction occurs is equal to the ,totaI involved nature

reactions,

act between particles separated by distances of the order of 10-l called are the strong a interaction, times which greater acts than between in particles separated For

meters. Atsomic by distalnces sup-

nuclei are bound together very tightly by a different, extremely strong force, o f t h e o r d e r o f 10-l meters. This leads to nuclear interaction energies that around million chemical reactions. example, pose a proton and a Ineutron combine to form a deuteron. 1 Om2 1 Om2 kg; kg;

The mass of a proton is: 1.6724 x The mass of a neutron is: 1.6747 x The sum of the masses is: 3.3471 x

10e2 kg.

When these particles combine, the mass of the resulting deuteron is 3.3431 x 10e2 kg. This is less than the total original mass, so that mass is not conserved. Therefore, if the energies of interaction are high enough, significant departures from the conservation of mass law can be observed. Of the two other conservation laws known in classical physics-conservation of angular momenturn and of charge-experiment shows that whereas the first must be modified valid for high all energy particles,, the charge conservation law remains generally under circumstances.

outgoing t

outgoing

incoming
Figure 3.2. Elastic collision of two billiard bails.

Figure 3.3

Collision with an electron of the charged particle formed by the Pdecay of a p-meson
The charged parWe emitted in the P-decay of a p-meson makes a collision with an electron in the emulsion. The tracks before and after the collision are long enougih to allow the mom e n t a o f t h e partic:les to be determined. An analysis of the dynamics of the collision can therefore be made, assuming it to be elastic so that no appreciable energy is emitted in the form of photons. It

*
. , 0,. *.

lmay

thus be shown

that if track (a) is clue to the recoiling electron, the mass of the particle producing the track (b) is 3 f 2m,; track (b) is due to and if
,, . .. .

aln

electron, the mass

of the other particle is I .5 f 1 . Om,. This observation therefore proves that the particle produced in the decay of the p-meson is of small rest-mass and gives very strong support for the view, commonly held, that it is an electron. Although the collision is almost certainly due to two particles of equal mass, of which one was originally at rest, the subsequeni directions of motion of the two particles are not at right angles, since the velocities are in the relativistic region. From The Study of Elementary Particles by the Photographic Method, Powell, Fowler and Perkins.

.. . .;.

.-. . \

3.5 Inertial

sysfems

47

3.4

CORRESPONDENCE

PRINCIPLE

In the next chapter we will develop the generalizations of mechanics, due to Albert Einstein, that will resolve the difficulties encountered above. The correspondence principle, to be disc:ussed in this section, serves as a useful guide in finding the generalization of a law that is valid for one range of a variable, but which hos to be modified for another range of that variable. Suppose there existed a theory of mechanics that gave results in agreement w i t h e x p e r i m e n t f o r a l l s p e e d s v 5 c. The difficulties with Newtonian mechanics show up mainly when we are dealing with high speeds. Then in the cas#e to the predicted result of Newtons laws of motion. Newtons laws are so well verified in terrestrial and astronomical exiperiments that they must be an accurate representation of nature in those cases. About the highest speed available in such experiments with large objects is the speed of the p l a n e t M e r c u r y , lo5 mi/hr or 5 x lo4 m/set. Since this speed is small c:ompared to c, we would expect any deviations from the predictions of Newtons laws of m o t i o n t o b e v e r y s m a l l . H o w e v e r , in modern accelerating machines particles are accelerated to speeds (approaching the speed of light, c, and Newtons second law does not apply. The newer theory, the applies to all particles going with any speed up to c. The correspondence principle states that any new theory which applies to a broader range of experiments than an old theory, must give the same predicted results as the old theory in those experiments with which the old theory is in agreement. The new theory---in our case, the special theory of relativity-must give the same results as Newtons laws of motion when applied, for instance, to problems involving motion of artificial satellites. Another way of stating the correspondence principle is: Any new theory which contains an older theory as ~a special case must give the same predictions as the which the old theory applies. might accorcl w i t h t h e to chemical old theory in the special cases ito s.pecial theory of relativity, of very l o w s p e e d , v <: c, the predicted results of this new theory must be identical

As we will see, special relativity explains why the mass of a deutelron not equal the sum of the neutron and proton masses. Also in correspondence discussed principle, relativity gives Daltons law when applied

reactions. The correspondence principle is also satisfied in the other examples above.

3.5

INERTIAL

SYSTEMS
Newtoman laws of motion do not

Hoving seen in preceding sec:tions t h a t t h e

always agree with experiment, we shall now proceed to analyze in more detail the conditions under which the laws are known to hold. One of the most important restrictions, and one which also applies in special relativity, is that the laws can be valid only in certain frames of reference called inertial1 frames. on a with Consider, for example, Newtons first law of motion: If the net force ascting body is zero, the body will either remain at rest or will continue to lmiove

constant velocity in a straight line. An inertial frame, by definition, is one in which the first law-the law Iof iInertia-holds. To measure the position and velocity of a particle, we need a coordinate system, set up with clocks and measuring rods (rulers) at rest in it, to observe the motions of bodies. There are many different coordinate systems we could choose. For example, we could pick a reciangular xyz system, as in Figure 3.4,

-m--tY--tYtu .

Figure

3.4.

Two inertial reference frames.

w i t h i t s z axis pointing up, and its origin in the middle of some railroad tracks with the x axis pointing parallel to the rails. Also, let us pick a second coordinate system with origin fixecl in a train going along the tracks with constant velociity v relative to the tracks. We call this system the xyz system, with z a x i s u p , a n d x a x i s p a r a l l e l t o the tracks. A passenger in the train might observe a book lying on the seat and !say that relative to the xyz system, the book is at rest, and therefore by NewtDns first law, there must be no force on the book. On the other hancl, a person standing in the middle of the railroad tracks might say that the book is traveling with constant velocity v relative to the xyz system. Therefore, for him also the force is zero by Newtons first law. To simplify the disc:ussion, we shall designate the observers by letters, calling coordinate

the observer on the trcin G. and the one on the tracks R. G. goes and R. remains. We shall call their coordinate systems G and R, respectively. G.s system, G, is the xyz set; R.s set, R, is the xyz set. Now according to R., the book is traveling with constant velocity, V. T h e n e t force acting on it is t!herefore zero, in accordance with Newtons first law in R. system, G, satisfies the first law since the Likewise, the motion of the book in G.s

book is at rest. A system of coordinates in which Newtons first law of motion is satisfied is called an inertial system because, when no force acts on it, the inmertia of a body causes it to continue in a state of rest or of motion with constant velocity. Thus, since the book inertial rotation system and of in G.s (At coordinate system is at rest and has no net this point, R.s we are is an neglecting inertial the earths force acting on it, the xyz coordinate system (the G system), would be an coordinates. motion.) planetary Likewise, system system

3 . 6

Non-inerfiol

sysfems

4 9

3.6 NON-INERTIAL SYSTEMS Not all coordinate systems are inertial systems. Imagine a rotating coordinate system (xyz) fixed in a merry-go-round, as in FiGlure 3.5, which is rotating

Figure 3.5. velocity w.

Coordinate system fixed in a merry-go-round which is rotating wiih angular

with the angular velocity w, relative to the ground. The origin of the coordinate system is on the axis of rotation. A ticket stub lying on the ground a distance d f r o m t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n w i l l h a v e x a n d y c o o r d i n a t e s , x = dl c o s wt. I, = d s i n wf. T h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e p a t h o f t h e s t u b i n xy c o o r d i n a t e s , Y that is, as seen by an observer fixed to the merry-go-round, is thus (x) + (y) = d2, the equation o,f CI circle. The net force acting on the ticket stub
OS

from all physical causes such

gravity and contact with the

grouncl

is zero.

The path of the stub in the xy coordinates is a circle. Therefore, the first law of motion is invalid in this rotating coordinate system, and it is not an inertial system. The earth we live on rotates approximately once per day relative to the sun. A coordinate system fixed relalive to the eorth also rotcltes once a day. Then the earth s u n u n d e r g o e s c i r c u l a r moticn relative to such a coordinate system fixed in the earth. (See Figure 3.6.) We conclude that this coordinate system fixed in .the is, therefore, not an inertial system. We have defined an inertial system as a system of coordinates in which the first law of motion holds. Clearly, if an observer is accelerating, the first law will not hold because an object not acted on by forces will appear to accelerate. Thus, a coordinate system fixed on the surfac:e of the earth is not exactly an inertial system, both because of the centripetal acceleration coordinate that bodies have on the earths surface and because it is a is rotating

system.

The magnitude of the centripetol acceleration of a man on the equatolr a2r = (2~/864ClO set per revolution)2(about 4000 miles)
2

= 2 . 1 x 1 0 m5 mi/sec

== 0 . 1 1 ft/sec

The acceleration of a car which speeds up from rest IO 15 mi/hr in 60 seconds

5 0

S p e c i a l t h e o r y o f relotivi~y

N t

Figure

3.6.

A coordinate :,ystem fixed on the surface of the earth is a non-inertial system.

// Q)the cars coordinate system, however, the

is 6.9 x 1O-5 mi/sec,. which is of the same order of magnitude as the centripetal acceleration at the equator. Suppose a coordinate system were fixed in a car which is accelerating, and that a passenger in the car is observing a .ticket stub lying on the road. Then the net force on the stub from all physical causes is zero. As seen from stub is accelerating. T h e r e f o r e , t h e accelerclting system is not an inertial system, since Newtons, first l a w d o e s n o t h o l d ; s i m i l a r l y , t h e m a n o n t h e e q u a t o r i s n o t i n a n inertial reference frame.

3 . 7 A X E S R E L A T I V E TO F I X E D S T A R S
Suppose that instead1 of axes fixed in the earth, we choose a set of axes with center at the center of the earth, but with the x axis pointing along the direction of orbital motion and the y axis pointing toward the sun. This is still nlot earth has a small centripetal acceleratioln further and take a an inertial system, because the coordinate system will rotate once a year; also, the toward the sun. We can go a step c:ooredinate system with origin at the suns center, one axis

normal to the plane of our galaxy and another along the line from the center of the sun to the center of the galaxy. This is again not an inertial system, because the sun orbits around the galactic center. However, this is close enough for most purposes, as seen in Table 3.1, because the acceleration of the sun toward the galactic center is very small compared to ordinary accelerations we measure on earth. From here on, we shall assume that, to a good approximation, a coordinate system with origin fixed at the center of the sun and axes pointing toward fixed stars is an inertial system of coordinates, because it has negligible acceleration and negligible rate of rotation. Then the path of a free particle (no forces acting on it) relative to this system will, to a high degree of approximation, appear to be a straight line.

3.8 Ga/i/eon tranrformotions TABLE 3.1

acceleration of Accelerations of Origins of Possible Reference Frames towards center of earth sun center of galaxy --___a = v/r

51

2 . 1 1 . 5 1 . 5 -

point on equator center of earth sun

x 10e5 mi/sec x 10e6 rni/rec X lo-l3 rni/sec

3.8

GALlLEAN

TRANSFORMATIONS
!sun, a n d

Suppose R. is at rest relative ta the inertial system with origin in the ta R. Lets choose x and x

consider G., in the xyz system, moving with same constant velocity v relative axes parallel ta v, as shown in Figure 3.7. The

Y /

/ /

// v / ------id

----x

Figure

3.7.

R and G inertial frames. G moves with velocity v relative to, R.

motion of a free particle looks like straight line, constant velocity motion, ta G. as well as ta R., so the systems of bath G. and R. are inertial systems. We shall exumine this in mare detail, IIII order ta find fransformatian relations between the G.s system, two coordinate systems. Suppose that at a certain instant t, as measured by R., the free particle is at the point (x,y,z). As measured by clocks in the time is t w h e n t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s m a d e . I f i n G and R there are clacks w h i c h b e a t s e c o n d s a n d w h i c h a r e s e t t a t = t = 0 at the instant the origins in G and R pass each other, the Newtonian assumption of absolute time gives f = f (3.4)

We will later see that this equation, which seemed 1~0 o b v i o u s t a N e w t o n a n d to generations of physicists tllereafter, is not valid in special relativity. After time t, referring ta Figure 3.8, the origins are separated by OI distance equal ta vt, since G. travels with speed v relative ta R. Thus, the position x of the particle at the instant t =: t, as measured by G., can be expressed as,
X

= x - vt

(3.5)

Also, if the y axis is chosen parallel to y, and z is parallel ta z, we have, at the same instant t = 1, the fallowing relations between G.s and R.s measure-

52

Special theory of re/otivi:ty i 2: G t

t R

(xyz) (xyz)
Particle v ---t 1

s
-x--

I -!xI

Figure t3.8. ments of the particles

Separation between origins at time t is vt.

position: y = y, i = z

(3.6)

Of course, R. and G. must each use measuring rods at rest in their respective coordinate systems.

The

four equations, Equations (3.4), (3.5), and (3.6), a r e t = t w a s , i n N e w -

called the Galilean transformation equations. The equation went into the other of G and

tonian mechanics, simply taken to be self-evident; other intuitive assumptions

equations,

such as the assumption that all lengths appear the

same in the two coorclinate

systems. It will be seen that, when the relative speed

becomes large, these assumptions are erroneous, indicating that

intuition cant always be Irusted. f, 9 5 ,I ___--.---

3.9 GALlLEAN VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS

Next, let us find the relation between the particle velocities, as measured in the two coordinate systems, using the Galilean transformations. The x cornponents of velocity in the ,two systems,

and G, are dx/dt and dx/dt,

respectively.

However, since if time is (absolute dt and df are equal, we dont have to distinguish between them. Differentiation of Equation (3.5) with respect to f, remembering that v is constant, results in i=i-v

(3.7)
2

,where the dots mean time derivatives. Similarly, Equations (3.5) lead to p The result states that Imoving = y, i :3

lif

(3.8)

R. observes a particle going with constant velocity, and velocity relative to R., then G. will observe the particle are completely equivalent as far as the statement of frame. of the significance of this discussion of inertial ,the first law of motion in various in-

G. is moving with cons.tont H e n c e , a l l i n e r t i a l frclmes

with constant velocity. Hence, if R. is, in an inertial system, so is G.

the first law of motion is concerned; if the first law is valid in one inertial frame, it is valid in every other iriertial T h i s r e s u l t i s a f i r s t indication

frames. The similarity of the statements of

:I. 10 Second law of motion uqder Galileon transformations

53

ertial frames means that there is no way to pick and choose among the infinity of inertial frames (using the first law), in the hope that by judicious choice the expression of the law might be Imade simpler. One inertial frame is as good as another. One may draw the analogy of attempting to pick a better origin for coordinates for the expressiofl of the rules of plane analytic geometry-actually, one origin is as good as another. It will be seen below that this equivalence proper*y of the law of inertia is used also satisfied by the other laws of motion. Hence no mechanical law can lbe many other phy!jicists space inertial

to draw essential distinctions between inertial frames. Nevertheless, Newton and of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries maintained a belief in the existence of an absolute space and an absolute time. Absolute referred to space coordinates measured with respect to one preferred frame, which was supposed to be absolutely at rest. Absolute time flowed observe\- with respect to absolute

uniformly, independent of the motion of the assumption in Equation (3.4).

space, and the belief in the existence of absolute time was the origin of the

10 !SECOND LAW OF MOTION UNDER GAULEAN

TRANSFORMATIONS

ltet 1~s look at the expression of the second law of motion in the two relativel,y Imoving coordinate systems, R and G. We shall put primes on all quantities such

as F,

m,

quantities

a, t o d e n o t e F, m , a, for

qualntities general

m e a s u r e d b y G . W e s h a l l a s k IIOW t h e of a particle, are related1 to the rnem, a, measured by R. In Newtonian

motion

corresponding physical quantities chanics, it is always assumed thIat m is the particles moss
OS

F,

all observers will measure a particle to have ill

the same mass, i.e. mass is an absolute quantity. Scl for a given particle, if measured in G, and m is its mass as measured ma scale R , t h e n m = m. Similarly, forces ore absolutes, and are assumed to be .the same in two inertial systems. For example, a book weighs the same on on the ground as on a scale in a car moving at constant velocity. Then accelerations a a n d a. Differentiating these equations with respect or t), we find that a, , = a,, ay , = a, a, = a,

F = F:.
to time (f (3.9)

l3y using Equations (3.7) and (3.8), w e c a n f i n d a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o

Thus,

the accelerations ore the same in the two inertial systems.

We see that the three quantities in corresponding quantities F

= ma, the second law, are equal to the

F,

m, a

in the other inertial frame. It follows that

= ma. In Newtonian mechanics, the second law of motion has the same form inertial frame in which the law would be different.

in all inertial frames; this low,. therefore, cannot be used to pick out some prc:ferred

I1

THIRD

LAW

UNDER

GAUL.EAN

TRANSFORMATIONS

Finally, the third law, the law of action and reaction, is the same in various inertial systems; in other words, the low is form-invariant under Galileon trans-

54

Special theory of re/ativi,ty

formations. We can see this because if particles A and B interact in the R system, the third law gives F,,, c,n BI = -F,, on A). But for any force, F = F. So this equation is the same as F(AonBj = -F(BonAj, which is the third law for the same interaction i n s y s t e m G . H e n c e , oil t h e N e w t o n i a n l a w s o f m o t i o n a r e f o r m - i n v a r i a n t u n d e r Galilean transformations. Therefore, there is no hope of finding one preferred inertial system, in which the laws of mechanics take a simpler mathematical iform, and which we could s,ay is absolutely at rest.

3.12

MICHELSON-MORLIEY

EXPERIMENT

I n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t a// c l a s s i c a l m e c h a n i c a l l a w s a r e f o r m - i n v a r i a n t u n d e r Galilean transformations, Newtons philosophical beliefs led him to assert that there existed a preferred inertial frame, at rest in absolute space. Later on in the nineteenth century, people came to believe that light waves were supported by a medium called the ether, which was at rest in absolute

s p a c e . R e l a t i v e t o t h e e t h e r , l i g h t w a s s u p p o s e d t o p r o p a g a t e a t t h e s p e e d c; h e n c e , b y t h e Gal&an v e l o c i t y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , E q u a t i o n (3.7), observers in

motion with respect to the ether should be able to observe light rays propagsating at various speeds, depending on the direction of propagation and on the motion of the observer with respect to the ether. The apparent variation in the speed of propagation of light would mean, in other words, that the laws describing light

waves are not form-invariant under Galilean transformations. Hence, detection of the motion of an observer with respect to the absolute rest frame, or with respect to the ether, by means of experiments with light, appeared at first to be feasible. A very accurate experiment designed to detect the absolute motion of the e a r t h w a s p e r f o r m e d b y .Michelson a n d M o r l e y i n 1 8 8 1 . T h i s w a s a n e x p e r i m e n t TABLE Trials of the Michelson-Morley Experiment 3.2 Ratio Observer Year Michelson M i c h e l s o n & Morley Morley & M i l l e r Miller Miller Miller (sunlight) Tomaschek (starlight) Miller Kennedy lllingworth Piccard & Stahel Michelson et al. Joos Townes, Javan, Murray, Jaseja 1881 1887 1902-04 1921 1923-24 1924 1924 1925-26 1926 1927 1927 1929 1930 1962 Potsdam Cleveland Cleveland Mt. Wilson Cleveland Cleveland Heidelberg Mt. Wilson Pasadena & Mt. Wilson Pasadena M t . Rigi Mt. Wilson Jena long Island 175 20 90 375 1000 Place to of expected time observed

differences 2 40 80 15 40 80 15 13 35

3. I3 Postdotes of relativity in which light was sent along t,wo arms of an interferometer, of equal lengths, placed parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the earths orbital velocity. The difference in light speed, or travel time differences, along these two arms could be measured with precision great enough to detect the earths orbital v e l o c i t y , 3 0 km/set. When the experiment was first performed, physicists were surprised to learn that the time difference was zero-I.e. the experiment gave a reasonable--that the null result. This means that, to within the accuracy of the experiment, the light speed is independent of direction and hence-which is lnot earth seemed to be at rest in absolute space. This experiment has been performed many times since 1881 with greatly increased accuracy, always with a null result. Some of accurate given null tl-iese results are given in Table involvim;I moving charges, 3.!2. Many other extremely telescopes, interferexperiments results. moving

55

ometers with unequal arms, etc., performed to detect the earths motilon h a v e

13 IPOSTULATES OF RE:LATlVlTX
All of the efforts to de,tect the absolute motion of the earth by optical experiments have failed in spite of the lal~ge magnitude of the expected effect. This tends to Iindicate that absolute motion is simply not detectable by means of optical experiments. lby We have also seen that no preferred inertial system can be detected means of Newtonian mechanics. Einstein concluded from this that it must be a fact of nlature that there is no experiment of any kind, performed a preferred inertial system. between the inertial systems G and R is

.fundamental or to select

iln an inertial system, by means of which it is possible to detect absolute motion

A deeper analysis of the rellations Inecessary. Inever

If there is nt3 way elf detecting a preferred frame of reference, we can

say that, of two observers, G. and R., who are moving relatively to each

(other in inertial frames, one is at rest absolutely. Only relative motion is observable. (See Figure 3.9.) Thus, R. can say, G . i s m o v i n g w i t h v e l o c i t y v r e l a t i v e to me, but not, I am at rest in absolute space and (3. is moving. If G. is in an

--

Figure

3.9.

Reference frame G moves with velocity v along the positive x,x direction

with respect to R.

5 6

Special theory of relativify

inertial system, the experiments he performs using apparatus at rest in that system would be desc:ribed If R. performed identical by some set of equations which express physical laws. using apparatus at rest R in his inertial frame, which would be the experiments

these experiments would be described by physical laws in the form of the equatit>ns

same in form as the physical laws in G. So, in principle, there is no difference in which express physical laws discovered by G. and those discovered by R. This is one of the basic assumptions of the theory of relativity, called the p r i n c i p l e ol r e l a t i v i t y , a n d m a y b e s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s : A// t h e l a w s of p h y s i c s a r e t h e s a m e i n al/ inertiul f r a m e s . This principle is a general statement which restricts the possible physical laws to those having the property of forminvariance with respect to transformations. between inertial systems. AlthoLlgh it is consistent with the results of mechanical and optical experiments, it is not true that all conceivable experiments have already been performed, or that all p h y s i c a l l a w s h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . Henc:e cations. Measurements at the (earths surface show that light propagates in a vacuum w i t h s p e e d c z 3 x lo8 m/set, independent of direction. If R. measures the speed of a light wave in vacuum, i t w i l l b e c . I f t h e l a w s d e s c r i b i n g l i g h t w a v e s a r e v a l i d l a w s o f physic:j, wave whose speed they and if G. measures the speed of some light wave, it were measuring. This very important principle was taken should be c. Both would measure the speed to be c even if it were the same light by Einstein as the second fundamental assumption of his theory: I n v a c u u m t h e speed of light, c, is a ~onstanf, irrespective of the state of motion of the source. relative to R., shines his flashlight in the +x Thus, if G., traveling at velocity v R. will observe the same Nave the principle has very broad impli-

direction, it follows that he will observe a light wave that travels with speed c. traveling with the same speed c. (See Figure 13.10.)

Both G. and R. see light from the flashlight moving with the same speed c Figure 3.10. relative to themselves.

3. I4 Experimental evidence for seconcll This contradicts the Galilean velocity transformations, Equations

postulate

57

(3.4), l(3.5) a n d by R.,

(3.6), which tell us that the speed of light wave sent out by G. as observl?d

is c + v. Therefore, if the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light is correct, as indicated by experiment, the Galilean transformations must b e i n correct. Since the Galilean transformations depend solely on distance ond time measurements, and since a slseed distance of light and time a measurements universal remains is a distance divided by a time, somehow the must be modified in relativity so that the speed

constant.

Summarizing, Einstein was led to base a new theory on two postulates. These are: I. The principle of relativity: No inertial system is preferred. The equations expressing the laws of physics have the same form in CIII inertial systems. II. The principle of the constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light, c, is, a u n i v e r s a l c o n s t a n t i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s t a t e o f motion of the source.

14 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FOR THE SECOND POSTULATE

Most of the experiments performed to test the predictions of relativity theory largely confirmed the first por,tulate but did not test the second postulate directly. We shall now describe an experiment which was performed to test the volidity of the second postulate, that the speed of light is a constant independent of the motion of the light soLlrce. Suppose R. has a light source at rest in his lab and he measures the speed of

\ \ \ \ I /

Figure 3.11. Light emitted from positions A and B on the suns equator colnes from r,ourtes moving with different velclc~~ties relative to the earth.

58

Special theory of relativity light using apparatus at rest in his lab. He finds the speed to be c. Then, if G. is moving toward R.s light source with speed v, the lights speed in G woulol be c if the second postulate is correct, but c + v if the Galilean transformations are correct. If G. is moving away from R.s light s o u r c e , w i t h s p e e d v , t h e G a l i l e a n transformations imply that the lights speemd i n G w o u l d b e c - v. The difference between these two observed speeds would be 2v. Imagine that R. is slitting in a lab at rest on the suns equator, as in Figure 3.1 1. T h e s u n r o t a t e s a b o u t aln axis which is nearly normal to the line of sight of G., who is supposed to be on the earth. The sun has a radius of 695,000 km and rotates with angular velocity 2.9 x 10m6 rad/sec. away from the earth is The speed with which a point A or or B (see Figure 3.1 1) at the edge of the visible equator moves either towalrd

v = o r = 2 km/!;ec = 2 0 0 0 m/set. H e n c e , i f G . m e a m/set if the Galilean transforma-

sures the speed of lislht, (emitted by a source at rest relative to R, for both points A and 6, he should see a difference of 4000 tions are correct and 170 difference if the second postulate is correct.

When the experiment was actually performed by the Russian physicist BonchBruevich, the speed difference was observed to be 63 f 230 m/set, w h e r e t h e figure ~230 m/set indicates the size of the probable error in the measurements. This experiment is in far better agreement with the principle of the constancy of the speed of light than with the Galilean transformations. Bench-Bruevich calculated that, given the rlzsult 63 & 230 m/set and the predicted result of the Galilean transformation Iof 4000 m/set, the chance that the Galilean transformation could be right is 1 in 104.j. page. A reproduction of that paper is given on the following

3.15 GALlLEAN TRANSFORMATIONS AND THE PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY

The Galilean Transformations connecting the measurements of G. with those of R. may be written as:
Xl

= x - vf = t

Y z

= Y = z (3.10)

These transformations are completely consistent with the principle of relativity (Postulate I) taken by itself. This may be seen by solving for x, y, z, f in terms of x, y, zt: x t = x + vi Y = Y z = z (3.11)

= t

Examining the last four equations, it is seen that they are of the same form as the first four except for the sign of the relative velocity and the interchange of primed a n d u n p r i m e d variabll,Es. This formal difference in the two sets of transformations, is one manifestation of the which occurs in the sign of the relative velocity,

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

A DIRECT EXPERIME:NTAL CONFIRMATION OF THE SECOND POSTULATE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
(in connection A. M. with Dingles note) Bench-liruevich

OF THE

Received 18 February 1960 It is well known that the Sptxcial Ttleory A statIstica analysis of the results

The of to

o f R e l a t i v i t y i s b a s e d 83 t h e poztulate of t h e r e l a t i v i t y o f motion a n d t h e p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f li&t i s cor1stant.l first postulate is ,s direct

o f m o r e t-llan 1 7 0 0 measurerents o f A t = t 2 - t l s h o w e d t h a t i n our e x p e r i m e n t the change in tlie transii time over

o b s e r v i n g o p t i c a l a n d electricaL pheonomena. Experiments for this purpose, repeated over t h e S p e c i a l T h e o r y of Rczlativity, have c o n f i r m e d t h e f i r s t p o s t u l a t e with i n c r e a s 2-5 ing accuracy. The second postulate of the Theory was not based on direct experi m e n t a l I-esults, a n d i n t h e decacles tl,at several decades after tile formulation of

the negative results of repeated attempts d e t e c t a p r i v i l e g e d ~coordinatr system) in

consequence

b a s e L o f tt-e l i g h t e m i t t e d b y t h e l e f t a n d right e q u a t o r i a l edgg s o f t h e s u n w a s A t == (1.4+5.1) x 10-.12 s e c . compounding quantity had the We note tt,at velocities i f t h e clsssical were valid, l a w the o f

the

tered in setting experiments.

f o l l o w e d i t w a s n o t cnEirmed directly b e c a u s e o f t h e great ditficult]eE encounup the approprrE#te

f a r o u t s i d e tile l i m i t s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l error. In addition, the value At = 0 l i e s inslde t h e s e l i m i t s . A s was; s h o w n , 9 t h e s e e,:perimfental results can be a l o n g d:tl-ferent o r relativistic velocities are par? t h e

A t f o r o u r a p aratus 8ould h a v e value 7 5 X lo- e2 see, ,xhich l i e s

d i r e c t e x p e r i m e n t showing of light is independent of the source o f r a d i a t i o n

t h e l e s s , a s Academician S. I . p o i n t e d o u t m o r e t h a n tczn year:;

T h e Special T h e o r y C Relati\,lty no l o n g e r n e e d s a n y additi,lnal suppcrt.

o b s e r v e r i s i m p o r t a n t , <due t o i significance of t h i s po.;tulate,

relatiw

that ltlle velocity t h e velocity of he b a s i c to ttle

Vzvilov zmgo, a

Nf2

laws of compounding valid. Ttlis siiows t h a t the probability that the velocity of of l i g h t is i n d e p e n d e n t o f the vel:ity o f t i e s o u r c e exceeds b y tllc p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e compounding velocities

probabilities

s t a t i s t i c a l l y analyzed l i n e s , ard u s e d t o comttlat

the c l a s s i c a l

motion times law

n o t acauainted experiment to directly,

Dfigle t p u b l i s h e d a n o t e o n this r e c e n t ly. I a p p e a r s from t h i s n o t e tllat thf, author i s

variation

Tile e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a p p e a r c o n v i n c i n g t o u s , a n d i t seems o f l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e t o r e p e a t then, i n alother using excited atoms or s o u r c e 1. radiaticn) at present (for icons instawze,

of

is

1045 classical valid.

I n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , a comparisc~n was made o f t h e t i m e s t l a n d t2 require<1 f o r liglit e m i t t e d I,y t w o m o v i n g s o u r c e s t o t r a v e r s e a distance L = 2000 metgirs. lilf~ sunvs e q u a t o r i a l e d g e s w e r e wed a s :,o~rces. S w i t c h i n g f r o m t h e r a d i a t i o n oj t h e s u n s

carried out in 1955.

w i t h t h e r e s u l t : ; r#f tile confirm the second postulate ?-5

as a moving

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A. Einstein, (1005) R . Kenredy, Ann. lroc. Ptys. 17, 891 S c i . Optique Rend.

plane of the ecliptic. W e usec a p h a s e method to show to the required accuracy that under lile i n t e n s i t y o f t h e l i g h t r a d i a t e d a l o n g the b a s e b y t h e l e f t o r r i g h t e q u a t o r i a l e d g e s o f the s u n w a s m o d u l a t e d a t a f r e q u e n c y OS a b o u t the hase these L remains conditions conscant. :he transit time

ea.stern edge t o t h a t o f i t s weL,t:ern e d g e corresponds to changing the velocity of the s o u r c e o f r a d i a t i o n b y 13.9 km/s,cc in the

12. 621 (1926). A. Piccard and E. 5, A.

N6t1. Acad. Stahel,

over

A . Yicilelson, Astrophys. .l. 6 5 1 2 (1927). Il. Dingle, Nature 183, 1 7 6 1 ( 1 9 5 9 ) . A . 1. lionch-liruevict, D o k l a d y Acad. Nauk SSSR 1 0 9 , 4 8 1 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . A . hl. Conch-Bruevict a n d J. A . MolLchanov, Opt. i Spektr. 1, 113 (1956) . Opti V . i A .

Acad.

+563 ( 1 9 2 6 ) . Picard a n d E. S t a h e l , Sci. 184, 451

RI?. Compte

(1927).

8.

1 2 MC/S. T h e p h a s e m e t e r o f a t#l&,h resolv i n g - p o w e r f l u o r o m e t e r w a s t h e n lsed t o m e a s u r e t h e p h a s e s h i f t Ap o f t h e m o d u l a t i o n of the light trawling .along the b a s e w h e n t h e t r a n s i t i o n w a s m a d e f r o m IIC e d g e o f t h e sun t o tt16 other.10 6 From Optics Spectrosclz, 9, .73 (1960).

9. 1 0 .

A . ?l. Bench-Bruevictl, 2, 141 (1957). A . P1. Bench-Bruevich, and Nauk V. SSSR, I. Shirokov, Ser. Fiz.

Spektr. Molchanov, (1956).

Izvest. 20,

596

Akad.

6 0

Special principle

theory of relativiiy that neither of the inertial systems is preferred. Hence the correct trans-

formation laws in relativity must have a the transformations.

!similar property; it is mainly the conmaior changes in the form of

stancy of the speed oi light which brings about

3.16 TRANSFORMATION OF LENGTHS PERPENDICULAR TO THE RELATIVE VELOCITY

We shall now begin .the derivation of the correct transformation laws which will replace the Galilean transformations. These new transformations will have to be valid for all physical values of the relative velocity v. Experimentally, the largest possible magnitude Iof the relative velocity of two physical objects is c. When the relative velocity v is such that v << c, Ihowever, the correspondence principle requires that the more general transformations reduce to the Galilean transf o r m a t i o n s . T o f i n d the m o d i f i e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , w e w i l l c o n s i d e r s e v e r a l thought experiments. We first consider the rneosurement of distances oriented perpendicular to the direction of relative svelocity b e t w e e n t h e two frames, that is, along the y or z directions. To find G.s coordinate y in terms of the unprimed coordinates measured by R., suppose that G. and R. each have meter sticks which, when at rest relative to each other, are identical. Then lay one meter stick with midpoint on each of the z and z axes, and arrange the two sticks parallel to the y, y axes as in Figure 3.12. Imagine that G. and R. drive nails into the sticks at the ends to provide definite markers for the end points, and that then G. moves past R. with some large constant velocity v along the x axis. If the nails in G.s tween the nails in R.s stick, we would have to say that G.s stick pass bemeter stick was con-

tracted due to its motion. Because R. is moving with speed v relative to G., then

Figure 3.12.

Thought expqeriment

showing lengths oriented perpendicular to the direc-

tion oi relative motion ore unchanged by motion.

3. I7 Time dilation by the principle of relativity, F!.s nails must also pass between G.s n a i l s . H o w ever, it is not consistent to say that G.s n a i l s p a s s b e t w e e n R.s, a n d R.s p a s s b e t w e e n G.s; t h e o n l y w a y This can be consistent is if the nails hit each other. This would tell us, in general, that the transformation between y and y is: Y = Y A similar argument results in: z = z (3.13) (3.12)

61

So no matter what the relativto velocity is, as long as it is normal to the y and z a x e s , w e m u s t s t i l l h a v e y = y a n d z = z, just as in the Galilean less straightforward process. transforrnat i o n s . H o w e v e r , w e s t i l l h a v e t o o b t a i n x a n d t i n t e r m s o f x a n d t, w h i c h i s a

17 TIME DILATION ltet

us consider another thougllt experiment to see how time intervals ancl lengths G.

oriented along the x axis vary from one inertial frame to another. SuF18pose

puts a mirror a distance L out along his z axis at M in Figure 3.13, and ark
-. A

I -

Figure 3.13. Thought experiment as seen by G.; light travels from 0 to the stationary mirror M and back. ranges it so that a light ray which passes from his origin 0 to M will be reflected right back to 0. The principle of the constancy of the speed of light means that G. will find that the light ray travels with speed c. The time it takes to go from 0 to M and back to 0 is then (3.14)

Next we consider the same light ray from R.s time interval At for

pain:

of view, and calculate the is first

the

light ray to go from 0 to M and come back to the

origin 0. We assume here that 0 and 0 coincide when the light ray

emitted. In Figure 3.14, the dclshed rectangle represents the position of the mirror

at the time the ray strikes it. Since z = z and z = I for the mirror, R. will observe that the mirror is out in the z direction a distance L = I. Lets call the time

62

Special theory

of relafivity

Equal lengths

Figure 3.14.

Thought experiment as seen by R.; light travels obliquely from 0 to the

moving mirror M and black to 0. at which R. observes that the ray strikes the mirror At,,. The x coordinate of this event, ray [vA~,~]). strikes mirror, i f G . m o v e s w i t h v e l o c i t y v , w i l l b e (v)(At,,). In the triangle OMX in the figure, the hypotenuse OM is therefore of length (L. + Since the speed of light relative to R. is c, the time it takes for light to go from 0 to M will be given by

At

_ (L2 + [vAtgo]) P - c7
is (3.16)

When this equation is solved for At,, , the Iresult At 90 = -c!) (1 -- v/c

2 II2 )

It takes as much time for the ray to come from M back to 0, as to go from 0 to M. Therefore, the total time, At, for the ray to go from 0 to M to 0 is 2At!),, or

At =

(2L,ic)
( 1 - vZ/cZ)2

(3.17)

W e h a v e t h u s a n a l y z e d a n e v e n t - t h e c o l l i s i o n o f t h e l i g h t r a y w i t h Or---from two different points of view. G. says that for this event,

x = 0
R. says that for this event,

and A+ z 2L
C

(3.18)

x = Af = -P/c)
and
Af =

2 I,? (1 - vz/c )

(3.19)

--__ 2 I,?

(i!L,ic)

(1 - vZ/c

(3.20)

There are several things we can do with this information. For example, the ratio of At to At can be obtained. Division of the equation for A.t by that for At

3.17 The dilation 63

g i v e s At/At = (1 - v/c)-~!, o r

Af

=
( 1

Atr
- ?/c2)12

(X21)

That is, the observers obtain different times for the occurrence of the event. To give a numerical example, if Y = 4c/5, 1 -v2/c2 = /,s a n d

At =

At1/(9/25)/2

(%)At.

So if G.s c l o c k , a t 0 , r e a d s 3 set

elapsed time, then a

clock at rest in R.s system, which is at the position of 0 when the ray strikes it, will have beat 5 seconds. H e n c e t h e m o v i n g c l o c k , G.s c l o c k , b e a t s m o r e s l o w l y t h a n R.s c l o c k s . I n this experiment G.s clock at 10 was the only clock he used in making the meas u r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , R . useed one clock at his origin to mark the time the ray

went out, and one clock at the final position to mark the time of arrival of the ray back at 0. These two clocks in R.s system cannot be the same clock because w e a s s u m e d i n t h e tllought e x p e r i m e n t t h a t a l l R.s c l o c k s r e m a i n a t r e s t i n R . of

R . , t h e r e f o r e , u s e d a t l e a s t t w o c l o c k s . W e m a y c o n c l u d e t h a t f o r t h e speesd

light to have the same value for all observers, it must be true that clo&s moving relative to a system beat slower than clocks at rest in the system. However, the observer at rest must use at least two clocks to see the effect, while the moving observer carries one clock along with him. This effect is called time dilatron. In this experiment,, the clock carried by the moving observer, G., appears t o b e a t m o r e s l o w l y t h a n t h e t w o c l o c k s i n t h e r e s t s y s t e m , t h a t 01: R . I f w e a n a l y z e a s i m i l a r experimerit from the point of view of G., in which we regard

G.s system as the rest system, then by the principle of relativity we must find that a single clock carried along by R. will beat slower than G.s clocks. In this latter experiment, by the principle of relativity, j,
A t

At

,-!I! FC2

\ )

(3.22)

,.
j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e o f E q u a t i o n (3;27).

_.

_.

This shows that the student should not

attempt to learn the equations of relativity in terms of primed and unprimed variables, regarding but the in terms of of the the physical interpretation and of the equations; effects is confusion then less

sense

various

contraction

dilation

likely to result. Suppose someone your own age gets in a rocket ship and moves past you with a 1 I2 s p e e d Y s u c h t h a t ( 1 - v2/c ) = % S u p p o s e t h a t i n 1 0 s e c o n d s , by h i s o w n reckoning, he counts that his heart beats 10 times. You would observe that in ten seconds, by your own reckoning, his clocks have recorded less than ten seconds, or (% )( 10) = 5 set, so you would observe that his heart beats only tii times. If h e g o e s t o M a r s ancl r e t u r n s , h e w i l l t h e n b e y o u n g e r t h a n y o u w h e n h e g e t s back. This time dilotion effect has been observed in experiments in which the average lifetimes of high speed particles called p-mesons are measured. p-mesons decay into electrons after arl a v e r a g e l i f e t i m e at rest

of 2.2 x lo-* s e c . T h i s d e c a y

can be thought of as an internol

clock in the meson. When the mesons are moving

64

Special theory of relativity

rapidly, it appears to us that the internal clock beats slower, so the mesons average lifetime appears to be longer. Table 3.3 gives some experimentally observed lifetimes, together with correspolnding Rossi values calculated from Equa-

tion (3.21) for differing values of v/c. The measurements were obtained by B. and D. B. Hall, who counted the number of cosmic ray /J mesons at different ealrths surface. Since the ps are produced by high energy ps surviving after heights above the

cosmic ray particles striking the earths outer atmosphere, the number of ps counted at a given heisght was a measure of the number of being created in the primary collisions. From these measurements, along <with independent measurernents of speeds of the speed could be found. ps, the lifetimes as a function of

TABLE 3..3

M-Meson

Lifetimes As o Function of Speed

v/c
0.9739 0.9853 0.990

- -

Tmvwtsg. (ohs.)
10.6 k 3.5 psec 13.3 f 5.8 psec 15.6 k 5.8 psec

Tareroge (Cal4
9 . 3 psec 13.0 psec 15.7 psec

3.18 LENGTH CONTRACTION

The results of the thought experiment, from which we obtained the time dilation effect, can also be used to derive a length contraction effect for rods oriented parallel to the relative velocity. Suppose R. has a measuring rod along his x axis, on which he makes a scratch at his origin 0 and another scratch at the point ivhere the light ray hits 0 after reflection from the moving mirror. Let us call the distance between scratches in R.s system Ax. Since Ax is the distance between 0 and 0 after tile time At, during which G. is moving away with speed v,

A x = vAt
Now the distance,

(3.23)

Ax,

measured by G. between the scratches is a distance bewhen the light

tween scratches on a rod which is moving with speed v relative to him. It is also the distance between 0 and 0, measured after the time, scratches is, for G.,

At,

a f t e r g o i n g f r o m 0 to M a r r i v e s b a c k a t 0 . T h e n t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n

Ax = vAt
Division of the expression for

(3.24)
leads to

Ax

by that for

Ax

Ax - = -At. Ax At
Hut from the time dilation equation, Equation (3.21),

(3.25)

(3.26)
Therefore,

Ax =

_ !fj* Ax c2/

(3.27)

3. I9 lorenfz tronsformarions

65

Here Ax is the length of aln object measured in a system in which thtr at Irest.

object is

The object is moving with speed v relative to the G system in which the

c o r r e s p o n d i n g lengttl A x i s m e a s u r e d . T h u s , i f a n o b j e c t i s m o v i n g rlelative t o the observer with velocity v, it appears contracted in the dimension parallel to

v by the factor, (1

- v~/c~)~.

Since y = y and z = z, the object

is, n o t

c h a n g e d i n s i z e i n d i r e c t i o n s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o v . F o r e x a m p l e , i f v/c =: ys, Ax = (7s ) A x . T h i s r e s u l t s a y s t h a t a s t i c k o f a n y l e n g t h A x a t to R., when measurecl res,t reloltive

by G., appears to be shorter. This effect, in whic:h moving of

rods appear contracted in the direction of motion, is a necessary consequence the assumption that the speeld of light has the same value for all observers.

S u p p o s e G . a n d R . b o t h Ihave m e t e r s t i c k s p a r a l l e l t o t h e x a n d x a x e s . T o R., the length of G.s stick appears to be less than a meter. Also to G., R.s stick is less than a meter lonlg. How can each measure the others stick to be! shorter?

The reason is that to measure a moving length one must find the positions of the t w o e n d s simultaneously, a n d t h e n m e a s u r e t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e p o s i tions. The two observers simply disagree about what measurements are simulre-

taneous, as we shall see. It should

be noted that if the physical situation is,

versed so that the length is at rest relative to G., Equation (3.27) would become Ax = (1 - v/c) Ax. S o , a s i n t h e c a s e o f t i m e d i l a t i o n , o n e s h o u l d n o t learn the equation in terms of where the prime goes but iln terms of the physical situation corresponding to the given equation.

-19 L O R E N T Z TRANSFORMATIIONS
W i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n gainecl the Lorentz of transformations observed from these thought experiments, we can now find which frorn give the relativistic relations Two between of the coomrcli-

notes

events,

different

inertial

frames.

lequatiolls

a r e u n c h a n g e d : y == y a n d z = z . W e w i l l a s s u m e i n o u r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a t t = f = 0 w h e n t h e o r i g i n s 0 a n d 0 c o i n c i d e . T h i s c a n b e d o n e b y s i m p l y setting the clocks to ziero at that instant.

S u p p o s e a n o b j e c t a t P i n f i g u r e 3 . 1 5 i s a t r e s t r e l a t i v e t o G . T h e distclnce x i n t h e f i g u r e i s t h e x c o o r d i n a t e o f P r e l a t i v e t o R ; i t i s t h e d i s t a n c e m e a s u r e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e x oxis, f r o m x = 0 t o P . A s measured b y R . . t h e d i s tance J( = from 0 to P is AK = x vt. To G., the distance OP is simply

Ax. Also, we note that Ax is a distance between points at rest in the We (and

m o v i n g s y s t e m G . T h u s A x i s l e s s t h a n A x b y t h e f a c t o r ( 1 - v2/c2)? then have Ax = A.</(1 - v/c)~. But as we found above, Ax == x

Ax = x - v t . T h e r e f o r e , w e o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g transforlmation ing xto x and t: x :( 1 I - vZ/cZ)2 ( x - vt)

equation relat-

This applies if P is any point whatever. Hence, if some event occurs relative to R at position x and at time f, then substitution of x and t into this transforma,tion e q u a t i o n g i v e s t h e v a l u e o f 10 a t w h i c h G . o b s e r v e s t h e e v e n t . E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 2 8 ) is the same as the corresponding Galilean equation, except for the factor

66

Special theory of re/ativ,ify z

- x, x

Figure

3.15.

x coordinate of on object at rest in G and observed by R.

l/( 1 - vz/c2). As v/c app roaches zero, this factor approaches one. Therefore, the correspondence principle is satisfied. (3.28), but with T h e p r i n c i p l e o f relativlity implies that the equation giving x in terms of x and

f is of the same form as the transformation equation, Equation the sign of v reversed. Hence, in terms of x and t, we must have X= - ( x + Vf) - Yz/cz)2 1

( 1

Finally, we want to find the transformation equation which gives the tirne

in terms of measurements made by the observer R. To do this, we use the expression for x of Equation (3.28) to eliminate x i n E q u a t i o n ( 3 . 2 9 ) . T h e r e s u l t i n g equation is x = 1 -______ (I - vZ/c2)2 [ 1 --~ ( x ( 1 - Yz/cz)z

- vf) + vt

On solving this last equation for t, we find that

(:3.30)

t =

1 (1 - 2/C )
272

t - :
C

(3.31) )

This is the desired relationship giving t in terms of

t and x. Likewise from the

principle of relativity, expressing f in terms of t and x, we must have

t=
fore, the correspondence

1 (l-v21c)

2 l/2

- if + 5)
\

(3.32) 1 = t. T h e r e -

For v << c, the two equations, (3.31) and (3.32), both reduce to principle is satisfied.

These equations were found using the length contraction equation. They also agree with the time dilation formula. We con see this by supposing that a single clock is at rest in the rnoving system G at x = 0. The equation

3.20
1
t :I:

!jimultcmeity

( 1

- 2/C2)2 (

+ YXI cz )

(3.33)

becomes, for this clock, t = t/(l - Y/c)~~. The time by a coincident clock in the rest system R. found The previously set of from a thousyht we =: (1 experiment. have found between transformations x

t,

read on this single

clock at rest in the moving system G, is therefore less than the time

meas,ured (3.13),

This agrees with Equation xyzt and xyzt

are:

1 2 2 ,,2 (x - v % -v/c)

(, _

1
v2,c2)l/2
t ( yi

(:3.:34)

These are called the Lorentz t,ransformations. We have seen that they satisfy the correspondence principle. They were derived by repeated use of the two postulates of the theory oif relativity.
imp/e

Suppose that G. is moving away from R. in the positive x direction at a speed s u c h t h a t v/c =: %,, I f R . sets o f f a f i r e c r a c k e r a t y = z = 0 , x = 1 0 , 0 0 0 m , t := 10m4 set, where and when does G. observe it?

htion F o r v/c

= 5/13,

( 1 - - v2/c2) =

= /,, . T h e n

substitution

into

Equations

(13.34)

gives y = z = 0, .K

- 1 6 6 7 m , t = 0 . 9 4 4 x lo-!sec.

I.20

SIMULTANEITY Aside from the time dilation factor (1 - v~/c~)~~, Lorentz transformations differs from
Y

the equation for t i n t h e transformations by a term

the

Galilean

Figure 3.16. toneous in R.

A number of explosions ot different positions along the x axis are simul-

68

.Specia/

theory of relotidy

proportional to x. To see the physical significance of this term, suppose that R. sets off a number of explosions along the x axis, which by his own clocks occur s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a t t h e insstant t = 0 . ( S e e F i g u r e 3 . 1 6 . ) T h e e q u a t i o n (t - vx/c2)/(l x,t = - v2/c2), t e l l s u s t h a t f o r -vx/c2(1 t = t = 0 but for different positions

- v~/c)~. These are then the readings on the various clacks

of G. for the different explosions, all of which are observed simultaneously in R. at t = 0. Thus, for positive x, these clocks in G appear to be set behind what R. would call the correct time by the amounts vx/c2(1 - ~/c)~, which depend on position. Hence events that appear simultaneous to R. do not appear simultaneous to G.; the tirnes of their occurrence depend on the x positions of the events. Simultaneity is thus a concept which has no absolute meaning. Perhaps we may understand this by considering the observer R. standing, as in Figure 3.17, halfway between two light detectors /I1 and r Dl rl \ \\A/ D2, that record the time

Figure 3.17.

Light emitted from o point halfway between two detectors at rest in R

arrives simultaneously at the two detectors in R. at which light hits them. If R. turns on the light bulb he is holding, then, since it takes the same time for the wavefront to travel from R. to D, as to D2, t h e detectors record equal times when light hits them. R. would say that the light hit the detectors simultaneously. R.s position at the However, if, as shown in Figure 3.18, G. i,j m o v i n g p a s t

instant R. turns on the light, then as far as G. is concerned, he sees D, and1 02 r n o v i n g b a c k w a r d wit11 speed Y. T h e n , i n G,.s system, the light wave going forw a r d a n d t h e d e t e c t o r D2 a p p e a r s t o h a v e traveled are approaching each other, while D, i s m o v i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e l i g h t w a v e g o i n g b a c k w a r d , T h e l i g h t w a v e g o i n g f o r w a r d ,thus less distance before it strikes the detector. Therefsore, D2 before it hits D,, a n d t h e e v e n t s w h i c h w e r e in G.s system, the light hits

simultaneous in R are Inot simultaneous in G. S i n c e G . b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e l i g h t h i t s D2 first, but D1 a n d D2 record the same time, G. says that the timer at D2 is set fast compared to that at D,. That is, the timers are not synchronized in G.

3 . 2 0

.Simu/taneify 6 9

Figure 3.18.

Light emitted os G. passes the midpoint between two moving detectors

does not arrive at the detectors simultaneously in G. ,+ 1 . T w o e v e n t s a t x := +lOO km a r e o b s e r v e d b y R . a t t h e i n s t a n t t = 0. Whlen are these events observed by G. if G.s velocity in the positive x direction relative t o R h a s m a g n i t u d e c/10? (Assume 1 = t = 0 w h e n x = x = 0.)
ution t = -VX/C(l

=: - V/C)

-0.1(&100)/(3

105)(0.99)2

= +3.35 X 10e6 s e c .
mp/e

2. If the relative velocity ha:, t := 0.9(*100)/(3 :<

magnitude 9c/lO, = b6.88

when are they seen? X 10e4sec.

~tion

1O5)(O.19)/2

When a length melasuremcmt R

of a moving object is made, the positions of both 3.19.) Thus, for

ends of the rod must be marked at the same time. (See figure

Figure 3.19.

To measure the length of a moving rod, R. makes marks simultaneously at

the positions of the left o nd right ends, XI and xR. L = Lrnarkr. a r o d o f l e n g t h I a t r e s t i n G , R . c o u l d m e a s u r e i t s a p p a r e n t l e n g t h L by noting the position of its the lef+ e n d , x r, and the position of its right end, xR, a t xR - XL. Suppose, for example, same time, and then measuring the difference

70

lipecial theory of relativify

that when G.s speed is 10,000

ft/sec,

R. waits = 10 ft. the

10m3 seconds to mark the right

end of the rod after he marks the left end. The error he would make in his length measurement would be (1 OOOO)( 1 Om3) Lorentz 1; = transformations, G. would say Let R. mark the positions of two ends of the rod at time 1. Then, from the right mark was made at the ,time (f - VXR/C2)/(1 - 2,/C 2 I2 Also, G. would say the left mark was made at ) . - v2/c2~2.Since these times are not the same, the At = t; - - t;,

the time t; = (t - vq/c2)/(l

marks do not appear to be made simultaneously in G; rather, it appears the right end is marked first. The difference between these times is given by

At =

V(XR - XI)
2(1 -

2/c2)12

=
c2(1

Vl

- Y2/c2)12

(3.35)

In this time, relative to G. the R system moves a distance

vAt

to the left. Hence,

the righthand mark approaches the left end of the rod by a distance At 2 I. = --~ 2(1 - - 2/C) 2

Thus, if to G. the length of the rod is I, the distance between the marks is

1 korkr

= I - -LV2L c2(1 - - Y2/c2)2 =

(3.37)

To R., of course, the distance between the marks is Lma,tr length of the rod.

L, the apparent

--d-R
I I I xL

moves to left before is marked

-Rat instant XR I I with

t,

xI i s m a r k e d ,

>

t,

t:

Figure 3.20.

R.s

measurements of the length of the rod in G, as seen by G.

3.2 I Tronsformotion

of velocities

The above result can be used to check the length contraction effect, for suppose the ratio of the apparent length of a moving rod to that of an identical rod at rest is denoted by I/y, where y is some constant depending on relative speed. T h e n s i n c e t o R . t h e r o d a t r e s t i n G i s m o v i n g , Lma,,.. = L = l/y. Iiowever, to G. the marks at rest in R are moving with the same speed, so Thus, eliminating L alld Lk,,k. from Equation (3.37),
Y

LAark, =

I./-y.

:=

yl

21

cZ(l

- vZ/cZ)2 y =

(3.313)

This quadratic equation for

*y h a s s o l u t i o n s

l/(1 - v2/c2) and :r =

-( 1 - v~/c~)~. Since the second solution becomes -1 as v/c goes to zlero, it does not satisfy the correspondence principle and may be discarded. The first solution agrees with the length contraction found previously from another thought experiment. Since tke present argument is based on the disagreemelnt regarding simultanei,ty vice-versa. between the two frames, we see that this is the basic reason why lengths in one system may appear shortened in another system, ranId

2 1 TRANSFORMATION OF VIELOCITIES
It is extremely useful to know how velocity measurements made by different observers are related. Suppose, as is illustrated in Figure 3.21, that R. observes z

Figure

3.21.

The position vector of o particle changes by dr in time dl. dx, z to

a particle moving in .time dt from the point with coordinates x,y,z to x + dz/dt. Suppose G. observes the very same particle
dt.

y + d y , z + d z . I n R t h e v e l o c i t y t h e n h a s c o m p o n e n t s o f dx/dt, dy/dt, land going from x, y, x -t dx, y + dy, .z + dir in the time interval dy/dt, and dz/dt. The velocity colnponents

in G are then dx/dt,

We shall use the Lorentz trclnsforma-

tion equations to find dx, velocity transformations.

dy, dz, and dt in terms of the unprimed differ-

ential quantities. The use of the velocity definitions just stated will then lead to the

72

Special theory

of relofivify

One of the equations of the Lorentz transformation, Equations (3.34), i s x zz the differential form of this 2 ,T2 (x - 4 (1 - v2/c ) is 1 2 1/2 (dx - VW (1 - v2/c ) differentiation, u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e rellotive ilncre1 (:3.39)

equation

dx =

This

was

obtained

simply

by

velocity of the two observers is kept constant, i.e. that v is constant. The ment dt is obtained in the same way from the equation,

t =
It is c/t =

1 (1 - 2/C )
277?

t-x!5 i
C2 1

(:3.41)

(:3.42)

Hence, the x component of velocity is dx -= dt - dx - vdt df - - vdx/c2 (:3.43)

If we divide the numerator and denominator through by dt, on the righthand side we get (dx/dt) -- v in the numerator and 1 - v(dx/dt)/c nator. (We shall use the dot notation for in this notation,
X

in the denomi-

,time derivatives, f = dx/dt, the x

component of velocity ir R; likewise in G, i = dxldt.) Equation (3.43) is, dx = - = dt (* - v) --~ ( I - - f/C2)

(:3.44)

Thus, for example, if ,3 particle goes with an x component of velocity, x = - % c relative to R, anu v = % c, then G. will measure the i component of velocity to be
X

(-tic

%c)

4 =-3 0

(l+%)

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e G a l i l e a n t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w o u l d g i v e i = ic - v = -

c -

c = -c.

To obtain the transformation equation for 9, we have , = dy/dt and jr = dy/dt. S i n c e y = y , w e h a v e d y = dy. Also, for the differential dt, we may use the expression in Equation (3.42). Therefore, dy = z = dyV1 v2/c2 (3.45)

(dt. dxlc2)

Hence, dividing numerator and denominator by dt, we obtain 3, = ( 1 ( 1 - 1vZ/cZ)2 9 - .i/C2) (3.46)

3.2 I Jransformafion
By a similar derivation, we get for i: i: = ( 1 ( 1 - ?/c2)2 - vi/?) i

of ve/ocifit~s

73

(3.47)

lple

If a particle is observed by R. to move with velocity components (10,000,; 42,000; 128,000) km/set, then when G. passes R. with a speed 5~ c i n t h e p o s i t i v e x direction, what = will 1 = be the velocity components x he observes? %,;

fion

1 41

Vic/C2 -

- [104][1.5 +,-I:=

:x: 105]/[3 *;

10512 =

v2/c2

i == (lo4 - 1 . 5 x

10)/(55$o)

= 1.42 x x x

lo5 km/set; lo4 km/set; lo4 km/set.

p = % fi(4.2
i =

104)/(5y,,) = 3 . 7 0 10)/(59/,,,,) = 11.3

?h d(12.8 x (3.47),

Equations

(3.46) and (3.44) are the desired velocity transformations. t h e i n v e r s e trams-

These transformations satisfy the principle of relativity, ,for

formations from G to R are of the same mathematical form, except for thle sign of v. We may show this, for example, by solving Equation (3.44) for j, in terms of X :

or

X 1 ._ !i = i _ vix - i _ , C2 ) C2 (
.i(l +$)=...,

(3.48)

giving .$= 1

X +

i(/C2

(3SCl)

lComparison :satisfied. lhave ,the lp/e

with Equation (3.44) shows clearly that the principle of relativity is (3..47), als~o thalt

The other transformation equations, Equations (3.46) and

this property. If all terms involving factors of v/c i n E q u a t i o n s (3.44), (3.46), the Galilean transformation, thus showing correspondence principle is !satisfied. 8, so tholt speed

(3.47) are neglected, we obtlgin

If a light ray in R has velocity components 3 = c s i n 0, i = c cos the magnitude of the velocity is c, show that in another inertial system

tlhe

is also c, so that the principle of the constancy of the speed of light is satisfied. Ijon 1 =: (c cos 0 - v)/( 1 - v cos B/c); V COS e/c).

, =: o/C2 C !sin f9/(1 - c2 cos2 0 - Zcv (i) + (y) = L---.Since ,(,)2

c o s 0 + v) + (c sin2 B - v2 sin2 /I)] . [l --. (2v/c) c o s I9 + (vZ/c2:1 cos2 81

cos2 13 + sin2 0 = 1, this becomes + (y) = ____--[l - (2v/c)

[c:! - 20, cos 0 + Y2 cos2 e]

I.ClS 0 + (v/c) cos2 H]

= c2.

74

Special theory of relafivity

LAWS OF CLASSICAL MECHANICS

In classical (Newtonian) mechanics, there were five quantities conserved: mass,

energy, momentum, angular momentum and charge. In relativistic mechanics, all of the corresponding conservation laws are modified except conservation of charge.

CORRESPONDENCE
The correspondence

PRINCIPLE
prinlciple is a useful guide in the derivation of new theories.

It states that any new theory containing an old, well-established theory as a special case, but applic~oble over a greater range of phenomena, must give the same prediction as the old where the old applies.

INERTIAL SYSTEM
An inertial system of coordinates is one satisfied. A good <Approximation to an ing an origin of axes at the negligible. center in which the first law of motion is system may be obtained by choos-

inertial

of the sun and allowing the axes to point

toward fixed stars. Then the acceleration and rate of rotation of the axes are

GslLd3i.N

TRANSFORMATIONS

A system moving with constant velocity r#elative to an inertial system is also an inertial system. The coolrdinates relative to the inertial system S of events in a system are given by the S m o v i n g w i t h v e l o c i t y v transformations: Galilean

r = r - vt t = f

MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT
If the ether exists, and light propagates with speed c relative to the ether, and if the Galilean transformation laws are correct, then it should be possible to detect the motion of the earth through

tlhe

ether. The Michelson-Morley experi-

ment, performed with an interferometer, gave a null result for this velocity, as did many other experiments designed to detect the motion of the earth through the ether.

Summary 75

POSTULATES OF RIELATIVITY
The postulates of relativity ale:

I. P r i n c i p l e o f ReleDtivity: All the laws of physics are the same in form, in all inertial frames. II. Principle of the Constanscy a constant irresloective of the Speed of Light: The speed of light, c, is of the state of motion of the source.

It follows that an observer in any inertial frame will speed c.

obselrve

light to travel with

BONCH-BRUEVICHS EXPERIMENT
The experiment of Banch-Bruevich in which the difference of the speed of Ilight coming from opposite limbs of the sun was found to be zero, shows that liight does not obey the Golilean law for the addition of velocities.

TIME DILATION
A moving clock, which reads the time interval At, when clompared with a series

of clocks at rest relative to tile observer that read the time interval to the other clocks, then

At, w i l l bse

observed to beat more slowly. If the velocity of the moving clock is v, relative

This time dilation is observed experimentally in the decay in flight of p-mesons.

LENGTH CONTRACTION
An observer comparing the length of a moving rod, oriented parallel to the direction of relative velocity v, with rods placed at rest, will observe the length AL of the moving rod to be shorter than its length AL observer at rest relative to it. AL = 1 1 - v=/c= as measured by an

AL

SIMULTANEITY
Simultaneity is a conc:ept w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e o b s e r v e r . T w o e v e n t s w h i c h a r e simultaneous when viewed in one inertial frame are not necessarily simultaneoLls

7 6

Special theory of

relativity

when viewed in an inertial frame moving relative to the first. An observer S o b s e r v i n g e v e n t s w h i c h to S a p p e a r s i m u l t a n e o u s a t x1 a n d ~2, will see a time difference of magnitude

LORENTZ

TRANSFORMATIONS

The Lorentz transformations are a set of four equations giving relations between coordinates of events as measured in the inertial system S, which is moving with relative speed v with respect to S in the x, x directions. If the origins are chosen so that t = formations are: x = 1 1 - v=/c= (x -vf); y =
y;

t = 0, when the origins pass, then the Lorentz trans-

=;

f -- v x 61 2/c= ( 2)

VELOCITY TRANSFORMATIONS
If a particle in the S system has velocity components (i, I, i ) a n d t h e S system moves with speed v in the x direction relative to S, then the unprimed and I Tz primed velocity components are related by: i =

k---v

1 - iv/c2

p=.

1 - !?-I.-. c= 1 - f/C2 d-.

1. Prove that the clossicoil low of conservation of momentum in o two-particle collision is form-invoriont under Golilean transformations, if moss is conserved. 2. If two objects, of masses ml a n d m2 a n d v e l o c i t i e s VI a n d V2, w h o s e r e l a t i v e velocity toward each other is V = V2 - VI collide inelastically and stick together, show using Newtonian mechanics that the kinetic energy lost is an invariant under Golilean transformations. What conservation lows do you hove to assume in order to prove this? Answer: 3. Conservation of momentum, conservation of moss. system and o second coordinate frame which has CI constant
first. stars of calkd mass. eclipsing binaries, where the two todies

Prove thot Newtons second low of motiorl is not form-invariant under o transformation between an inertial
acceleration relative number their to of the

4.

There

are

double

revolve star

about

common

center

As seen from earth, in each revolution one

passes in front of the other so that the second stars light cannot be seen,

Problem When photographs of these stars are made in different colors or wavelengths, {the!

77

periods for thEs eclipse are found to be identical. Since these !stars may be thousands, of light-years away (one light-,year is the distance light travels in a year), what conclusion can you draw about variation of the speed of light with wavelength? 5. It wos at one time suggested that the speed of light is not constant relative to an ether but is constant relative to the object emitting it, and that Galilean cussed in the previoLls problem that this cannot be the case. 6. 7. The electron beam in the picture tube of a TV set can move across the screen at a speed faster than c. How car, this be consistent with special relativity? If in one second a moving s,opwatch in good working condition is seen to register % set, how fast is it moving relative to you? Answer: 8. 0.866~. If a persons heart beats 70 times per minute, what would be the apparent pulse rate if he were moving ot a speed of 0.9c? Answer: 9. 30.5 per min. In one second of your time, how much change of time would a stop watch register if it were moving at a speed relative to you of (a) 19/181 c; (b) 4/5 c; (c) 60/61 c. Answer: 1lD. 180/181 set; 3/5 set; 1 l/61 sec. S. S is moving relative to S ,with speed v. S shines Consider two observers, S ancl tramsformations could then be used. Argue from the observations on eclipsing binaries dis-

a light ray out with a component of velocity V parallel to the direction of relative motion and a component perpendicular to that direction. S observes the light moving parallel to his y axis ~(y being normal to V). Assuming y = y, and surements that S and S coulcl 1 I . make. the constancy of the speed of liclht, derive the time dilation formula by analyzing melaA beam of protons coming out of an accelerator is contaminated by r+-mesons which have a lifetime when ai rest of 2.54 x 1 O-* set and travel with speed 10.990 c. HOW far from the beam port must a target be placed in order that nearly all the mesons will have decsayed Answer: 160 m . 1:2. A hydrogen atom emits some light of wavelength 6563 Angstroms in the frame of reference at rest with respect to the atom. If the atom were moving at %3 thle speed of light relative to you in a direction perpendicular to the displacement of thle atom relative ta you, what wculd be the wavelength of the light you would observe? (Use the time dilatiorl Answer: 13. formula to find the ratio of frequencies and the fact ihat the wavelength is the speed of light divided by the frequency.) 1 Angstrom = lo- m. 71 10 Angstroms. What is the apparent length of a meter stick if it is moving relative to you pal-allel to its length at a speed of (a) 0.1 c; (b) 0.8 c; (c) 0.99 c? Answer: 14,. velocity. Answer: 0.999 m; 0.916 m 0.869 m. 158. It was pointed out that if one twin went to another planet and back, he would be younger than the stay-at-home twin, because his clocks would Irun slow compared to earth clocks. If the travelers speed is v and the planets distance away is L, the time it takes on earth for the roulnd trip is 2L/v. Using the distance of the trip as see,n by the spaceman, find the time, as far as he is concerned. 0.995 m; 0.600 m: 0.141 m. Repeat the previous problem if in its rest frame the meter stick is at 60 relative to the betore striking the target? Assume the mesons have 3 lifetimes in their rest system befo-e striking target.

78

Spec;a/

theory

of relativity

A n s w e r : 16.

---. are to make trips to distant planets, distances

T w o t w i n a s t r o n a u t s , A, a n d A?,

d , a n d d2 a w a y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , w i t h d, f d2.

They wish to choose their speeds so

their age difference upon returning to earth is zero. Show that they should choose t h e i r s p e e d s , and vP s u c h t h a t

$ (

- 41 - f/CZ) =

$ (

- G;/c2)

or equivalently, 1 -z d, 17. 2v2d2(1 - ( 1 - ( - ;/c~)~] ~___ 1 - v;/c)]

[v;(d: - d;)/c]+-2d;[l

S o l v e t h e v e l o c i t y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n equoitions X , i, i', a n d s h o w t h a t t h e i n v e r s e

a l g e b r a i c a l l y f o r X, y , i i n t e r m s o f result from changing t o -v

traInsformations symbols.

a n d i n t e r c h a n g i n g p r i m e d a n d unprimed 18. C o n s i d e r (\/l t h e Lorentz

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , x

= (~~--~2~(x

- vt),

t =

V2/c2)-(t x/c). I m a g i n e t h a t R . h a s a s t i c k o f l e n g t h L a l o n g t h e -

x ax,s a t r e s t i n h i s s y s t e m , w i t h t h e l e f t mend a t x = 0 . S u p p o s e G . m a r k s thfe e n d s of the stick simultaneously in the primed system at Show that I t = 0, and measures the length L.

= -\/ 1 - v2/c2 L. F i n d t h e t i m e s a t w h i c h R . s e e s G . m e a s u r e

t h e t w o e n d s ; s h o w t h a t t h i s l a c k o f s i m u l t a n e o u s m e a s u r e m e n t a n d G.s c o n t r a c t e d measuring rods as seen by R. are sufficient to account for I 19. = 41 ~ v2/c21 , so f a r a s R . i s c o n c e r n e d . G.s m e a s u r e m e n t o f I ,

A student is given an examination to be completed in 1 hr by the professors clock. The professor moves at a speed of 0.971: relative to the student, and sends back a

light signal when his clock reads 1 hr. The student stops writing when the light signal reaches him. How much time did the student have for the exam? Answer: 20.

J
1 1

+ v/c ~ v/c

1 hrs. care s y n c h r o n i z e d . I f y o u m o v e a t 3 0 km/set

In an inertial system, a number of clocks

relative to the system, how far apart in the direction of your velocity do clocks appear t o b e which t o y o u a r e 1 set o u t o f synchronsm? A n s w e r : 21. 3 x lo9 k m . x axis in a system moving at /,c r e l a t i v e t o y o u a p p e a r t o b e

Two clocks on the

s y n c h r o n i z e d . T h e y a p p e a r t o b e 1 0 m (apart. H o w m u c h d o t h e c l o c k s a p p e a r t o be out of synchronism in the rest frame of the clocks? A n s w e r : 2 . 5 x lOmE s e c . 22. T w o c o l l i d i n g b e a m s Iof e l e c t r o n s e a c h h a v e v e l o c i t i e s o f .50 c a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e l a b . What is the relative r,peed o f t h e e l e c t r o n s an t h e i n e r t i a l s y s t e m i n w h i c h o n e o f t h e

beams of electrons is at rest? Answer: 0.8 c.

relativistic mechanic:s and dynamics J

Elecause relativistic of the modi.fications the concept:, of of the velocity transformations and angular introduced momentum by in effects, energy, momentum special relativity must be redeiined so that the laws of physics are form-kvariant vvith respect to Lorentz transformations. The reader should already be familial vvith the Newtonian laws of conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum. It is still possible in relativity to define momentum, angular momentum and energy in such a way that the general conservation laws are valid.. However, then new effects arise, such as the variation of mass with velocity, anc4 tlhe E equivalence of mass and energy, which is expressed by the famous equation, = mc. These effects will be derived and discussed in this chapter.

,l

LORENTZ

TRANSFORMATIONS

Rlecall t h a t w h e n t w o o b s e r v e r s a r e m o v i n g r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r , a s i n F i g ure 4.1, where G. moves past R. with velocity v, their observations of the spacetime coordinates of an event alre related not by means of the Galilean transformations, but by the Lorentz transformations. If primed q u a n t i t i e s (x, . . . , t11

Figure

4.1.

Inertial

systems

of

R.

and

G.

7 9

8 0

Re/ofivisfic mechanics and dynamics are used to denote measurements made by G. and unprimed quantities (x, . . , t) are used to denote R.s measurements, 1 -~ - v/c2 (x the Lorentz vf); y transformations = y; z = z; are

x = 41

1 t = --~ z/i-v2/c2

t-vx (
CZ

(4.1)

Also, if a particle moves so that its velocity components relative to R. are i , i , i, then its velocity components relative to G. are
. I X (i =-(1 -. v) i = 1/ -2

vx/c2);

cz ( 1

- :& (4.2)

f , Z

2 1/

2 ( 1

-:;,c)

We shall frequently refer to these transformations in discussing momentum and eniergy.

4.2 DISCREPANCY BETWEEN EXPERIMENT AND NEWTONIAN MOMENTUM

Momentum in Newtonialn total find momentum a quantity principles is in mechanics is defined as mass times velocity, and the when particles collide. is The question when a is, can we also mechanics previously which discussed conserved to analyze particles collide?

conserved relativistic we have

We ultimately have to do this by looking to experiment. However, by using the general thought experiment, First of all, ac:cordwe can predict what we might expect the experimental results to be.

the relativistic quantity which we shall call momentum must reduce to the Newtonian expression, mass times velocity, when the speed is much less than c, ing to the correspondence principle.
x

Let us next ask, can a relativistic expression for momentum still be given simply a s m,,v w h e n m0 is the Newtonian mass? The mass of a proton is 1.67 kg. The maximum speed a proton can have is c = 3
x

1 Oez7

10 m/set. Hence, if this

x

expression is correct, the maximum momentum a proton can have is ti.0 striking the earth from olutet lOm8 some

lC)-19 kg-m/set. H o w e v e r , i n s o m e cosmic rays, which are high energy particles space, fast protons having momenta on the order of kg-m/set are obsel*ved. Such large particle momenta can be measured in momentum; then allowing the proton and the other particle to collide with

principle by allowing th(e proton to collide with another particle, thus giving up other particles, sharing their momenta; and so on, until the proton has caused

a large number of particles to be traveling with generally low speeds. Then the momenta of each of these particles can be measured by measuring their mass and velocity. By assuming that momentum is conserved, one can work backward to find the initial mom,entum of the incident proton. We conclude that the

4.3 Newtonian expression case of high velocities.

Momentum

from o

thought

experiment

81

mov cannot be a valid expression for momentum in the

1.3 MOMENTUM FROM A THOUGHT EXPERIMENT

Nevertheless, we shall attempt to find theoretically an expression of ithe form mv for the relativistic momentum of a particle, such that the total momentum is conserved in collisions. Experilnenters such a vector quantity; plying v is not a constl3nt have discovered that there indeed exists however, in relativistic mechanics the factor m, multiIindependent of speed. We shall define m as the mass. c, the = mo. From our above arguments

The mass m0 that a particle has at rest we shall call the rest mass. If Y .c< correspondence principle requires that m about cosmic rays, we would expect m to increase as the speed increases.

Suppose that G. and R. have identical guns that shoot identical bullets. When we say i d e n t i c a l b u l l e t s , w e m e a n t h a t t h e b u l l e t s h a v e e q u a l r e s t m a s s e s , ,m,,. The guns are assumed to shoot the bullets out with equal muzzle velocities, d e n o t e d b y U. G. shoots his ioullet along the negative y axis. Thus, the y component of velocity that G. see; ii:;
i;; = -(J

(4.3)

He sees no x component of velocity for the bullet, i.e. i; := 0. (See Figure 4.2.) R., watching G.s bullet, sees a y component of velocity,

1 Au i,; = - d--C2

(4.4)

IFigure

4.2.

Bullets fired with rruzzle speeds U in their respective rest systems, arrange~d

so that a collision occurs.

82

R&f&tic

mechanics

and dynomks

by Equations (4.2). Let IR. s h o o t h i s b u l l e t a l o n g t h e p o s i t i v e y a x i s . I t w i l l t h e n have a y component of velocity, as observed by R., of

)jR = +u
ponent of velocity when observed by G. of

(45)

Again using Equations 4.2, since iR = 0, the bullet shot by R. has a y com-

(4.6) A prime or lack of a prime on the velocity component means it is observed by G. or R., respectively. Tlhe subscript G or R means the bullet is shot by G. or R., respectively. Now we suppose that the bullets collide and stick together, and that momentum in the y direction is conserved during the collision. This experiment has been set up so that there is complete symmetry between the coordinate systems. Both R. and G. are shooting bullets that have the same rest masses, with the same muzzle velocities, in their own systems of coordinates. They both shoot normal to the direction of relative motion between the coordinate systems. By the principle of relativity, then, coordinate systems. Frorn the neither coordinate the system is preferred,, systems, if and G. b o t h R . a n d G . m u s t o b s e r v e the same experimental results in their respective symmetry between two coordinate observes a final y velocity that is negative, i.e. a velocity component which is parallel to the original velocity of his bullet, then R. must observe a fi,nal y velocity which is parallel to the original y velocity of his bullet and which has a positive sign. However, from the results of the Lorentz velocity transformations, Equations 4.2, i cannoi b e p o s i t i v e w h i l e Jo is negative. Thus, the final y component of velocity of the bullets after collision must be zero. Since we assumed that the momentum is mv, this means that the final y component of momentum of the two bullets is zero. So if momentum is to be conserved, the total y component of momentum of the two bullets before collision must also be zero in both systems of coordinates. Let us look at the initial momentum from the point of view of R. Suppose he observes that his bullet has a mass mR. of Then he sees a momentum for this bullet of m,U. If G.s b u l l e t , a s o b s e r v e d b y R . , has a mass is mGiG. Thus, the total momentum seen by R. is mRU + rnGic = 0 (4.7)

mG a n d a y c o m p o n e n t

velocity jlG, then the y component of momentum of this bullet, as seen by R.,

B y E q u a t i o n (4.4), t h e v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t , YG, of G.s b u l l e t o b s e r v e d b y R . i s --(1 - v~/c~)~U. On substituting this into Equation (4.7) and solving for mG, we find that

mG = (, -;:,c2y

(4.8)

4.4

Experimental verification of mass

form&

83

T h i s e q u a t i o n i s v a l i d f o r a l l vulues of U, w h i c h h a s canceled out. In the limit iln which U, the muzzle velocity, approaches zero, R.s bullet is at rest relative to R., bullet, a n d mR = mO, the rest mass. The speed of G.s b u l l e t r e l a t i v e t o R . i s t h e n t h e

same as that of G., and is equal to v. Hence, the moss of the moving (G.s) as observed by R., is given in terms of its rest mass m0 and its speed Y by m (=mo) := (, _ yi,c2Y,2 (relativistic mass)

(4.!?)

Thus, if the relativistic momentum of a rapidly moving particle is proportional to v, the momentum must be of the form

p = (, -&02;c2
for momentum to be c:onservedl.

y/2

If we had written down the law of conservation of momentum, Equation (4.7), from the point of view of G. rather than of R., the results would have been the same: The mass of a moving object is increased by the factor (1 - vZ/ci)-20ver the mass the same obiiect possesses when at rest. Consider the expression for the mass of a particle, mo/(l - v~/c~)~. I n t h e limit as v approaches c, this mass increases without limit. Thus, arbitrarily large momenta npk are possible without having arbitrarily large velocities.

If a particle moves with 0.8 the speed of light, what will its mass be in terms of the rest mass?

tion ( 1

--

0.8)*

0.6.

Then

m0/0.6 =

1.667m,,.

In the limit as v becolnes This result is in agreement

very small compared to c, the mass m of a particle of == mO, the because in this limit (1 correspondence principle. - v~/c*)~ is unity. with

rest mass ml, i s g i v e n b y m

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MASS FORMULA

The increase of mass with veloscity w a s o b s e r v e d i n a n e x p e r i m e n t p e r f o r m e d b y Biicherer in 1908. By projectling fields, he was able to select electrons into crossed electric and magnetic of known velocity. The subsequent deflecelectrons

tion of the electrons in a magnetic field gave the mass. Given in Table 4.1 are the v a l u e s o f m/m,, a s a Vunction of v/c for the electrons observed by Biicherer. The

TABLE 4 . 1 ~- __--V/C 0.3173 0.4286 0.6879

Increase of Moss With Speed m / m , , (theory) 1.055 1.107 1.376

m/m0 (observed) 1.059 1.106 1.370

SCIENCE ABSTRACTS. Kijln.)-Repeating one of Kaufmanns experiments as to the deflection of ttic electrons in an electric and magnetic field, with special precautions to obta:n the best possible results as to the values of c/m0 at high velocities, the author finds values which he claims to be a confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein Scien(ie Abstracts, principle of relativity. The close agreement of the results on this principle * 637 ( 908). are shown in the following tablle, in which p denotes the ratio of the speed of the electron to that of light, the magnetic fields used being of the order
125 gauss :--

1
0.3792
0.4286

\rlurs o f (c nt,, x 1 0 - i o n Tlwxy

of-

0.5160 0 6879

1WS 1%70 1.648 1.5i8

1.730 1,729 1.730

I.730

(16e) 1 (1Rf) /

a = ~~IlOX~, x;+(- ;.I+;;-)+&& P,=P*Powo~ ~@=;.((~~).l(*)-l}.

Uiese Form& fCr longitudinak und tiansversak Masse beziehen sirh sowohl auf Yolumenladung, wie auf Fl&hmladung. Die Formel (1Sf) ist es, die von Hm. W. Kaufmann a u f Cfruud s e i n e r Messungen aber d i e A b l e n k b a r k e i t d e r Becquerelstrahlen im Iutarvalle (B = O#O bis p = 0,95 etwa) Figure 4.3. A p013e from A gepriift warde. Ek faud d i e Formel i n n e r h a l b d e r F e h l e r - n&n der Physik I O , 152 (1902; grenze der Verencbe (1 Proz. bis 1,6 Proz.) bestlltigt. Meesende showing the Maxwell nm

Versnche bei mittleren Geschwindigkeiten Q!? = 0,s bis @ = 0,6) formulas referred to by Bikherer liegen bizher nicht VOT. Ebensowenig liegen Versuche &ber longitndinale Beechleunigung razch bewegter Elektronen vor, relche etwa zur Prtiung der Formel (lee) herangezogen werden Mnnten. Anoh rtirde diese Formel wohl bier nicht so gute Dienste leizten, wie die Formeln (lea), (15 b) fir Impuls and Energie, relche direkt die vom PuSeren Felde in einer gegebenen Zeit bez. auf einer gegebenen Strecke dem Elektrou erteilte Oeechwindigkeit beetimmen. Ordnet man nach aufsteigenden Potenzen von 8, so erh&lt man die fir /? < 1 konvergenten Beihenentwickelungen:

pw h=PoIl+ 1 .p+ f .p+ 9.p+ . . . . . ),

(16h) p,=j+,( I +ti~6.,9+6:7./9+& PO+.....} Ann denselben geht hervor, da& den Cfrenzfall sehr langsamer Bewegung ausgenommen, die kngirudirrcrk Marae rtcb

4.6 Third law of motion and conservation of momenfum ,third column gives the corresloonding numerable for experiments found since above, 1908 have values calculated from Equation continued is always to be in excellent in 114.9). Ini-

8 5

agreemenlt between

with theory. (See Figure 4.3) Also experiments verify that with the expression momentum nomentum conserved collisions particles.

,.5 IRELATIVISTIC

SECOND LAW OF MOTION

the second law for a particle can be written

I n N e w t o n i a n mechariics, m dv/dt;

F =z

where m is a constant. Hence, in the nonrelativistic case, we do not have

to consider the effect of changes in m. However, the question arises in relativistisc Imechanics as to whether the correct relativistic expression is: (a) or (b)

F =

m dv/df;

= d(mv)/dt,:

or (c) some other intermediate expression. We may F, acting on an electron electron move in a and show that it rest, v, = v. under thte Inserting from

(answer this in part by considering a constant force

iin the x direction. This force could be obtained by letting tlhe [uniform electric field. Let us take case (a), F, = F0 = mdv,/dt, leads to an unreasonable result. Imagine an electron starting

action only of the constant force, FO, in the x direction, so that the expression for m from Equation (4.6),
m0

we have

->l This can be assumed on w r i t t e n : dv/-\/l v is that at t =

- v/c d

dv - = F,
t

(4.11)

- v2/cz = Fo/mo 0, v = 0. The

dt.

The initial condition we is v = c sin (f,t/moc). the velocity

solution

This is easily verified by substhution

into the differential equation. The expression 3a/2,

for v says that for the time when, for instance, F,t/m,c =

is negative. Also, the velocity has a magnitude of c periodically. These conclusions do not seem reasonable. More important, they disagree with experiment. So the possibility

= mdv/dt

is eliminated.

In the following section, it will be shown that case (b),

F = d/dt (mv)

leads

directly to the law of conservation of momentum for collisions between particles. Thus case (b) seems highly reasonable, and, in fact, its correctness is borne out by experiment. In other words, force is time rate of change of momentum:

F = - (mv)
dt
r3f course, this form is also valid for Newtonian mechanics.

(4.12)

.6 THIRD LAW OF MOTION AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

If the force is given by show that relativistic

= o(mv)/dt, is

then if the third law is also valid, we c:an in a collision. Newtons third law of

rnomentLlm

conserved

motion states that if particle number one acts on particle number two with a force

86

Relativistic

mechanics

and

dynamics

F Ion21

and if particle number two acts on one with

F2

on , during a collision, (4.13)

F,onz + ho., = 0
forces act)

If p, = m,v, is the momentum of particle number one, then (assuming no other

F
Similarly,

2on

dpl = -it

(4.14)

dP2 lon2 = 37

(4.15)

Adding these two equations and using the law of action and reaction, we find
4pl + ~2) = o

dt
Integration once over the time gives

(4.16)

p, + p2 =: c

(4.17)

where c is a constant. Hence, the momentum is constant, or total momentum after the collision is equal to the total momentum before the collision. In other words, the third law of motion leads to conservation of momentum in collisions. The result can be extended for a system of an arbitrary number of particles.

4.7 RELATIVISTIC ENERGY

In Newtonian mechanics, the work done on a body when a force is exerted which moves the body through some distance, goes into increasing the energy of the body. This is also true in relativity, and work is still defined the same way. If E is the energy of a body, and a force

exerted is moved through a distance dr in

doing work on the body, then the increase in energy E is: dE Since

= Fedr

(4.18)

= d(mv)/dt,

the expression for dE becomes

(4.19)

We can reinterpret the right side of this equation by writing the the dr and noting that dr/dt dE = = v. Then d(mv)*v = dm(v.v) + m(dv.v)

dt u n d e r n e a t h

(4.20)

All the quantities on the right side of this equation are functions of the velocity, v. We shall express the right side as an exact differential in order to find an expression for energy in terms of velocity. We first write the scalar products in

4.8 Kinetic energy 87 terms of the scalar speed v: v-v = v2 a n d v * d v = /z d ( v * v ) = /2 dv. S o dli = dm(v2) + k md(v) (4.21)

The m here is the relativistic mass, mo/( 1 - v2/c2 )2.Therefc,re, % mod(v2) dm :Substituting we get dE = moc2 % d(v2/c2) (1 - v2/c
2 312

[c2(1

v2/c2)3/2]
(4.21), and combining

(4.22) ter,ms,

this expression for d m i n t o E q u a t i o n

The right side can now easily

Ibe

integrated, yielding 2 ,/2 + c o n s t a n i )

E = _- moc2
(1 - v2/c

It is very convenient to set the constant of integration equal to zero. If this is done, the result can be expressed in terms of m: E = L mc2 (relativistic energy) (4.25)

One thing which this implies is that associated with an increase in mass is an i n c r e a s e i n e n e r g y a n d v i c e v e r s a . Another has by virtue of the fac:t that it possesses mass. thing which is implied is that if v = 0, the energy is E = m,c2; this may be interpreted as the rest energy a body

.a

KINETIC

ENERGY

That part of the energy which is due to the particles motion is called kinetic: energy. It is simply the total energy mc2 minus the energy with no motion,, m,,c2. If we denote kinetic enelgy T = by the symbol T, then m0c2 (d&jc~ - - 1) (4.26)

mc2 - m0c2 =

de

Let us first find the rest energy of a proton. Its mass is 1.67 x 1 Omz7 rest energy is E = mot
2

kg. Then the

(1.67

x 10-27)(3

1O8)2 =

1.50

x lo-i

N e x t s u p p o s e t h e p r o t o n i s t r a v e l i n g a t s p e e d (ys )c r e l a t i v e t o a n o b s e r v e r . I t s kinetic energy is 1 1 = (1.50 x 10-l) 5 (3 1 1 = 1.00 x lC-Oi

= mOc2 (

vl-57 -

88

Relativistic mechanics and dynamics

The classical expression for the kinetic energy would give % m,,v = % ( 1 . 1 5 7 x 10mz7)(2.4 x 10s) = 0 . 4 8 x 10-l i. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e s p e e d o f t h e t h e r e l a t i v i s t i c k i n e t i c e n e r g y i s 1 . 8 8 x lo-l3 i, figures the classical expression gives the same p r o t o n i s a s s m a l l a s (/,,)c, result. We see from this example that when the speed is much less than c, the reiativistic and classical kinetic energy agree. This is in accord with the correspondence principle. We may prove that the expressions agree in general for small v/c. We shall need to exioand nomial theorem, (a b) = (1 - v/c)) a for small v/c. For this, we use the bi+ . . 0. Then, with

and to this number of si~gnificant

nab

a = 1, b =
+

v2/c2,
are

a n d n = -Yz, i t f o l l o w s t h a t ( 1 to be very small. Then,

- v/c~)-~

i s approximately 1

% v/c.

Here we are (dropping terms of order v*/c or higher because they approximately,

assumed

1 = moc2

[(I +

Jj 5)-l] =

imov2

(4.27)

Note that just as the classical expression, % mov 2, is not correct for the kinetic energy at high energies, neither is % mv2.

4.9 POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The energy changes cons,idered so far are changes in kinetic energy due to forces

which may be either conservative or nonconservative. If a conservative force,

F,,

is present, then

F;dr =

--(V,

V , )

((4.28)

where V is the potential energy depending only on the position and not on the integration path. If there are no forces other than the conservative ones, from the definition of energy,

J dE = 6 F;dr I

= m2c

-. m,c2

1t4.29)

On equating the right sides of Equations (4.28) and (4.29) and rearranging, we find that mlcZ This is the conservation of + V, = m2c2 t V,

(4.30)

energy

equation.

4. I 1 Relationship between energy and rnomenNtutm

-10 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY
Equation (4.25) indicates as we have seen, that there is energy-rest (energy-associated with the rest mass, i.e. E0 = nuclear physics that indicates that rest

89

m,c.
is

There is plenty of evidence in indeed equivalent to energy, and

mass

that mass can be converted to energy and vice versa. An example of this occurs when lithium is bombarded by fast protons: thle lithium nucleus, 3Li7, a n d a p r o t o n , ,p, combine to form an unstable nucleus ,He4: ,p -I- 3Li7 --+ ,He + 2He4. which splits into two fast helium nuclei, (amu). (1 amu is the mass of tan atom of C;

The rest masses of these particles are given in Table 4.2, in atomic mass units 1 amu = 1.6~60 x 1O-27 k g . T h e s e mass units were discussed in Chapter 1.)

TABLE 4.2 Massesof

particles

participating in reaction P + Li - 2He, in amu P Li

He

1.0073 7.0143 4.0015

The sum of the P and Li masses is the total mass of the illcoming particles; it is 8.0216 amu. The total rest mass of the outgoing particles is 8.0030 amu. Thus, rest mass is not conserved. Flowever, energy is conserved in the overall nuclear

reaction, for very precise measurements of the difference between the kinetic energy of the incoming proton and the total kinetic energy of the He nuclei gives A E = ( 2 . 7 7 0 & 0 . 0 0 5 ) x lo-l2 i. T h e i n c r e a s e i n r e s t m a s s i s 0 . 0 1 8 6 amu,, o r 0.309 x 10e2* kg. Then the increase in rest energy is decrease in kinetic energy.

Am,,c2 = 2.78 x lo- i.

It thus appears that the increase in mass is accounted for quantitatively by a corresponding ~pk

A mass of 1 gm has a rest energy of

mgc2 :=

(lo- kg)(3 x

10 m/set) =

1013 i.

If this energy could all be converted into electricity and sold at a rate of 6a per kilowatt-hour, how much would it be worth? = 1.5 million dollars.

rion ( 9 x 1013)(1/[3.6 x 106] kw-hr/i)(0.06)

11 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

In is 1 % (mv) p2 1 =: -my2 = ~ = -. 2 m 2m (4 31) Newtonian mechanics, the relationship between kinetic energy and momentum

9 0

R e l a t i v i s t i c m e c h a n i c s o n d dynomics

A general relation betwleen energy and momentum is of considerable utility in special relativity. We may use the expressions for energy and momentum, IEquations (4.10) and (4.25), to obtain such a relation mathematically. We have, upon s q u a r i n g E q u a t i o n (4.25),

E2
In the same way,

m2c4

dc4 ( 1 - v/c)

(4.32)

c2p2
Then, subtracting,

= ~~ ( 1 - v/c)

mic2v2

(4.33)

E2

-.

c2p2

f71iC4

114.34)

Since the rest energy plus kinetic energy should be positive, Equation (4.34) can be solved for E by taking the positive square root: E = dp2c2 + mic4. I n t h e limit asp becomes very small, the binomial theorem may be used to expand the -___ r i g h t s i d e o f t h e equaiion E = m -t mzc4, t o o b t a i n , a p p r o x i m a t e l y , T = E - m,,c2 = p2/2m(,
example

in agreement with the Newtonian result.

1. In Chapter 1 a unit of energy called the electron volt (eV) w a s d e f i n e d a s 1 eV = 1.602 x lo-l9 ioules = e ioules. Also, 1 MeV = lo6 eV. The rest moss of an electron is approximately 9 x 10m3 kg. Find its rest energy in MeV. E. = m0c2 = (9
x

10-3)(3

10*)2/l.6

x lo-l3 ]/MeV = 0 . 5

MeV.

To three

significant figures, the correct value is 0.51 1 MeV. 2. If an electron is emitted from a nucleus in a beta decay with a kinetic elnergy of 0.5 MeV,
dJti0~

what is its momentum in MeV/c?

E2 = c2p2 + mzc4 E is J + moc2, so

0.761 MeV. number: The

t,,;tr/e=,,$:;

= mc4)/c 2moc2) = 0.5(0.5 + J(J +

In kg-m/set, this would be = 4.65 x 1O-22 kg-m/set.

2[0.511])

momentum

in

MeV/c

is numerically the square root of this

= m = 0.872 MeV/c. (0.872)(

1.6 x 1 O-l3 i/MeV) ( 3

x lo*)

4.12

REST MASS OF A0 FROM EXPERIMENT

We shall now consider in detail a more elaborate example, which shows how one may use the relativistic equations to find experimentally an unknown particle mass, in terms of known masses and measured energies and momenta. The rest mass of the particle will be measured using bubble chamber photographs in w h i c h a ho p a r t i c l e d e c a y s i n t o a p r o t o n a n d a 7r meson. If you wish to follow

4.72

Rest mass of

A0

from

{experiment

9 1

along on the measurements, you will need to use a protractor, a flexible plastic ruler and a slide rule. A very charged tiny particle that moving render rapidly its through visible a bubble that chamber call leaves a trail of bubbles track and be photographed. In negatively charged

the experiment discussed here, a beam of very high enerlgy particles called more ordinary filled with a mixture of orgclnic constituents of present in the chamber. These Kduce particles called pions the following reactions: K+ KThe charged particles interclct p+ A0 + TO
6

K- m e s o n s w a s a l l o w e d t o p e n e t r a t e i n t o a b u b b l e c h a m b e r liquids, so that there were large numbers of the matter, e.g. protons,. neutrons and electrons, having mesons (the superscript means a partic:le

a negative charge) may combine with the protons (p ) and neutrons (n) to pro(r) a n d u n c h a r g e d ( superscript) A0 hyperon:;, in

+ t-AA+

(4..35)

electrically with the fluid molecules to produce K( a r e u n reaction: will not be visible. However, in a very short xmeson, according to the

i o n i z a t i o n w h i c h l e a d s t o o b s e r v a b l e b u b b l e s . S i n c e t h e A0 a n d charged, their tracks in the cllamber time the A0 decays into a proton and a

A0 Since both

p+ + r-

(4.36)

p+

and X- are charged, their tracks will be visible in the chamber. photons, which again, are not easily visiblse.

The 7r would decay into unclqarged

A diagram representing a typical series of such events is shown in Figure 4..4. A magnetic field applied to the chamber causes charged particles curved paths, for which the radius of curvature is proportional to the

to

move in

momenturn.

KK-

,/z===---

Figure

4.4.

Diagram of a typical bubble chamber photograph of .I0 decay, showing

p and K- tracks.

92

Relotivisfic mechanics and dynamics Here, the K- tracks are easily identified, since all the K- m e s o n s h a v e t h e s a m e curvature. At point A, a IK- disappears, according to one of the reactions given in Equation (4.35). A A0 i s p r o d u c e d , w h i c h t r a v e l s t o 6, where it decays. !jince the decay products are oppositely charged, the forces due to the magnetic field are in opposite directions for the two particles, and their tracks will curve in opposite directions. T h e p+ a n d r- gradually lose their kinetic energies in collisions with the molecules of the liquid irl the chamber, and will finally slow down and come to rest. In Figure 4.5, this occurs at C and D. The track length, or range, for any B = 13,000 gW.M

A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _

- - - - - --we

Figure

4.5.

.4ngles used in the calculation of the A0 rest mass.

given particle moving in any particular medium is a well-defined function of the particles initial momentum or energy. By measuring the range, the energy and momentum may be measured whenever previously determined range versus momentum curves are avaoilable. In this example, we shall apply the relativistic laws of conservation of energy and momentum to the decay which occurs at 8, coupled with range and direction measurements of the p+ a n d K- tracks, for the purpose of measuring the rest mass m,.i of the invisible A0 particle. Referring to Figure 4.5, the dashecl represents the path of the i1o, which we will assume has velocity vd line and energy, (4.37)

m0,ic2 Eh = --2/1- Vi/c2

If the pion and proton are created initially with total energies spectively, then, by conservation of energy, we have En = E, + E,

E, a n d Er,, re-

(4.38)

Further, if I?, a n d 0, are the initial angles at which the pion a n d p r o t o n a r e projected, measured as indicated in the diagram, then, by conservation of mo-

4.72 Resf mass of :i from experiment mentum,

93

p.4 = pr cos 0, +
and

pp cos H, sin eP

(4.39) (4.40) we have

~3 = pT

sin 0, - pP

D i v i d i n g E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 3 9 ) b y E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 3 8 ) a n d u s i n g p =: mv = Ev/c, VA P.iC - = .--C

(p*c cos 0, + ppc (Er and (4.38) + 6) leads

cos 0,)

E* (4.37)

The

combination

of

Equations

to

mob c

= (E, + E,) J 1-s. C2

may be ob-

All the quantities on the right side of Equations (4.41) and (4.42) the rest mass of the 11 may be determined.

tained directly or indirectly from the photographs; hence, from Equation (4..42), Figure 4.6 is a reproduction of a carefully selected bubble chamber photog r a p h , i n w h i c h t h e Ii0 d e c a y p r o d u c t s t r a v e l i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e p i c t u r e . T h e angles 0, a n d 0, may be (measured with ruler and protractor. To aid in the measurements, dashed lines have been drawn on the photograph 0, = 17 and 19, = 31. T h e n cos0, = 0 . 9 6 a n d c o s along the path of the A0 and also along the paths of the r- a n d p+. The measurement gives 8, = 0 . 8 6 . N e x t , t h e ranges may be measured by laying a flexible plastic rule along the curved paths of the X- and p + . The ranges measured in this way must be corrected because of the fact that the reproduction is not lifesize. A centimeter calibration scale is reproduced on the photograph for this correction. After applying the correction, we find the ranges R, = 2.45 cm and

R,

17.4 cm range-

These ranges may be converted into kinetic energies by using the tvvo energy curves in Figure 4.7. Then the momenta may Ibe obtained momentum-energy equation: dE2 P = m:c = d?Y-2xZ
C

from

tlhe

---7

(4..43) T, = 60 Me\, for

From the curves, the kinetic energies are T, = 44

MeV

land

the proton and pi meson, respectively. The rest energy of the proton is 938 MeV. The proton momentum is, therefore, from Equation (4.22) pp = [44(44 + 1876)]2 = 291 ,y

The A- rest energy is 139.6 MeV;

so its momentum is

Fr = [60(150 + 279.2)]/2 = EFf

r - :* . ! :c : z . . . .-:. . i \ :. ? 2 .* j.+ : p-i. ; : .: . :

Figure

4.6.

Bubble chamber photograph of A0 decay.

4.12 Rest

mass

of

A0 f r o m e x p e r i m e n t

95

FigurY

4.7.

Range

curves for photographs in Figures 4.6 a nId 4 . 8 .

From Equation (4.41),

VA
C

-=

[ (143)(0.86) + (291)(0.96)] [ ( 1 3 9 . 6 + 6 0 ) + ( 9 3 8 + 44)] = c340

Finally, from Equation (4.42), t h e 11 rest energy is m0.z c2 = [ ~(139.t5 + 6 0 ) + ( 9 3 8 + 44)] [l - (0.34)!]/= 1 1 1 1 MeV

The accepted value for this rest energy is 1115 MeV.

Similar analysis of other This not

photographs gives results which agree closely with the value, 11 15 MeV. fication of the validity of relativistic mechanics. is conserved according to

o n l y p r o v i d e s a v a l u e f o r t h e l a m b d a s m a s s , b u t i s o dirlect experimental veriAs one further check, one may test whether relativistic: momentum, in the direc:,tion t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e Using the measured As motion, from the Equation 4.20. values photograph, 31-291 sin 17

0 = 143 sin 0 = 74-85

which agrees as well as can be expected, to the accuracy with which the angles were measured.

96

Relofivrsfic

mechanics and dynamics

4.13 TRANSFORMATION PROPERTIES OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

As a preliminary to the discussion of the form-invariance of the laws of quantum physics, we shall, in this section, derive the transformation laws connecting the energies and momenta of a particle, measured by two relatively moving observers. In deriving these transformations, we shall need to use the time dilation formula, which says that o c l o c k m o v i n g w i t h s p e e d v r e l a t i v e t o a n o b s e r v e r appeolrs to that observeI* to beat slow by the factor m. Consider, as So is the system in which a in Figure 4.8, three inertial systems So, R , a n d G .

Figure 4.8.

Instantaneous rest system of o particle.

clock and a particle are at rest. Let -u b e t h e v e l o c i t y o f 17 r e l a t i v e t o SO, a n d let --cl b e t h e v e l o c i t y o f G r e l a t i v e t o So. Then, corresponding to the plroper time irlterval dt, in SO, there is a time interval dt in
I ?,

with

(4.44)
Similarly, the corresponding time interval in

dt, =

is

dt;

where

,-c
C2

Combining the last two rlesults,

we have the equation, = df ,,/7

dP,,,/G

(4.46)

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e quolntity

df v5-Tp

.I S f o r m - i n v a r i a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

Lorentz transformations. This result applies to any infinitesimal time interval between specific events along the path of a particle, measured by the two observe r s ; u a n d u , t h e veloc:ities directions relative to each relative to the particle, can be in any arbitrary o f t h e i n t e r v a l , E q u a t i o n (4.46), to obtailn the mo, other.

We may use the involriance

transformations for momentum and energy. Imagine a particle of rest mass

placed at the origin of So. Then with our choice of velocity -u of R r e l a t i v e t o

4.

13 Transformation properties of energy and momentum +u r e l a t i v e t o R . S i m i l a r l y , r e l a t i v e t o G t h e i.e. that G and R are related by the Consider the y component of mo-

9 7

SO, t h e p a r t i c l e w i l l h a v e a v~elocity

particle will have a velocity i-u'. We shall assume that G is moving relative to R, w i t h v e l o c i t y v a l o n g t h e x),.x a x e s , Lorentz transformations given previously.

mentum of the particle measured by R. It is just py = -;_mT!?~1~~ Relative to G, the y componelnt = (4.47)

/&qI

&

of momentum is (4.48)

However, from the Lorentz transformation between between pY and pi is !simply

Pi = P Y

and G for the y coordinate,

d y = d y . U s i n g t h i s a n d t h e r e s u l t i n E q u a t i o n (4.46), w e f i n d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n (4.49)

In a similar fashion, it is earily p r o v e d t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n z c o m ponents of momentum is = pz (4.50)

p:
W e n e x t f i n d t h e iransformation the definition of momentum,

for the x components of momentum. From

(4.51)

B u t u s i n g t h e i n v a r i a n c e p r o p e r t y i n E q u a t i o n ( 4 . 4 6 ) a n d t h e expressioll f o r d x which arises from the Lorentz transformation, d x =z -fi;V ( d x - v d t ) we obtain 1 = xx,/,; modx ,fi u2/c2 i dt - -~:ou2,~ ) (4.53) (4.52)

In terms of pX and the energy E = mOc2/d 1 - u2cz, this reduces to

px _-: &T-&i (px

Thus, the rest system R. L a s t l y , t o o b t a i n t h e transfmormation formation for the time interval dt = dt: .- p+dt ,/l - v=/cz

- !5
c2

)
the Lorentz trans-

p: depends on both the energy and momentum of the particle measured in for energy, we need

- $dx)

(4.55)

98

Relativisfic mechanics and dynamics This combined with Equation (4.46) and the expression for energy in terms of rest mlass,

= moc2/V/1- u~/c~, g i v e s u s

(4.56)
In terms of

E/c2

and pX, this reduces to

E -_ = :1 &+i C
particle, and the invariance relation for energy and momentlJm tions Iof (x,y,z,f) tions are:

(---

cE2

;2

fL )

To summarize, we have used the definitions of energy and momentum of a

dt& - u/c = dfdl

- u/c,
moving1

towith

gether with the Lorentz transformations, to derive the transformation formulas of a particle as measured by observers (pX,p,.,pZ, relative speed v. There is a complete analogy between the Lorentz transformaand the transformations of

E/c).

T h e transfsorma-

-__ (1 1 x = $& (x - Id);

(2) (3) y 2 = = y ; z;

pL = fi : v2,c2 (p. PC = PY
P: = p.

c2 f. )

(4) t = &&$x); s= fi&Tp -_ 5 pa ( cE2 )

114.58)
J u s t a s t h e q u a n t i t y c2t2 - x2 - y2 - of a slherical z2 i s a n i n v a r i a n t ( i t i s t h e e q u a t i o n light wave if set equal to zero), so is the quantity

pt -

p:

p2

a r e l a t i v i s t i c i n v a r i a n t a s m a y b e wen b y f i n d i n g p: using Equations (4.58-1,2,3,4). rest frame of the particle where p = 0 and

c~(E/c~)~ - p: - p; -

The invariant may be evaluated in the

= moc2. T h i s g i v e s a g a i n t h e

energy-momentum relation for particles of rest mass mo:

E2 =
or, for zero rest mass,

p2c2 +

mic

E = pc. m.
has a speed of magnitude v in the negative x

As an example of the application of these energy-momentum formulae.. suppose a particle of rest mass direction, relative to R. Its energy in terms of

m.

and v, relative to G, is then

4.14 Transformations given by Equation (4.28):

for

frequency

cd

wavelength

9 9

= mot (+-+)
1.14 TRANSFORMATIONS FOR FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

(4.60)

The reader is probably familiar with the decrease in apparent frequency of a sound wave as a moving source approaches and then recedes. This phenomenon, known as the Dijppker effect, also occurs when one observes the frequency of a moving light source. We shall obtain the relativistic transformations relating the frequencies and wavelengths of a light wave as measured by two observers, G. and R., as G moves relative to R with a speed v along their mutuallly momentum transformations to see if the quantum relation, E = hv, variant under Lorentz transf(Drmations. situated at their respective origins, the We imagine that observers G. and R., parallel x, x axes. These transformairions will provide a means of (comparing with enerlgy is form-in-

m e a s u r e t h e f r e q u e n c y o f a l i g h t w a v e w i t h p l a n e w a v e f r o n t s b y countinS observed directions of propagation be denoted by angles 8

number of fronts which pas:; their origins in some specified time intervsal. Let t h e (in G) and 6 (in h!), w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i t i v e x ( i n G ) , x (in R) axes. The situation is diagrammed in Figure 4.9. In relating the frequencies u ( i n G ) a n d Y (in R) o f t h e w a v e , w e

Figure

4.9.

Measurement of frequency of a light wave by observers in relative motion.

100

Relotivisfic

mechanics and dynamics

must take into account tweo effects: First, the clock at the origin of G beats slower than the clocks in R, and second, the origin of G is moving with respect to that R
SO

of

that at any given instant there may be wave fronts which have passed R,

but hove not yet reached G. S u p p o s e t h a t s t a r t i n g a t t h e i n s t a n t t = t = 0 when the origins coincide, G. counts wove fronts for 0 time t, a n d t h a t t h e i r o b s e r v e d f r e q u e n c y i s v ; t h e Similarly, beginning at the some number of fronts which he counts is then tv.

instant, let R. count wovefronts passing 0: he will obtain iv. But tv is not equal to tu, since there are fronts between the two origins which, in Figure 4.9, have been counted by R. but not by G. The number of these fronts lying between 0 a n d 0 m a y b e f o u n d b y d i v i d i n g t h e distance between origins, vt, by the hori0 = C/Y cos 0, = vvt zontal distance Ax between fronts. From Figure 4.9, Ax = X/cos so the odditionol number of fronts measured by R. is vt/Ax fore, tu = Solving for t~, we obtain t)d + COS 8 vly(41.61)

cos 8/c. There-

tu = (1 - ;y cos8)tu
If t were equal to f, this would be identical to the Doppler effect in sound for an observer moving relative to o source. In this expression, t refers to o time measured in the rest frame R, both on a clock at 0 and on one at 0; at the same i n s t a n t , t (on a single cloc:k at 0) is measured in the moving frame G. Hence, t and t are related by the simple time dilation formula, So, substituting for t in the above equation ond canceling u( 1 - v/c cos f9) uI = ~-=
67/C=

t =

,dyzqp.

t, we obtain

(4.63)

From this we may also obtain the transformation formula for wavelengths, :since ulxr = ux = c: x = --__ XVF- v/c (1 - v / c COS e)

(4.64)
by

The relotion between the angles of propagation 8 and 0 may be obtaineld noting that, since measurements of distance z =

along the z, z axes are related by

z, the two observers agree that the distances between two successive points

w h e r e t h e w a v e f r o n t s i n t e r s e c t t h e z o r z a x e s a r e e q u a l : A = A . But ,from Z Z Figure 4.9, A = AZ s i n B, Hence, X = AzsinB

(4.65)

A h - = sin 8 sin 6

(4.66)

4.15 Transverse DSppler a n d f r o m E q u a t i o n (4.64), s i n 8 = sin 6 ( 1 1 - v2/c2 - V/CCOSe)

~&ect

101

(4.67)

The cosine of the angle t9 may be obtained by simplifying the trigonometlric formula: ~~~~;~>l c o s 6 = A-s i n 8 = _____-.v/cZ)

zr

cos2 6 -~ 2v/c cos 6 + v2/c2 .- - _ 1/

(11 - v / c c o s I!?)

cos 6 - v/c = ~_1 - v/c

cos 0

(4.68)
0 =

where the positive sign of the square root was chosen in order that cos cos 0 in the special case v = 0, when the observers are not in relative motion T h e r e l a t i v i s t i c trollsformation E q u a t i o n s (4.63), (4.64), (4.67) and

l(4.68)

alre

the principal results of this section; we shall now discuss a few applications.

.15 TRANSVERSE DijPILER

EFFECT
R, the direction of propagation is and

Suppose that to an observer in the rest system Equation (4.63) becomes

perpendicular, or transverse. to the direction of motion of G. Then 6 = 90,

y =
dl

u
- v2/c2

(4..69)

This change in frequency is simple to understand solely as the result of the time dilation effect. Since R. sees the waves propagating parallel to his z a x i s , e a c h wave that passes 0 will simultaneously (to R.) pass 0 (see Figure 4.10). Thus, both observers agree on the number of wavefronts they have counted, but order that equal numbers of wavefronts be counted by both observers. Suppose G. carries along a source of light which emits plane waves of natural f r e q u e n c y V = vO. direction of motion, If R . thfsn observes the light transversely, at 90 from the G.s clocks beat more slowly, so the frequency of the waves will appear higher to G., in

the

frequency will be given by

u = u()

1-v
C2 lf-

(41.70)

and since XV = c, the wavelength will be (4..71)

Thus the wavelength will appear to be increased, or red-shifted. The transverse Dijppler effect could be used to obtain a direct experimental verification of the time dilation predicted by special relativity; however, such experiments are

102

Relafivisfic mechanics and dynamics L G R C

z A // -

*x

Figure 4.10. difficult, ,yield because it is hard to

Transverse Doppler effect matters so that an appreciable amount of

arrange

light of known proper frequency vc corrections of order ,v/c,

comes in at exactly 90. Errors in angle will

whereas the transverse effect is of order (/c)~.

4.16 LONGITUDINAL DijPPLER

EFFECT

In the longitudinal Doppler effect, the observed light is traveling parallel to the direction of relative motion of the source. In this case, 19 = 0 or K. S u p p o s e again that G. carries along a light source of frequency v,, a n d t h a t 8 = 0 . T h e diagram, Figure 4.9, is drawn so that the light is propagating to the right (0 = 0) in R, and hence we must imagine the source to be positioned far out on the negative x axis and approaching the observer R. Therefore, substituting 6 = 0 in Equation (4.63), by R.: ug = $+g (4.72) we obtain the expression for the frequency v observed

O r , s i n c e t h e f a c t o r ( 1 - v/c)/41

v c - 2/ can be simplified by writing it as (4.73)

we have

y=vo

1 + v/c --1/
1 -- v/c

(4.74)

4.16 Langifudinal Diippler effect

for an approaching source of proper frequency v,,. S i n c e X v = c , t h e c o r responding expression for wavelength is

103

x=x,,
changing 19 from 0 to a), u=uo This If v be i\=(5000& a = indicates source 4c/5 that of for a

i1

1 - v/c ~ + v/c

If the source is receding, we have instead, by reversing the sign of v (or / 11 - v/c -. 11 +v,cJ source, the apparent wavelength is moving is

(4.715)
redshifted. velocity be woulld

1/

receding

natural

wavelength

5000

Angstroms

with

directly toward the observer, the

observed

wavelength

would

b l u e s h i f t e d a n d Equoltion

(4.75) would apply. The observed wavelength

I f - - - - 1 - 0.8 5000 A p=-= 1 + 0.8 3

1667A

The longitudinal Doppler effect can be used to interpret the spectra of liglht received from distant galaxies. Bright spectral lines from these galaxies alre identified by comparison with spectra of the elements, produced on earth. The identification shows the lines are systematically redshifted. For nearby galaxies whose in distances can be measured by observing cepheid variable stars, the fractional redshift AA/x is direlztly proportional to the distance. This is expre,ssed Hubbles relation,

cJ!-+=/-/r x
where H, Hubbles (constant, is approximately 75 km/set per lo6 parsecs. (1 parsec = 3.26 light-years.)

TABLE

4.3 Redshifts of Some Quasi-Stellar Objects (Quasars, by Kohn and Palmer, Harvard Univ. Press, 1967).

Catalogue

Number

Redshift

z =

AX/h

Recession velocity, p = v/c

3c 2738 3c 249.1 3c 345 3~ 48 3c 279 1116+12 PHL 256 PHL 938 BSO 1

0.158 0.311
0.595 0.367 0.536 2.1 la

0.146
0.264 0.436 0.303 0.405

0.131 1.93 1.24

0.813 0.122 0.791 0.668

104

Relativi!;tic

mechanics and dynamics

Recent observations of quasars, for which no independent distance measurements are available, have revealed enormous redshifts, indicating that the objects from which this light was emitted may be receding from our galaxy at speeds of over 80% of the speed of light. Some of these recent observations are given iln Table 4.3. The redshifts, if interpreted as D6ppler shifts, imply that the entire visible universe is expanding and hence that at some distant time in the past all the matter in the universe must have been concentrated in one region. The gallactic redshifts are the primary experimental evidence on which the big bang theory of the orligin of the universe is based.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM

The transformation formulae for energy and momentum of a particle E, p as observed from a system of reference moving with speed v along the x, x axes relative to an observer who measures the values E, p for the same particle, are given by p: = d, I.2,c2 (PA;)

p:=fJr
P. and t.

E -=

C2

d&J; -

;PX) P: =

The four quantities p., pr, p., E/c, are thus analogous to X,Y,Z

TRANSFORMATIONS FOR FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

The transformation formulae for frequency v, wavelength A and angle of

propagation 19 of a light wave, observed from a system of reference moving with speed v along the x,x axes, relative to an observer who measures the values u, A, and 0 for the same wave, are V(1 - v/c c o s 0) = --___ -\/T-Tp-

x = -xvK7p

(1 - v/c cos f3)

(-0s 0 = -(cos e --- v/c)sin /j = s i n

( 1 - v / c COS 6) 19ti - v/c (1 -- v/c cos 0)

Problems S i n c e E = hv and equations for energy = h/h for light, these are identical to the momentum of a particle of transformation

105

and

zero rest mass.

DijPPLER E F F E C T A light source of natural frequency v0 (wavelength X0) will have its frequency

shifted when measured by on observer moving with respect to the source. lf the light is observed at 90 from the direction of motion of the source, then the frequency is redshifted due to time dilation:

If the source is receding from the observer with speed v and the parallel to v, then

light is obselrved

For an approaching source, the sign of v is reversed.

1. Suppose a particle with rest mass m. is initially at rest at x = 0. If it is acted on by a constant force F in the x direction, find x as a function of time. Check to see if this gives the same as the nonrelativistic equations given for small velocity, i.e. small time. Also show that the speed approaches c as t approaches infinity 7-3 Answer: x = (c2mo/F)[ V 1 + (Ft/moc) - 11. 2. Suppose a force Facts on a particle in the same direction as the velocity. Show that the power expended by the force is m,,v(dv/df)/( the energy of the particle is mc. 3. Show that dE/dp := v, the speed of the particle. 10mz7 kg are each accelerated from rest through a total potential energy difference 4. An electron of mass m. = 9.1 x 10e3 kg and a proton of mass MO := 1.67 x of 1.6 x 10-l i. What is the increase in mass of each particle? What is the fractional increase in mass of each particle? What is the final speed of each? Answer: 0.43 c. 5. Suppose 1.00 cubic kilometer 10 i/kg.) Answer: i/cm/min 3 . 7 3 kg. 0.12 at the eorths surface. The earth-sun distance is 1.5 x lo8 km ond the 6. The energy radiated from the sun in the form of neutrinos has the inteinsity of water at 0C were changed to ice by extrac:ting of fusion == 80 kcal/kg := 3.3.5 x heat. How much would the mass change? (Fiat I.78 x 10-28kg; 1 . 7 8 x 10mz8kg; 196m,,; 0.107Mo; 0 . 9 9 9 9 8 7 ~ ; 1 - Y~/c~)~~, and hence show that

suns mass is 2.0 x 103 kg. Calculate the fractional loss in mass from the sun in IO years (age of the universe), from the radiation of neutrinos. Answer: 9 . 9 x 10-6. 7. An oil-powered ship obtains energy at the rate of 4 x 10 Cal/lb from its fuel. A

106

Relativistic mechanics

and dynamics

nuclear-powered ship obtains energy by converting about 0.0003% of its fuel from moss to energy. For o given moss of fuel, calculate the ratio of the distances the two sllips should be able to travel. Answer: 8. Nuclear-powered ship travels 7,320 times QS far. kinetic energy for which the instrument works is T = 1.22 In ct certain kind of instrument used for focusing o beam of high energy particles onto o point, the maximum Answer: times the rest energy. What speed do particles of this kinetic energy have? 2 . 6 8 x lo* m/set. 9. Show that in terms of the kinetic energy, T, the magnitude of the momentum is pc = -6&T, where mc is the rest mass. 10. Find the correction terms of order v/c4to the kinetic energy expression % mOvz in the correspondence limit. Answer: Vi mOc2 (v/c). of 11. If o particle has a momentum of 5.60 x 1 O-l9 kg-m/see and a kinetic eneirgy 7.52 x 10-l i, find its speed. Find its rest mass in kg. Answer: 2 . 2 4 x lO*m/sec; 1 . 6 7 x 10mz7 kg. 12. An electron has a kinetic teotal momentum of both kg. for transformation of velocity components, show that when energy of 1.6 :X 10-I3 i, and is incident on a proton at

rest in the laboratory. The center of momentum frame, an inertial frame in which the particles is zero, is moving with what speed relative to the kg, and that of the (proton laboratory? The rest moss of the electron is 9.11 x 1O--3 is 1.67 x 1O-27 Mnswer: 13. Using and the 4 . 5 4 x lo5 m/set. equations for on inertial system in which p has the components p., pr, p. = 2(PX2 - vE/c2)/

E2 = p2c2 + mic,

the energy is E, then in another system moving at velocity v in the positive x = py, pj = pz, a n d E = ( E - VP,)/ 1 - v /c . Note the

direction relative to the first, the momentum and energy ore dP: *dm,p,! 14. similarity to the x, y, z, t transformations. LJsing the Lorentz tronsformotions dr = is invoriont for coordinates, show that dy2 + dz2)/c2 =

Z/dtz-(dx2+

didore infinitesimal dis-

under lorentz

transformations. Here dx, dy, dz

placements of D particle and v is the speed of an inertial system relative to the rest frame of the particle. Show that the momentum and E/c = by p = m0 dr/dr, and E,/c = me(cdf)/dr. d pz + mic are given Thus, since dr is an invariant, the momentum

E/c transform like r and ct. This is an olternate way of working Problem 13.
which

15. Suppose 0 particle of rest moss mc, moving in the positive x direction, has o total energy (rest plus kinetic) of E, It hits o similar particle (rest moss mo), in terms of E, and met. Using the results of Problem 13, find, in and v. Eliminate Y to show is at rest. Express the total momentum pX ond the total energy of the two particles tel*ms of thai E = If, a n d m0c2, the speed v of the system in which the momentum is zero, i.e. = 0. Also find E in terms of Et, moc2, tportont in studying nuclear reactions. Answer: are v+, /c;N2 - mic2; Et + mcc ;Y =
2

hji,+I )(moc2). This total energy in the center of momentum system is immuc / CY ET mic/(E, + met).

In the following collision problems, use the facts that total energy and total momentum conserved. -By squaring the energy equation twice, quantities like fl?ii con be eliminated. An alternative procedure would be to tronsform to the center of momentum system css indicated in Problem 15. The solution is much simpler in that system.

Problems 16. A particle with speed v hit!, another at rest. If both have rest mass mc,, and the final velocities are along the same straight line, what are the final velocities? Answer: 17. 0; v. at rest with mass m2. A particle with momentum p and rest mass ml hits anothqer

107

If the final velocities are altlng the same straight line, what are the final momenta? A n s w e r : Ill2 + dJ/42 + m: 2pm, - - - rn: + rni + 2m2~@/c) + (

rn: )

m: - m; P---rn: t rn: + 2ms ~(P/c)~ 18.

+ mf

Two particles have momenta p and -p. They collide elastically. What are Ithe magnitudes of the final momenta, and what is the angle between them? Answer: p, p, 180 (this is the center of momentum frame for these particles).

19.

Two particles of rest masses m t and m2 have momenta pt and p2, respectively. If the final velocities after an elastic collision are along the same straight line, what is the final momentum of particle l? Answer: pi = pl(mY - njZ)c + 2p+p1p2 + -.-___._ mfc2 + mic
2PlP2

rn:c +

tx+

m:c G-tTzp) .-__ .

+ 24 p: + my-v$yc&~

20.

Two particles with rest masses ml and m2 have momenta ,p,

and p2,

respectively, + m2 .:I

along the same straight line. What is the final speed of the combination if they stick together on collision? What is __-- of the combination? (It is not m, the rest mass Answer: c(pl -I- p2)/(dp: + mfc + q+ mzc); ~-~~~__VG:+ rnz 21. _ _ 2(p,p2 - dp: + mfc t/b>: + collide elastically.

._ rnpz. One particle was

Two particles of the same rest mass, mc,

initially at rest, and the other had momentum p. If the final velocities are the same in magnitude, what is the angle between these velocities? Nonrelativistically, ttlis would be 90. Answer: 22. (1) = cosdj7TYp --r_ ( X/p2 + rnic - mot + 3moc ).

In Figure 4.1 I is given another bubble chamber photograph of the production and decay of a :I0 hyperon. Using the method illustrated in the text, find the rest mass of the A0 from this photograph.

23.

Verify that light moving parallel to the y axis in one inertial system goes at the angle

relative to the y axis in a system moving with velocity v along the x axis relative to the first system. In the first system, E, = E, = B, = 8, = 0, B, = E,/c The transformation of the f eld components perpendicular to v is: E, = I (E:f v x B). BI, = f-2 v 1 - /c P- v x E/c2) __.\/;--y?Ic? # 0.

-.

.e

.: .: -::;+ !

Figure 4.1 I.

Bubble chamber photograph of A0 decay.

Problems Find what the transformation wave to be trclnsverse in B, = E,/c of the E components parallel to v must be for the liclht the second system. If E, = E, = 6, := B, = 0,

109

# 0, find how the B component parallel to v transforms.

Answer: fll = IT,, . Ei = Eli, 24. A light source emits light in its rest system of 4000 Angstroms wavelength at the violet end of the visible spectrum. If in a second system the light goes perpendicular to the relative velocity and has a wavelength of 7000 Angstroms at the red end of the visible spectrum, what is the relative velocity? Answer: 25.

2 . 4 6 x 10 m/set.
If an atom at rest emits light of wavelength

Due to the suns rotation, CI point at the surface of the sun on its equator has a speled relative to the cerlter of 1 .85 km/set. 5400 Angstroms, what is rhe Answer: 0.0666 Angstrom. wavelength difference for this light emitted from op-

posite edges of the suns equator as seen from the earth? 26. light at the natural wavelength 6328 Angstroms is emitted from a source which is approaching at 0.45 the speed of light. Calculate the observed wavelength alld frequency. If the light source were receding, what would be the observed enlergy of single photons received from the source? Answer: 1.21 eV 27. Light of wavelength 5000 Angstroms from a flashlight you hold hits a mirror moving away from you at 0.8~. What is the frequency of the light reflected back to you? Answer: X = 3 8 9 7 A n g s t r o m s ; v = 7 . 7 0 x 1014 set -l; 1.93 X lo-I9 i =

6 . 6 7 .K 1013 set-
sinusoidal wave, k,x + k,y + k,z - wf with c = w/k = in is invariant under a Lorentz transformation. A wavecrest
I,

28. The phase of-plane o/Gk; + kz, k,,k,,k,, w/c energy is hrf

one system must look like a wavecrest in another system. Show that this is so if transform under a Lorentz transformation just as x, y, = hph/2*. ct do. !jince k = 27r/X, the magnitude of the momentum of a photon i:j kh/2T, and likewise tlhe Verify that these are consistent with the transformation equations for momentum and energy. 29. Consider two twins R. and G., and let G. travel with speed v out towardc a di!;tant light source, for a total distance I as observed by R. G. then returns along the same path to his starting point Nith speed v. Suppose both G. and R. observe light of a definite frequency coming from the distance source. Use the equations of the longitudinal DGppler ei?ect, and the fact that at the end of the trip both G. and R. will have counted the same total number of wavecrests, to show that the travelling twin - v /c is younger by the factor tK-m--21 .

5 quantum properties of light

The classical electrodynamics of Faraday, Ampere and Maxwell-as expressed in Maxwells equations--was successful in predicting the existence of electromagnetic oscillations, and led to many useful applications, culminating in the invention of radio in 189t5. By the early part of the twentieth century, however, other electromagnetic phenomena had been discovered, which could not be adequately explained by the classical theory. Among the most significant of ,these phenomena were the emission of electrons from a metal surface when irradiated by light (photoelectric effect), the change of wavelength of light scattered by free electrons (the Compton eRect), the discreteness of optical spectra emitted by hot gases, and the energy distribution with frequency of radiation emitted by hot bodies. An important prediction of the classical theory was that an accelerated charge should always emit radiation. If an atom is pictured as a heavy positively charged core with an electron revolving in some orbit about the core, then the electron should emit energy because it is continually being accelerated toward the core by the Coulomb attraction. This energy loss should cause the electron to spiral in toward the core and eventually collide with it in about lo- seconds. Thus this classical model contradicted the fact that an atom can be a stable physical system. Further, the theory predicted that all frequencies should be present in the emitted radiation, corresponding to the fact that all rotation frequencies are possible in the classical orbits. This is in contrast to the observed fact that often a hot gas emits light only at a discrete set of frequencies. Another important consequence of the classical theory was that the intensity of energy transported by a light wave through free space is proportional tso the square of the amplitude of the oscillating electric (or magnetic) field. Also, these electric and magnetic field amplitudes could have continuous arbitrary numerical values, not dependent on the frequency. This led to serious difficulties in explaining the observed properties of the electromagnetic radiation contained in a cavity inside a hot body. The classical theory of this black-body radiation assumed that the radiation inside a large cavity consisted of standing electromagnetic waves with a continuous distribution of energies. The resulting theore*ical calculations gave a distribution of energy with frequency which disagreed with experiment, except at very low frequencies.

110

S.1 Energy transformafion M a x Planck black-body

for particles of zero1

rest mass

111

was the first to give an acceptable quantitative explanation of Instead of assuming that the distribution of energies of the

radiation.

standing waves is continuous, he assumed that the waves could have only discrete energies, differing in amaunt by integral multiples of hu, w h e r e v is the freq u e n c y a n d h i s a c o n s t a n t blaving result of Plan&s when theoretical Thus, electromagneti,: waves t h e v a l u e 6 . 6 3 x lo- agreed with Y of frequency are ioules-seconds. in or all absorbed1 The b,y calculation experiment emitted respects. h v . Silnce,

matter, the energy has to be emitted or absorbed in amounts f =

when a particle is emitted or absorbed by matter, a definite discrete amount of energy is transferred, a light wave appears in this respect to act very [much 1ik.e a particle, when interacting ,with matter. When propagating from one point
IO

a n o t h e r , h o w e v e r , i t m u s t s t i l l b e h a v e l i k e a w a v e b e c a u s e i t i s capablle of exhibiting interference and diffraction. The standing waves of frequency u insidle a cavity can be thought of as consisting of a number of quanta, or photons, eac:h of energy hu. When energy hi i s e m i t t e d b y o n e w a l l o f t h e c a v i t y , t h e n u m b e r of photons of this frequency inside the cavity will increase by unity. Photons of many different frequencies can be present in the cavity. The subsequent absorpto antion of energy hu by another wall of the cavity can, in some respects,, be considered equivalent to the pa:,sage other. The reality of this portic:le-like field has been the verified in many light of a particle (a photon) from one ~1311 experiments. waves are particles whic:h carry energy in dispicture of the states Iof t h e electromagrletic

I n t h i s c h a p t e r w e s h a l l begiln by examining, from the point of view of special relativity, hypothesis that crete amounts E = hu. If the t,elation E = hu is to be a valid physical law, it fol-

lows from the first postulate of relativity that it must be valid in any inertial frame. The equations of rela4vity ments, and hence also tell us how to relate space and time measlurewavelength, energy, ancl momentum measurefrequency,

m e n t s , m a d e b y o b s e r v e r s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n . W e m a y t h e n a p p l y t h e relativistlic transformations to the Plan& relation E = hu, to see if it is form-invariant with respect to Lorentz transformati~ons.

i.1 ENERGY TRANSFOE!MATICBN ZERO REST MASS

FOR PARTICLES OF

In the previous chapter, transformation equations for energy and momentum of particles were obtained. We now wish to investigate the possibility that, according to Plan&s h y p o t h e s i s , a l i g h t w a v e c a n b e considered to act like #o particle which, because the particle has speed c, must have zero rest mlass. may be seen from the comparkon of the two alternate expressions for energy

rhiis

E = d(pq2 + (moc2) = s:,,

have
v

(.5.11)

In order that the energy and rnomentum be non-vanishing for m, = 0, we mwst =

C,

in which case the latter expression becomes indeterminate:

1 12

Qoonfum properties

of light
zero E=Am;,7zero
2

l(5.2)

But then the former expression reduces to simply E theory of a plane electromagnetic wave, where

= pt.

T h e r e l a t i o n E = pc is entirely consistent with the classical electromagnetic

(Energy density) = c x (Momentum density) or, in 0 given volume, E =: pc for electromagnetic waves.

l(5.3)

Since for zero rest moss particles we have E = pc, then p. = p cos 8 = E cos O/c, w h e r e 19 is the direction of travel of the particle with respect to the x axis in R. Also, in the G coordinate system, the trallsformation equation (Equation 4.57), E .- =
C2

pi

= E cos

et/c. Substituting into

we get

(E/c2)(l

- v / c cos0) -___ Ifi- v2/c2

l(5.4)

Note the similarity to the transformation equation for frequency, V(1 - V/CCOS@

l(5.5)

5.2 FORM-INVARIANCE OF E = hu
In fact, it is at once clear that if Plan&s equation E =

hv

for a single photon is the cor-

valid in the system R, then upon using the transformations (5.4) and (5.5), t h u s rellativistically value in all inertial

responding relation in the G system must be E = hu. T h e P l a n c k e q u a t i o n i s invariant, provided the constant h has the same numerical frames. IE = hu,

Furthermore, if the energy is a function only of frequency, the relation

hv

is the only possible relation between energy and frequency which is IrelaT h i s r e l a t i o n w o u l d n o t b e Irela-

tivistically invariant. Suppose, for example, that Planck had proposed E = where n is some exponent not equal to unity. leads to the relation

tivisticolly form-invariant, and therefore could not be a valid physical law, as it

E = h (v) (LYLYL)-

115.6)

in the other reference frame. Thus, it is a remarkable fact that the only possible relativistically invariant relation between energy and frequency is precisely the relation which enabled Planck to explain all the properties of black-body radiation. Further, if

= hv, there is a definite relation between momentum and

wavelength, which can be derived by noting that Solving for p in terms of the wavelength X,

hv

pc,

and XV := c.

,ALb$
C x

(5.7)

5.3
Since this relation be*tween it is also form-invarialit.

The Duane-Hunf law

113

m o m e n t u m a n d w a v e l e n g t h i s e q u i v a l e n t to E = h,v, file-

We may conclude that, if there exists a discrete energy related only to quency r e l a t i v i s t i c a l l y i n v a r i a n t , t h e o~nly possible relation is E = hu, w h e r e l e n g t h h a s t o b e p = hX. T h u s : ) ti = hv == pc p =

for light,, which is considered to be a particle of zero rest mass, then to be

is a uni-

versal constant. Also, the only possible relation between momentum and wavee-

h/X

for

photons

(5.8)

These relations for a single photon state the relationship of momentum and ene r g y t o w a v e l e n g t h sand sions for E a n d frequency under the assumption that light transports energy and momentum in discrete amounts. If there are rt photons, the expres-

should each be multiplied by n. Note that the expression for energy is proportiontal

energy does not contain the amplitude of the electromagnetic field oscillations. On the other hand, in classical electromagnetic theory the squared amplitwde will have to be reconsidered. the quantization of to the squared amplitude of the fields. Therefore, the physical meaning of the T h e r e l a t i o n s , E q u a t i o n (5.811, are subject to verification by experiment. In the

following sections, we shall consider experiments in whic:h termined independently. The value of experiments wash = 6.547 x 10ey

energy carried by photons is important, and in which the value of h can be de-

obtained from black-body radiation

ioules-seconds.

5.3 THE DUANE-HUNT LAW

O n e p h e n o m e n n n wbiich rna>f b e e x p l a i n e d b y u s i n g t h e q u a n t u m r e l a t i o n li = x-ray

hu

is the short-wavelength cutoff (high-frequency cutoff) of the continuous

spectrum. Figure 5.1 represents a typical x-ray tube, consisting mainly of a hot
h 13 t

Figure

5.1.

Production of x rays by stopping fast electrons in dense materials.

1 14

Quantum

properties

of

light

cathode which emits electrons, and a source of potential which can accelerate the electrons from the cathode up to many thousands of electron volts klinetic energy. The electrons then strike a dense target, usually made of tungsten or molyb~denum, a n d a r e blcought suddenly to rest, i.e. they are decelerated. According this is to what classical is theory, such a decelerated If the charge should emit radiation, V is and observed experimentally. accelerating potential upwards

of 10,000 volts, then the frequencies of emitted radiation lie in the x-ray region. S u p p o s e I(X)dh is the amount of energy emitted with wavelengths in the is a quantity which can be obrange from h to A + dX. This intensity /(A,)

served experimentally; a typical set of experirnental results is given in Figure 5.2,

TUNGSTEN TARGET A-20 KILOVOLTS B25 c-30 D-m35 I Ez4D

.2 Figure 5.2.

.3

.4

.5

.6

.7

.a

.9

1 .o

WAVE LENGTH IN ANGSTROM UNITS Intensity distribution of x rays produced at different accelerating voltages.

in which I (A) is plotted as a function of A. Note that as the accelerating voltage V is increased, there is a general increase in the intensity of x rays produced, and also that there is for each V a minimum wavelength (or maximum frequency) emitted. This can be understood as follows: We assume that the x rays are radiated discontinuously in the form of quanta of energy hv when the electron comes to a stop. Some electrons may emit many quanta, but it is possible that an electron is stopped so suddenly that all its kinetic energy goes into a single q u a n t u m o f e n e r g y hv,,,,. T h i s u,,, would be the maximum frequency of a quantum which could be (emitted. The electron is initially accelerated and is {given kinetic energy by passage through a difference of potential V, so the kinetic energy it gains there will be T = eV. By conservation of energy, if in the collision all this is given to a single quantum of frequency umax, hu,,, = eV then (5.9)

5 . 4 Photoelecfric e&d This equation is called the kaw. I t c a n b e c h e c k e d a g a i n s t t h e

115

mDuane-Hunt

experimental data given in Figure 5.2. From the graph, which is plotted in terms of wavelength, the minimum wavelengths can be read off for given accselerating Potential. In terms of vmox, expressed as eVL h=C

Xmi, = C , so in terms of Xmi, the constant h could mox

be

(5.10)

For example, at V = 40,000 volts, x,i, gives, using e = 1.6 x lo-l9 coul.,

from the graph is 0.31 Angstroms. This x 10m3 i-sec. SimreslJlts

a value for h: h = 6.61

ilarly, other values for h can be obtained from the data of Figure 5.2. Thle with the value of h determined from black-body radiation experiments.

are given in Table 5.1; the values all agree reasonably well with each other and

V
(volts)

TAEI1.E 5.1 D u a n e - H u n t L a w - _ _ _ - _ -

.--_

(Angstroms)
_ _ .62 .49 .405 .35 .31 .255 6.61
X

xtnin

h = eVX,i./c ~-_ 10m3i-sec. lo-i-sec. 10m3i-sec. lo- i-sec. lo- i-sec. lo- i-sec. X 10m3 j-sec.(avera!ge) .--_ 6.53 x 6.48 x 6.35 x 6.61 6 . 5 6
X

20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 50,000 -

6.80 X _

.4 PHOTOELECTRIC EFF:ECT
Historically the first alDplication of Plancks equation E = hu t o a n o t h e r p h e -

nomenon was made by Einstein, when he showed how the photoelectric effect

Metal

Figure 3.3.

Photoelectric Effect: A single incident photon of energy hv con (cause

on

electron to be ejected from a metal surface if the frequency is sufficiently high.

1 16

Quantum properties of lighf

may be explained. In the photoelectric effect, light is allowed to fall on a metal surfac:e as illustrated in Figure 5.3, and electrons of various kinetic energies are and the numbers of

then ejected from the surface due to absorption of light energy. One may measure the kinetic energies T of the ejected electrons,

ejected electrons, as functions of both the frequency, and the intensity, of the incident light. Five important features of this effect could not be explained by the classical theory. We shall consider these features one by one, and show how they rnay be explained using E = hu and the concept of the photon, or quantum of light.

5.4.1

Emission from a given surface does not occur unless the frequency of the light is greater than a certain critical frequency denoted by v,, which is independent of the intensity of the incident light.

That is, no matter how intense the light is, no electrons will come off unless the trons frequency come off. exceeds v,. This is difficult to understand classically, because the

more intense the light is, the more energy should be available to make the elec-

Electrons are normally kept from flying off the surface of a metal by the Coulomb attractions between the electrons and the positive ions. It takes la cer-

tain amount of energy to overcome this attraction at room temperature, and from experiments on thermionic emission these energies can be
OS

measured.

The

minimum energy required to remove one electron is defined

the work function

@ of the metal. Typical values of the work function are given in Table 5.2. These work functions are typically of the order of a few electron volts. These are only the minimum energies required to remove an electron from a metallic surface.

I t mig,ht a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e m o r e e n e r g y t h a n hu, t o r e m o v e a n e l e c t r o n , b e c a u s e an electron far down inside the metal might have to collide with several obstacles, thus losing energy, before it could get out. Also, some electrons inside the metal have less kinetic energy than others to begin with. TABLE 5.2 Work Functions for Some Typical Metals Element Molybdenum Nickel !iilver Tungsten Zinc Work Function 4 . 2 0 eV 5 . 0 3 eV 4 . 7 3 eV 4 . 5 4 eV 4 . 3 0 eV

Suppose

an

electron

absorbs

one

photon,, w h i c h g i v e s i t j u s t e n o u g h e n e r g y

to overcome the work function and escape. The energy of this photon is E = hv. I n terlms o f Cp, hu = Cp. I f hu w e r e l e s s t h a n 9, t h e e l e c t r o n c o u l d n o t e s c a p e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s a c r i t i c a l f r e q u e n c y , V, , d e t e r m i n e d b y v, = a/h, such that for lesser frequencies, an electron cannot escape by absorbing a photon. For

5.4 Photoelecllric example, the critical frequency ,for Zinc is a *, = - = -e X -4.310- eVh h = 1.04 x 105 set -1 1.60 x 10.-19 coul x 4.30 eV = 6.63 x lo- i-set

effecl

117

(Note that work functions in the table are given in units of electron volts.) The incident light beam, olt a frequency lower than the critical frequency, could be made more intense Iby increasing the number of quanta in the beam. !<o if n quanta per unit area pelr unit time fall on the metal, the intensity is given in terms of n and v by I = nhlj. Since the light is absorbed in quanta of amount hv, and not nhu, increasing the intensity of the beam will not cause electrons to come off in this case. Suppose that we consider next the case of incident frequencies greater than the critical frequency. Then electrons can come off when quanta are alpsorbed. In general, the electrons will come off with a distribution of energies because of losses due to collisions inside thle metal, and so forth. So we shall consifder only those electrons coming off with maximum possible kinetic energies, T,,,. The energy absorbed from the light, hu, goes into overcoming the work functioll and in giving kinetic energy to the electron. Thus, by conservation of energy, hu = T,,, + @ (5.11)

This is known as the Einstein pIbotoelecfric Poe

equation.

If Cp = 2.04 eV and visible light of wavelength X = 4000 Angstroms is used, then the maximum kinetic elnergies are

(6.63 x 10m3 i-set) x (3 x 10 m/set) = __--_ (4 x 1 O- m) X (1.6 X lo-- I9 i/eV) = 1.07eV

- 2.04 eV

For such problems, since T,,,, is a few electron volts, while the rest energy of an electron is 510,000 eV, we can use the approximate nonrelativistic ex.pression for kinetic energy, 7 = % m,,v, to obtain the maximum electron velocity. Then the photoelectric equa,tion can be written in the form: 1 max 1 == - mo&, = hu - + 2 of the incident light. (5.12)

.2

T,,, does not depend on the irltensity

Classically, it would seen that the more energy contained in the incident light, the more a particular electron could absorb. However, the photoelectric equation does not predict any dependence of J,,, on the intensity, I =: nhu.

1 18
5.4.3

Quantum properties

of light
frequency of light.

T,,,,,

increases with increasing

This follows directly from the photoelectric equation. If T,,, is measured1 and plotted as a function of frequency, the slope of the curve should be equal to h. The intercept on the frequency axis should be Q/h. The energy measulred negatilve potential, T,,, m a y b e by placing an electrode near the metal surface and applying to it a -V, with respect to the metal. This is illustrated in Figure 5.4.

/ / -e

Figure

5.4.

Rough diagram of apparatus for measul.ement of h/e.

This stopping potential V is increased until no current is collected by the electrode, that is, until V is just large enough to turn back electrons with the energy T,,,. Then the change in potential energy as the electron travels from the metal surface to the electrode is just eV, a n d i s e q u a l t o 1.5 L T,,,. S o eV = hu - a., and if V is

P 0 ; P E 5 a P 'B 0.5 i l.O-

I 7.10'4 Frequency in cycles/second Figure 5.5. Graph of stopping potential vs. frequency.

5 . 5 Compfon measured and plotted as a function of frequency, the slope of the curve

effect

119

should

be equal to h/e. In Figure 5.51 are given some experimental data for the measurement of V as a function of frequency for a particular metal surface. IFrom t h e data, using the knowrl value of the electronic charge e, Plan&s 10e3 i-sec. 1.4 The number of photoelectrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of the light. Classically, this is consistent with conservation of enell.gy, T,,,. if, however, the intensity is n h v , w i t h but it is not clear why photon a b constant can be i n d e p e n d e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d . T h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e g r a p h i s h = 6.65~ x

the increase in available energy as the intensity is increased shouldnt increase v > uc, tlhen for every sorbed, only one electron can be given off. If the inten!,ity of this electrons fact given off should also be doubled. Thus, the, is then doubled, keepquantum theory explains

ing the frequency fixed, the number n of quanta is doubled, so that the number completely.

1.5 Emission of photoelectrons may occur immediately, r(sgardless of the intensity of the light. This means that if the intensity is made smaller and smaller, then no matter how small it is, immediately after the light is turned on, some electrons may come off. It is not too difficult to arrange for the intensity tc be so low that it should take several hours for 5.0 eV 131: - - t h a t i s , p r o v i d e d t h e intenGty energy to be absorbecl by an atom in the metal is any light at all, there is proportional to the square of the amplitude.

However, on the basis of the cluantum picture, if therr, lleave the surface. that the intensity were so

,will have to be at least one quantum present, so an electron could absorb it and Suppose, for examlzJe, low t h a t 5 . 0 eV of energy

every ten minutes were incident on a surface of work function 2.5 eV, o n d t h a t ,the frequency of the inciden? light were such that !sible hv = 5.0 eV. T h e n , o n t h e average, six electrons would come off every hour; but it turns out to be imposto predict exactly when thlese electrons would come off. They would do so at prob[random times, rather than regularly every ten minutes. Hence, only the probability of ejecting an electron at a given instant can be predicted. This lability can be correcily calculated using the classical formula, which says the quanta present. This will be discussed below iln

square of the amplitude is proportional to the intensity. The intensity is related, Ion the average, to the number of detail.

5.5 COMPTON EFFECT

If light waves strike a free electron, as in Figure 5.6, then, according to classical electrodynamics, the electric (Geld vector should cause the electron to oscillate. Hence the electron will be accelerated, and should emit radiation at the same fre-

120

Quantum properties of light

--1 oe
-ti
Figure !i . 6 . Electric field in an electromagnetic wave striking an electron causes the electron to accelerate. Classically, radiation of the same frequency should be emitted, but a shift of wavelength with angle is observed. quency as that of the incident light. However, experimental observations Ishow

that the light reradiated by the electron is changed in frequency (and so in wavelength). For example, considering only the light scattered at 90 from the incident direction, experiments show that the change of wavelength of the light is LIP = 0.024 Angstrom. This, of course, i s a v e r y s m a l l s h i f t i n w a v e l e n g t h . I n rays. E = order to observe this shift, it is necessary to do the experiment with x The effect can be understood as the absorption of a photon of energy, energy, E =

hu, and momentum, p = h / h , a subsequent re-emission of a photon of different hu, and momentum, p = h / X , with a recoil of the electron from hv, hf A

mc, rnv Figure 5.7. Diagram of collision between a photon of energy E = hv and a free electron.

5.5

Compton effect

121

the state in which it was initially at rest-i.e. a relativistic collision between two particles. We shall tIpeat collision, has velocity v tivistic mass m is then
m0

the electron as

CI relativistic particle which, after the

at on angle 4 relative to the incident direction. The rela-

41 - vz/c2 Let us write down the conservation of energy equation. Referring to

(5.13) Figure 5.7, and

before the collision the total energy is that of the photon, hu, a n d t h a t o f t h e electron at rest, mc,c2. After the collision, the new photon has an energy hv, the energy of the electron is mc. So the law of conservation of energy is hu + m,c 2 = hu + mc2 (5.14)

or since u = c/~A a n d u = c/X,

/-- !
Figure 5.8.

h/X 4
mv \

h/h

Momentum conservation diagrams for photon-free electron collision.

(5.15)
Next, we write down the conservation of momentum equations. The relationships between the momentum vectors are diagrammed in Figure 5.8. The initial momentum is that of the incident photon only, since the electron is initially at rest. This initial momentum is equal to the vector sum of the final momenta, of magnit u d e s h/X f o r t h e p h o t o n a n d mv for the electron. The x component of momentum is conserved. This gives the conservation law, h x := h - c o s 0 + mv c o s 4 A of momentum, we have

For conservation of they cotnponent

122

Quanfom properfies of light

0 = h sin 0 -- mv sin C#J A T h e s e e q u a t i o n s c a n bme

(5.17)

manipulated in various ways to yield useful informa-

tion about the collision process. Note that the equations combine relati,ristic mechanics for the electron, with the equations E = p c = hu for the photons. For our purposes, we wish to calculate the wavelength X of the scattered photon in we must eliminate the terms of X a n d t h e a n g l e 0, through which the photon is scattered. This means that in the above three equations, (5.15, 5.16, and 5.17), variables 4 and v. There are several ways to proceed with the algebra; the result is given in Equation (5.23). The quickest way to eliminate the angle 4 is to use the vector triangle in Figure 5.8, and upply case gives us PZ = (mv) = h2 + 0x -h2 A 0 2h2 cos Xh /I (5.1 8) the law of cosines, which irl this

The final momentum, p, of the electron in Equation (5.18) can be eliminated by m e a n s o f t h e r e l a t i o n EZ = P2c2 + mic o r pz = E2/c2 E = mc, P2 lengths, X,X. Write the z m2y2 = m2c:) - m2c2 0 equation (5.15) as (5.19) - mot . T h e n , s i n c e

We may now obtain an expression for p2 In t e r m s o f t h e i n i t i a l a n d f i n a l w a v e conservation of energy

mc = mot

h h + - - x A

S q u a r i n g t h i s l a s t e q u a t i o n a n d s o l v i n g f o r mic2 - mf,c, we gel m c

2

- m2c2 o equations m2v2 =

= (5.19)

2m,c(f and

- $) + gives us

(a - b)

(5.21)

Thus,

combination

of

(5.21)

p2 =

2moc (t - $) +

(i - x;)

(5.22)

Then, eliminating p2 b e t w e e n E q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 2 2 ) a n d (5.18), after some cancellat i o n a n d redvction to common sult is A - x = & (1 - cos e)
0

denominators, one may solve for X - X. The re-

This

last

equation

gives

the

change

in

wavelength 0. In

in

terms

of

the

universal frorr

conthe

s t a n t s , h/mot,

and the scattering angle - rnic,

the

derivation,

apart

r e l a t i o n s h i p p2 = E2/c2 momentum h/mot. of the

we used conservation equations for energy

and momentum, and simply eliminated the unwanted variables involving the electron. E q u a t i o n ( 5 . 2 3 ) p r e d i c t s t h a t A - 1 = joule-set; At a scattering angle of 0 = 90,

For the electron, m0 = 9.1 1 x 10 m31 kg, and h = 6.63 - 1Om34

calculating X - x in Angstroms gives us

5.6 Pair production and alnnihilation A Ct.63 X 10m3i-set - h = ____-.9 . 1 1 x 10m3kg

x

123

- = .0243 A n g s t r o m (!j.2!4) 108m/sec

This is in extremely glood aslreement

with the experimental value for the shift at

90.

Silver Radiator

Figure T h e c o n s t a n t h/m,c a characteristic

5.9.

Modified and unmodified Compton lines. I2 is called the Compton wavelength a n d lis with the electron.

= 2.42; x 10 length

quantum

associated

In Figure 5.9 are shown graphs of intensity versus wavelength of the lines observed at a scattering angle of 90, for scattering by the electrons in a number of substances. Notice there are two lines, one at a position corresponding to zero change in X, the other slightly displaced from it. The displaced line is that Compton scattering from free electrons, and is called the modified line. is called the unmodified line, (2nd parable to atomic mosses due to other The

is due to scattering from bound electrons. Here,

in place of the moss m0 for electrons in the Compton wavelength, a mass comshould be used, so the shift of wavelength is negligible. In elements with higher valuer of Z, and hence with more tightly bound electrons, there are relatively fewer free electrons, and so the intensity of the modified line becomes smaller in comparison to that of the unmodified line.

I.6 PAIR

PRODUCTION

AND

,ANNIHILATION whllch
the quantum properties of light enter is pair

Another phenomene2n in ,production,

w h e r e a photon of sufficiently high energy (called a gamma ray),

I24

Quantum properties of light reacts to form an electrcsn and another particle, a positron, which has positive charge 1 e 1 and rest bolically, the process is rrlass equal to the rest mass of the electron, mo. represented by Sym-

where e --I represents

the

electron

and

e the other particle, a positron. Let disappears, and, for simplicity, the same direction together, with

us ask whether such a process can occur in free space. In this process, we assume the photon of energy hrt and momentum hu/c that the positron and electron continue along in

equal speeds v as in Figure 5.10. Applying the conservation laws, we have, for

Figure 5.10. conservation

Pair produc,tion by a photon in free space is impossible as energy and momentum cannot be simuh~neously conserved. of energy, hv Conservation of momentum gives hv
C

2moc2 = __-__ -__ VL v2/c2

2mclv 47-7p

Eliminating the frequency v from the above equations, one can solve for the speed v. This can be done, for example, by dividing the second equation into the first, giving us
c = 2 YV

(15.27)
we

or v = c. This immediately implies that the rest mass must vanish, and hence sible. This is because not energy .these and momentum (cannot conclusions. simultaneously be

arrive at a contradiction: The process as we have assumed it to occur is imposconserved in free space in this process. Assuming different speeds or directions for the two particles would alter However, if the high-energy gamma ray passes near a very heavy particle, then the heavy particle can soak up all the momentum without carrying away a significant amount of energy. To show this, the process is pictured as in Figure 5.11: The y gives much of its momentum to the heavy particle, and almost all

5.6 Pair production and ormihi/arion

125

IFigure 5.1 1. A high-energy gamma ray passing near matter can create an electronpositron pair-material nuclei soaking up momentum but not energy. its energy to the electron-positron pair. l e t u s s e e w h y t h i s i s s o . T h e r a t i o R Iof energy carried off by the heavy particle to energy available is
l/2 Mv2 R=-

hu

(5.28)

where we may use the nonrelativistic expression for the heavy particle if the most energetic y rays we lconsidelr have energies of no more than about IO MeV, rest energy of a heavy particle such as a proton. which is small compared to the

If all the momentum of the x ray is assumed to go into momentum of the heavy particle, then hvjc = Mv. Solving this last equation for v, we have v = hu//Mc. ljubstituting v into the ratio R, after some cancellation, we get R = ~WWW2 hu = 1 hv __I

MC

Thus, since hu << MC, the ratio R is very small, and the fraction of energy
carried away by the heavy particle is negligible, even when it takes up all the momentum. In general, not all the momentum is given to the heavy particle, but it takes up enough to allow the reaction to take place. Having accounted for mom#entum conservation with the presence of the heavy particle, we have only to consider energy conservation in the pair tively, then hu moc2 = ---;+ -\/I TV:/7 creatlion

p r o c e s s . T h u s , i f v+ arld v_ are the velocities of positron and electron, respec.0

ygv3/;i

The minimum gamma-ray energy required to create a pair will occur when the final energies of both particles. are minimum. This will occur when v+ = v- = 0. Such a minimum kinetic energy for a process to occur is called the threshold energy, a n d illlq threrhold = 2mOc2

126

Quantum properfies of lighf Since the rest energy of an electron is 0.511 MeV, is 1.022 MeV. energies greater than 1.022 MeV pass through the threshold gamma energy matter-so that many heavy

It is indeed observed experimentally that when gamma rays of

particles are present-electron-positron pairs are created. An electron and a positron can also combine annihilate each other annihilate each other, in a collision in which they If they be conarld give off a burst of radiation. Suppose the electron

and positron were initially at rest. T h e i r t o t a l e n e r g y i s 1 . 0 2 2 MeV. giving off one photon only, momentum could not

served because the initial momentum is zero, whereas the final single particle would have to possess some momentum. Thus, at least two photons must be emitted. If two photons are emitted, then in order to conserve momentum they must go off in opposite directions, with momenta of equal magnitudes. Thus, their energies will be equal (see Figure 5.12). Each photon will then have to carry away an energy of 0.511 MeV. This is observed experimentally. Before

Pair annihilation ot rest causes at least two photons to be given off, which Figure 5.12. travel in opposite directions with equal energies. Whereas the phenomena of pair creation and annihilation do not give an independent way of measuring Ploncks con:#tant, photon is much too high-1 because the frequency of the to be measured, they show clearly that the photon

must carry energy and momentum, and that total energy and momentum of the particles in a reaction are both conserved.

5.7 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR LIGHT WAVES It is a general physical fact that any which measurement may alter of a physical of the quantity physical

generates

uncontrollable

disturbances

the

value

quantity being measured. For example, to measure the temperature of a gas, a thermometer must be introduced into the gas, which may decrease the volume

5.7 Uncertainfy principle for light waves

slightly and hence heat up the gas. In addition, there might be slome h e a t

127

exchange between gas and thermometer. When analyzed in detail, all physical measurements can be shown to have a similar disturbing character. We are interested here in the uncertainties introduced into the values of frequency (energy) and wavelength (momentum) of light waves by attempts to measure their values, v and X. Consider a measurement (of frequency. A frequency is a number of cycles crests that pass a gtiven given by
N =-

per

unit of time, so to measure a frequency, we have to count the number N of wave p o i n t i n a g i v e n t i m e Al; t h e n t h e f r e q u e n c y w i l l b e

At

(5.30)

Here, At is the time interval mover sine wave, then it will consist,

which the measurement extends. In counting of a superposition of several frequencies,

N, the number of crests, various difficulties may arise. If the wave is nlot a Ipure perhaps, and repeated measurements of N will not agree. Even if the wave is a pure sine w a v e , w h e n w e c o u n t c r e s t s o v e r a f i x e d t i m e i n t e r v a l A t , t h e n f o r a iparticular measurement we might not know whether we should include the last portion of a wave as a crest or not. To put it another way, suppose we chop the pure sine wave so that it only lasts a time At. Then the sharp variations in amplitude at the ends can be represented in terms of a superposition of waves of many different frequencies, so that repeated measurements of N would not always give t h e s a m e v a l u e . I t i s Inot difficult to make an order-of-magnitude estimate of the range of uncertainty, AN of N. It will be about 1, since in counting crests we may miss one or more Icrests at the ends. Thus, if the uncertainty in IV is AN e 1, there will be a corresponding uncertainty frequency, and this will be (5.31) Thus, the product: Av in our measurement of

AvAt u 1
This result arises purely

(5.32)

beccuse of the wave nature of the light; it is not only

valid for light but for all other classical wave disturbances, and also for other waves such as those oNrising in quantum theory. From Equation (5.3$2), w e scan obtain a corresponding uncertainty relation for energy. The energy of a photon of frequency v is in energy will be related to the uncertainty in Therefore, E = hu, so the uncertainty by AE = frequency

h Au.
(5.33)

AEAt h

This result states that the product of the time Af o v e r w h i c h t h e m e a s u r e m e n t is conducted, times the uncertainty in the measurement ot energy of a p h o t o n , is approximately

h.

128

Quantum properties of lighf

TABLE 5.3

Typical Data From a Frequency Counter: Time Interval

At = 1 .O sec. Numbers of counts in repeated measuremen Its: 100404 100485 100486 100484 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100485 100486 100485 100484 100484 100485 100485 100484 100485 100484 100486 100485 100484 100479 100482 100482 100483 100483 100484 100482 100483 100484 100482 100482 100484 100483 100484 100485 100485 100485 1.28 100485 100485 100484 100485 100484 100485 100484 100486 100485 100485 100486 counts.

Average number of cawnts = 100484.3 1 RMS deviation from the mean of the number of counts =

In Table 5.3 are given the numbers of counts in repeated measurements by an electronic wave crest counter, which has counted crests of a wave put out by an audio signal generator over a time interval at = 1 .OO sec. The root mean square deviation from the mean of N can be taken as a measure of the uncertainty in N. From the table, one can find the uncertainty in frequency of the measurements;

lit is 1.28 set-. Thus the uncertainty product is

AuAt - 1.28
in accord with the uncertainty principle, Equation (5.33).

5.8

MOMENTUM,

POSITION

UNCERTAINTY

An uncertainty relation may be obtained in a similar way, which relates mornenturn and distance. Imagine freezing a pure sine wave and measuring the number of wave crests, N, within the distance

Ax

on the meter stick. Then the wave-

length X i s g i v e n b y X = ax/N. The momentum will be

However, again because near the endpoints it will not be clear whether we have included the last wavecrest correctly or not, repeated measurements may give differing values for N. Again, the uncertainty in N will be roughly and the corresponding uncertainty in momentum will be

AN *

1,

Ap = -At or ApAx N h
(5.34)

5.9

Probability

interpretation

of

amplitudes

129

Figure

5.13.

Basic
OS

uncertainties

arise

in

attempts

to

measure

wavelength

or

momentum.

If we take

a measure of Ap and Ax the rms deviations from the mean, Ap a minimum. lt turns

this uncertainty relation can be made more precise. As one might guess, there i s a w a v e s h a p e t h a t m a k e s t h e u n c e r t a i n t y p r o d u c t -Ix o u t t h a t t h i s m i n i m u m o c c u r s w h e n t h e w a v e s h a p e i s a s i n e w a v e m~odulated by a gaussian, of the form CC??~~~, In terms of wavelength, the Iuncertainty with c and in X is c constants. For this wave,

Ax Ap = h/4a. So, in general,, we could say that I x -Ip 2 h/4x.

(5.35)
and this gives, in terms of the measured value X = Ax/N,

AXAX > x
4ir
The uncertainty relation -I/I .1x >h/4r

(5.36)

for light waves, states that a measure-

ment of momentum of a light wave which is carried out over a spatial interval Ax will have an uncertainty such that the product of Ax times the uncertainty in momentum is greatser than h,/4Ir. These results show that there are basic limitations on our ability to simultaneously measure certain properties of light waves; later, we shall see that very similar uncertainty relotions hold for material particles such as electrons,, protons and atoms. No conceivable measurement process can give rise to knowledge of physical quantities which violates these relations.

i.9 PROBABILITY INTERlPRETATllON

OF AMPLITUDES E
= hv a n d m o m e n t u m

We have seen in detail how light waves carry energy p = h/X,

and that when they interact with matter, photons are emitted and

a b s o r b e d a n d h a v e Imany particle-like properties. We now have to reconcile

130

Quonfum properfies of light

these results with the fact that in calculations of interference and diffraction, the experimental results are very well explained by using wave-like properties, namely superposition of wave amplitudes. In a diffraction calculation, illustrated i n F i g u r e 5 . 1 4 , t h e s q u a r e 1 #(6) 1 of the amplitude #(O) is proportional to

Figure

5.14.

Double-slit

diffraction

pattern

for

light

must

be

interpreted

in

terms

of

probabilities. the intensity of the light arriving at the screen at the angle 0, w h e r e obtained given by as a linear superposition of contributions #;/i(S) from each $(/I) i s of the

individual point sources of Huyghens wavelets. Mathematically, the intensity is

where k is some proportionality constant. In order to explain the form of the diffraction pattern, it is said that the energy going into the angle 0 is proportional to the absolute square, or magnitude of the square, of the total amplitude #. However, if, according to the quantum theory of light, we are actually dealing with photons of frequency v, and if the flux 0 is n, then I = nhu; of photons going into the olngle

thus the square of the amplitude would be proportllonal

to the number of photons going into the angle 19. Imagine that the screen on which the photons are allowed to fall is fluorescent, so that whenever a photon strikes the screen at some point, this is made evident by a visible flash. Then, when point the is intensity of the to incident square photon of the beam is large, there are many photons, and there will be many flashes on the screen. The number of flashes at a given proportional the amplitude calculated classically. Suppose now that the intensity of the beam, is reduced to such a low value that

only one photon at a time goes through the slit system. Then only one flash at a time will be seen on the screen, at some definite position. Sometimes, the flash will be at one point, sometimes at another. That is, the exact position at which a given photon strikes the screen will be unpredictable. However, suppose the screen is replaced by a film and a long exposure is made, so that over a long

Summary period many, many photons hit the film, one at a time. When this experiment is performed, the pa,ttern on the film is precisely that predicted classically, i.e. the diffraction pattern. Thus, even though only one photon at a time goes through the slit system, so that one might think photons could not interfere with each other, one still obtains the diFfraction pattern. Therefore, the squared amplitude does not tell exactly where a photon will go--which is unpredictable--- but it does tell what happens on the average to many photons. It can only lbe interpreted as a probability. The square of the referred all the to as a probability amplitude. 8, one which a m p l i t u d e , 1IF/(@ 1, i s t h u s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a g i v e n p h o t o n will be found at the angle 8. +(B) is th en calculates the sum, or superposition, contribute to $(0). of the amplitude Then is of To obtain the probability that a photon will be found at the angle probability amplitudes

131

1 $(0) / = ( c; G;(0) j is proportional to the probverified by many experiments.

ability of finding a given photon at position 0. This probability interpretation squared

THE PLANCK RELATION EIEiTWEEN ENERGY AND FREQUENCY FOR LIGHT

In order to explain the observed properties of black-body radiation, postulated that light carried energy in discrete bundles called photons. If the frequency of the light is The total energy could be nh,v, u, then the photon energy is Planck or hu. E =

quanta,

where n is some integer. This law is relativistically

f o r m - i n v a r i a n t . S i n c e E = pc for photons where p is the momentum, it follows that p = h/X. The presently accepted value of h is: h = 6.6262 x Another useful constant is: hc - := 1 . 2 3 9 9 e 1Om34 joules-sec.

x 10m6 i-m/coul.

DUANE-HUNT LAW
If electrons are accelerated through a potential difference V, they acquire kinetic

energy eV.

Then, if thsey

are susddenly

stopped, the maximum energy that can be

emitted by an electron will be eV = hu,,,.

132

Quantum

properties of light

PHOTOELECTRIC
The work function

EFFECT
@ of a metal surface is defined as the minimum energy

necessary to remove one electron from the surface. If light of frequency u is incident on the surface, electrons may be ejected. The maximum kinetic energy T,,, of an electron is given by the Einstein photoelectric equation, 1 max = hu +

If hu < a, no electrons can come off. The critical frequency v,, at which some electrons are barely able to escape, is independent of the intensity of the is proportional to the intensity nhv given1 by hu, = a. T h e v a l u e o f of electrons T,,,, is emitted incident light; the number

of the light.

COMPTON

EFFECT
by a free electron, itself

W h e n a p h o t o n o f i n i t i a l w a v e l e n g t h X is s,cattered given by: A - x = $c (1 - cos 0) 0

initially at rest, then the scattered photon has its wavelength changed an amount

where 0 is the angle through which the photon is scattered.

PAIR PRODUCTION AND ANNIHILATION

A photon of energy greater than 2moc2 can, when passing near a heavy particle,

be changed into an electron-positron pair. An electron and positron at rest can annihilate each other to produce two or more photons. If two photons are produced, they each have energies of mOc2.

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
A single measurement of frequency LIIF, w h e r e of a photon, which lasts over a time interval,

At, necessarily has on uncertainty given by certain by an amount Ax,

.AuAt

) 1. Then the energy is unmomentum acculracy

AEAt 2 h. In a measurement of

of a photon, where the position of the photon is known to within an

there will be an uncertainty Lp in momentum given by LIP,IX 2 h/4*.

PROBABILITY INTERPRETATION OF AMPLITUDES

Experiments performed with low intensity light waves indicate thot the squared amplitude of the wave may be interpreted as the probability that a photon will be found at a certain position.

Problems

133

1.

What energy would an electron require in order to have the same momentum as an 8 MeV photon? Answer: 8.0163 MeV. of the following energies: (a) 10.2 eV corre-

2.

Find the wavelengths for plhotons x ray; (c) 500 MeV gamma my. Answer:

sponding to the shortest waIvelength emitted by a hydrogen atom; (b) 100 keV (a) 1216 Angstroms;(b) 0.1243 Angstroms; (c) 2.49 x 10-s Angstroms.

3.

Find the kinetic energy in MeV of an electron with momentum equal to c times its rest mass. Compare with % m(,vz. Answer: (v?F l)moc2 = 0.212MeV; % mev2 = 1/4m,,c2 = 0.128MeV.

4.

Two particles travel in the lab system with equal but opposite speeds and collide. If the kinetic energy of each particle is 9 times the rest energy (moc2) as observed from the lob, then what is the kinetic energy of one of the particles as observed from a system in which the other particle is at rest? Answer: 198moc2. and momentum ym,,c2, where y = l/-\/EF (y + l)m0c2, and momentum,

5.

A proton with total energy ,ymoc2

and v is the proton speed, hits a proton at rest in the laboratory system. Use the transformation equations for the total energy, ymov, of the two-proton sy!,tem to find the energy and momentum in a frame moving

with speed v relative to tble laboratory system. Take the relative velocity parallel to the velocity of the first proton. Show that if v = yv/(y + l), the momentum is zero. This center of momenfum Show that in thot system, 1 --/lzry2/C2 (Y+ 1) 2 r system is classically the center of mass system.

and thus that the total energy in the center of momentum system is fi(y 6. An electron has a klinetic + l)moc2

energy of 1 MeV in one inertial system. Find the magnitude

of the momentum of the electron in MeV/c in a system moving relative to the first at c/2, (a) in the same direction as the electron velocity in the first system; (b) perpendicular Answer: 7. to (a) the electron velocity in the first system. The electron rest mass corresponds to 0.51 1 MeV. 0.770 MeV/c; (b) 1.669 MeV/c. What would be the wavelength of the most energetic x rays produced by electrons of 50 keV kinetic energy striking a lead target? Answer: 8. 0.249 Angstrom. light will photoelectrons ejected from zinc have a For what wavelength of inc:ident Answer: 9. 4.83 Angstroms.

maximum velocity of y,, of the speed of light? A gamma ray of energy 5.7 MeV is Compton scattered at an angle of 60 from free electrons. Find the energy in MeV of the outcoming photon. Answer: 0.867 h4eV.

134

Quanfum properties of light

10. F i n d t h e l e a s t f r e q u e n c y o f i n c i d e n t l i g h t t h a t w i l l k n o c k e l e c t r o n s o u t o f t h e s u r f a c e
o f a m e t a l w i t h a w o r k f u n c t i o n o f 3 eV.

Answer:

7 . 2 4 x 1Csec-I.

11. The potential barrier of electrons at the surface of a metal which leads to the work function is due to electrons which get slightly outside the surface, inducing a positive charge inside the surface. This leads to a force which is the same as if an i m a g e c h a r g e e q u a l arld opposite to that of the electron were attracting the electron,

as shown in the diagram. Verify qualitatively that the lines of force between electron Metal surface

Electron :\.Ke

and image charge would satisfy the condition that they must be perpendicular to the c o n d u c t i n g s u r f a c e . Shmsw t h a t t h e e l e c t r o n h a s a p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y o f where -e2/(167rt0x)

x is the distance to the metal surface. This image force should no longer be

present once the electron is a distance from the surface comparable to the metal atom spacings, say 1 Angstrom. Compute the electron potential energy at that

distance and compare in order of magnitude with work functions given in Table 5.2.

A n s w e r : 3 . 6 eV.
12. Find the maximum kinetic energy in eV of electrons knocked

out o f a s u r f a c e w i t h

a work function of 1.5

eV b y l i g h t o f w a v e l e n g t h 6 0 0 0 A n g s t r o m s .

A n s w e r : 0 . 5 7 eV. 1 3 . T h e t h r e s h o l d wavelerlgth
energy in eV for emission of electrons from a Cs surface is 6540 A n g s t r o m s . C a l c u l a t e ,the w o r k f u n c t i o n o f C s i n eV, a n d c a l c u l a t e t h e m a x i m u m photoelectrons would have if photons of wavelength 4000 Angsiroms

were incident on the surface. Answer: 1 . 9 0 eV; I .20 eV.

14. An x-ray photon is scattered by a free electron at rest through an angle of

60. The wavelength changes by 15%. What is the incident wavelength?

Answer: 0.0486 Angstrom.

1 5 . C o m p u t e t h e w a v e l e n g t h s h i f t f o r p h o t o n s b a c k s c a t t e r e d (0 = 1 8 0 ) f r o m f r e e protons.

Answer:

2.65 x

lo- A n g s t r o m s .

16. Show that when a photon is scattered by a free electron at rest, the product of the initial frequency and electron rest mass divided by the product of the final f r e q u e n c y a n d f i n a l e l e c t r o n m a s s i s 1 - v,c c o s @, w h e r e v i s t h e f i n a l ele,:tron

speed and @ is the angle between the scattered electron and photon.

Problems 17. A 150,000 eV photon collides with a free electron at rest and scatters at 90. What is the final kinetic energy of the electron? Answer: 34 ker. 18. Derive an expression for the kinetic energy of the recoil electron which has just been Compton scattered, in terms of the initial photon energy hu and the initial and final wavelengths, X, .h of the photon. Answer:

135

J = /IV - - - - -

A;\

A+ A h

where

AX

X. by CI photon of energy

19. An electron traveling with speed hu and is brought to o dead hv of the final photons in MeV. Answer: hu = 0.17MeV; hv

Y = (L )c <stop.

is hit hiead-on

There is a scattered photon which goes back

along the path of the incident photon. Calculate the energy hv of the initial and == 0 . 5 1 1 MeV.

20. A positron of kinetic energy 1 MeV annihilates with an electron at rest. If the resulting two photons have equal energies find the angle between their momenta. Answer: 90.6. 21. A 2 MeV photon creates an electron-positron Answer: pair. If the resulting electron has a kinetic energy of !/4 MeV, what is the kinetic energy of the positron?

0.728

MeV.

22. In the hydrogen atom the light given off when an electron goes from one energy state to another is not quite monochromatic. Estimate the wavelength spread in light given off at close to 6563 Angstroms using the uncertainty principle, if it takes around lo-* place. Answer: 0.001.4 Angstrom. seconds for such a transition between energy states to take

23.

Suppose that the position of an object is to be measured by means of scattering photons from it and observing the single photons

through a microscope. The radius of the obiective lens subtends B at the object. Show that due to the scattering of a photon with momentum hu/c, the Iuncertainty in momentum of the Show object is of order Ap = (hv sin /3)/c.

that in a plane perpendicular to the lens axis, the distance between field maxima for the scattered photon can be T h i s c a n b e tmoken
OS

high CIS Ax = X/sin 8.

as the error in position

measurement of the obiect. Find

AxAp.

6 matter waves
Ilt has already been seen how in some situations electromagnetic field quanta may have particle-like attributes: They carry energy in discrete amounts IE = hu, a n d a r e e m i t t e d a n d a b s o r b e d b y m a t t e r a s t h o u g h t h e y w e r e p a r t i c l e s . When traveling through a slit system, however, they can still behave like waves, in the sense that the probability that a photon will be found at some angle intensity pattern. 0 from its original direction is proportional to the classically calculated diffraction Another remarkable fact of nature is that particles such as electrons, neutrons and others can also display wave-like character under appropriate experimental conditions. Since experimentally it is found that atoms emit light at only discrete frequencies, just as a stretsched string only emits sound waves at a discrete se? of frequencies, it might be expected that a wavelike character of particles would provide the key to an understanding of atomic spectra. Just as the discrete frequencies of a stretched string are due to standing waves on the string, so the discrete frequencies of atomic spectra could be due to standing waves within the atoms. The wavelike properties of particles were postulated by Louis de Broglie in 1924. He was led to this discovery when he noted certain similarities in the properties of particles and waves, under Lorentz transformations. We shall take up the fundamental study of these waves-de Broglie waves-in this chapter. De Broglie assumed that, associated with a particle of speed V, was a wave having some phase speed not equal to c. This phase speed w is related to V by a silnple e q u a t i o n , w h i c h w e s h a l l d e r i v e b e l o w . T h a t a pha!je speed can be associated with a particle in a consistent way depends on some special features of the relativistic Lorentz transformations. Let us begin by examining the transformation properties of plane waves of any kind under Lorentz transformations between inertial frames.

6.1 PHASE OF A PLANE WAVE

A plane wave may be conveniently described in terms of its propagation vector is X, t h e n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n v e c t o r i s d e f i n e d a s a v e c t o r o f m a g n i t u d e far a plane wave is thus normal to

and angular frequency, ~1 = 27rv. I f t h e w a v e l e n g t h i n t h e i n e r t i a l r e s t s y s t e m R 2r/X, pointing in the direction of propagation of the wave. The propagation vector

the wave

fronts.

136

6 . 1 P h a s e o f a plone

wave

137

For a wave propagating along the positive x like wave form has tile wcrve

clxis,

one possible sinusoidal

amplitude, or wave function,

* = Aec!xp[;(zp - 2f)]
where A is CI c o n s t a n t a n d u = w/27r is the frequency. This wovefunction is more simply expressed in terms of the angular frequency w a n d t h e w a v e n u m b e r k =

1k /: $, = & - Wt) (6.2)

The term kx can be written in vector form, since in this case, k is parallel to the x axis. Thus, if r is the position vecior kx = k,x = k,x of some point in space, then + k,y + k,z = k.

(6.3)

because k, := k, = 0. The wavefunction in terms of k . r is (6.4) S i n c e t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s n o w wriitten in terms of vectors, E q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 ) g i v e s the wavefunction no matter what the direction of propagation is. For example, i f t h e w a v e w e r e p r o p a g a t i n g i n ,the x - y p l a n e a t a n a n g l e o f 0 r e l a t i v e t o t h e x axis, then the x and y components of k would be k, = k c o s I), k, = k sin H

(6.5)

S o , i n t e r m s o f k a n d 0, k r := k x c o s 0 + k y s i n 8, a n d t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n w o u l d b e A e x p [i(kx c o s 0 + ky siln 0 - w t ) ] . The function k. r -. wt i s c a l l e d t h e p h a s e o f t h e w a v e ; t h a t i s , t h e p h a s e i s the coefficient of i in the exponent of the wavefunction. If the wave amplitude has a t r i g o n o m e t r i c f o r m s u c h a s $ = A c o s (k. r - cot), t h e n t h e p h a s e i s t h e argument of the trigonometric function. Each time the phase of the wave changes by 27r, the wave amplitude goes through one complete cycle of oscillation. If we fix our attention on a locus of points of constant phase, such crs

k.

r - wt = c o n s t a n t

(6.6)

then, as the time increases, the positions r which satisfy this equation move with a velocity w, called tile phase velocity. These points of constant phase define a wavefront, and hence the phase velocity is just the velocity with which the wave,fronts propagate. The phase speed can be written in terms of k and w b y u s i n g ,the definitions: w = ux 2iTu. x u = -= 27r k Equation (6.6):

This

could

also

be

obtained

by

differentiating k.$=w

(6.8)

138 Matter waves

Since the velocity dr/df t i o n , kw = w. example If, at a fixed point r, the amplitude is observed for 12 periods of oscillation, what is the net change in phase of the wave? SOIU~;O~ T h e p e r i o d i s T = 27r/w; o b s e r v i n g f o r a t i m e At = 1 2 T = 24x/w change of phase A results in a for the wavefront is parallel to the direction of propaga-

(k. r - wt) = -wit = -24x.

If N wavecrests propagate past a given point, this means that the phase has changed by 27rN. Thus we arrive at the main point of the discussion so far: The change in phase of the wave is proportional to, and hence is a measure of, the number of wavecrests which pass a given point.

6.2 INVARIANCE OF THE PHASE OF A PLANE WAVE

A pure sine or cosine wave in an inertial frame R will also appear to be a pure sine or cosine wave in another frame, if the wave amplitude is the solution of a wave equation which is relativistically invariant. We will assume this to be the case. Then, by considering Figure 6.1, it is easy to see that the phase of a p l a n e

Figure wave is o relativistic

6.1.

A plane wave observed in two inertial systems. that is, it has the same numerical value at corre-

invariant;

sponding physical points in all inertial frames. Zeros of the amplitude in F! will appear to be zeros of the amplitude in G, and silmilarly f o r t h e m a x i m a a n d minima. So for every wavefront in R, there will be a w a v e f r o n t i n G . F o r e x ample, suppose the wavefront of zero phase passes the origins 0 and 0 in Figure 6.1 at the instant 0 and 0 coincide. If this wavefront is observed at some later time at position

P(r,t)

in G, which coincides with P(r, t) i n R , t h e n

it will still have zero phase. The same holds for every other plane of constant phase, at any point in space and time. Thus, the phases of the plane wave as observed in the two inertial frames are equal, and the phase is a relativistic invariant. This invariance will allow us to derive some interesting things about the transformation properties of k and W .

6.3 Transformation eqoofi0n.s for wavevector and frequency If

139

= t = 0 when the origins coincide, and the phase in G is

k . r - wf,

the phase in R is can be written as:

k. r

- wt. So in mathematical form tile invariance of the phase

k r -- wt = k. r - wt
This equation reflects the fact that a wavefront, such
OS

(6.9) a maximum of the

wave amplitude, has physical reality, and all observers, can agree on the number of wavecrests which pass by a given physical point. Hence, they can agree on the value of the phase.

~3 TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS FOR WAVEVECTOR AND FREQUENCY

U s e o f t h e i n v a r i a n c e p r o p e r t y , E q u a t i o n (6.9), allows formation equations for us to obtain the trans-

and w in terms of

and w. We first write out the in-

variance equation in more detail, using components of

k:

k,, k,, k,, and of

k: k:

,ki, k: We get k:x + k;y + k;z - - wt = k,x + k,y + k,z - wt (6.10)

This equation is valid for ail

values of the two sets of space and time coordinates a n d t i n t e r m s o f x,y,z and

which refer to the same physical point and which are, therefore, connected by the L o r e n t z tramsformations. I f w e e x p r e s s x,y,z .formations, Equations (3.16) and (3.18): 1 x = --= Y = Y z = z (6.1 1) ljubstitution of these values of x,y,z, k:x + k;y + t into Equation (6.10) gives the result, (x + vi), if, t h e n , s i n c e R m o v e s w i t h s p e e d v r e l a t i v e t o G , w e h a v e t h e L o r e n t z trans-

fi~-i-,y

kjz - ~t =: k,

( x

v t )

+ k,y + k,z

__~ --~

(6:12)

T h i s l a s t e q u a t i o n m u s t n o w b e .true for all values of thatx = y =

x,y,z

and t. For ex-

ample, if we consider an observation on the z axis when the origins coincide so

= 0 w i t h z f 0, the equation reduces to k:z = k,z (6.13)

After cancellation of I,

we obtain k; = k, (6.14)

1 4 0

Matter waves Similarly, by taking x = z = t = 0, y # 0 , w e c a n s h o w t h a t

k; = k,
To obtain k: in terms, of k, and w, we set y = z = 1 = 0 with

(6.15) x un-

equal to zero. We get k:x =

k,x
VT- - v2/c -

wvx/c2
- TTT

(6.16)

(6.17)

Lastly,

using x

= 0 a n d t # 0, we can find w in terms of (r: a n d

k,. The result is

w = +-&=Y~ (w - vkx)
Collecting the four results, we have the transformation equations:

116.18)

k: =
k; = k,

(6.19) (6.20) (6.21) (6.22)

k: = k,

These results were obtained simply by showing that the phase of any

Plane

w a v e , g o i n g w i t h a n y p h a s e s p e e d , h a s t h e s a m e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e i n ail i n e r t i a l frames. In other words, the phase (k . r - w t ) i s a r e l a t i v i s t i c i n v a r i a n t . C o m bining this with the Lorentz transformations, we were led directly to the transformation equations for k and w, by equating coefficients of x, y, z and on both sides of the equation. If we considered these equations in the limiting case of phase speed w = w/k = c, the speed of light, they would lead back to the equations for the Doppler effect for light found in Chapter 4. Equations formation laws (6.19) for throlJgh (6.22) and resemble energy of very a closely the relativistic ,transmomentum particle, which are: t

Px

P: = Pr P: = P.

(6.23)

This

is

very

suggestive

comparison.

6.4 Phsa:;e speed of De Broglie waves

141

.4 PHASE SPEED OF DE BROGUE WAVES

With the transformations in Equations (6.19)-(6.22), ciated a wave which travels along with the particle we as can examine in detail the particle moves, with w

the hypothesis of de Broglie, namely that with each particle there can be assosome phase speed w which may be different from the particle speed V. The transformation equations suggest that the wave vector k and angular frequency might be closely related to the momentum p and energy fact, we will see that if particles have waves sible relations must be of the form p=hk where% is a constant. El/c?, and k is analoE=%w E of the particle. In

associated with them, the only pos-

Let us first derive the relation between phase speed and particle speed. In the a b o v e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e q u a t i o n s , w/c2 is analogous to g o u s t o p . I t w a s p r o v e d e o r l i e r t h a t c~(E/c~)~ ant. In the same way, we could show that ceon be expressed as: (6.24) c(w/c) - p was a relativistic invari- k2 is a r e l a t i v i s t i c i n -

variant or that it has the same value in all inertial frames. Mathematically, this

where C is a constant independent of the inertial frame in which w and k are measured. In the special case of light, which consists of zero re:;t o f t h e i n v a r i a n t , w2/c2 of angular frequency w and wave number particles mass. speed w. H e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e e n e r g y i n t h e w a v e vg = dw/dk, w h i c h w a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e can be calculated using the inwith respect to k. The differentiatling = dw/dk mass particles, the value - k, i s e q u a l t o z e r o . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t w h e n a w o v e k is associated with a material - k2 might be related to the

p a r t i c l e , t h e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e i n v a r i a n t w2/c

De Broglies hypothesis was that, associated with OI particle having speed V, w a s a w o v e h a v i n g phose troveled along with o group speed

porticle speed V. The group speed vg variant expression in Equation result is 2w/c
2 dw

(6.24), b y

dk

2k = 0

(6.25)

Solving for the group speed, we get vg dw =:--=c 2k W dk

Since the phase speed is w = w/k, the group speed in terms of w is

C2

vg

==

(6.27)

142

Matter waves

If we identify the particle speed V with the group speed, then =A w (6.28)

!3 or

WV This relation,
W

= c2

(6.29)

V = ci, i s f o r m i n v a r i a n t , s i n c e i t s d e r i v a t i o n w a s b a s e d o n a

relativistic invariant. Thus, if in another inertial system G the particle speed is V, then upon identifying the group speed dw/dk in G with the particle speed V, o n e w o u l d o b t a i n , b y a n a n a l o g o u s a r g u m e n t , wV = c. Since particle speeds must be less than c, in general the phase speed will be greater than c. Indeed, for particles whose velocities approach zero, the corresponding cause the phase energy speed travels must along approach with the infinity. particle Although speed V, the which phase is speed is greater than the speed of light, this does not contradict special relativity, beidentical with the group speed. The individual wave crests travel with the phase speed, whereas the energy travels with the speed of the envelope of the waves, the group speed. To illustrate the relation between phase and group speeds, imagine the analogy, as in Figure 6.2, of a plane light wave traveling with speed c incident

Figure

6.2.

A plane wave hitting a screen obliquely.

upon a screen at an angle i from the normal. The point of intersection of a wavefront with the screen travels along the screen with a speed w = c/sin i. This speed can approach infinity, ii i a p p r o a c h e s 0 . H o w e v e r , t h e e n e r g y t r a v e l s a l o n g t h e screen only with the speed V = c sin i. Hence, in this example,
WV

= c.

From Equation (6.29) a useful relation between energy, momentum, wavel e n g t h a n d f r e q u e n c y o f a p a r t i c l e c a n b e d e r i v e d . W e k n o w t h a t w = w/k, E =
tllC2,

a n d P = mV. By means of these three relations, we can eliminate w, V a n d

W

cz in

V = c2. The result is (w/k)(p/m)

= E,lm, or (6.30)

w E -=k P

6.5 1.5 PARTICLE INCIDENT ON INTERFACE

The discussion above had to do with arbitrary

Particle incident on inferface

143

particles

(waves)

traveling

through wish to

free space, and we have established that for a wave of phase speed w to be associated with a particle of speed V, it is necessary that W V valid. We can obtain more informiation which the particle (wave) is ncident fractive medium for the wave. This phase speed. As far as the oarticle about p and k by considering a situation in on a piece of material which acts like a rerefraction simply corresponds to a (change in is concerned, the refraction takes place befor potential energy here, since V is used into a metal. Lets first treat the situa-

= c2. Now we

show that relations of the form p = hk and E = hw, where A is a constant, are

cause the new region has a different constant potential energy U t h a n t h e p o tential energy in free space. (\Ne use IJ approximately by letting an electron pass for particle speed.) For electrons, for example, this situation could be realized tion assuming we are dealing with particles. In Figwre 6.3, p, is the incident

Potential v/o

Figure

6.3.

particle

passing from one region of constant potential energy into another

of different potential energy.

momentum at an angle of i from the normal to the surface. The quantity

p2

is

the momentum after the particle passes into the region of constant potential energy, U # 0, at an angle r from the normal. The only force acting on the particle is one acting parallel to the surface normal are to the surface, as the particle passes the surface. to the surface, so the components of In other words, the components of There is no force acting pclrallel

p,

and

p2

equal.

momentum,

in the directions along which no force acts, are conserved. In terms of i a n d r , the angles of inciclence and refraction, this can be written mathematically as pj or sin i = pz sin r (6.31)

P2 -=
Pl

sin i _ sin r

(6.32)

144 Matter waves

6.6 WAVE RELATION AT INTERFACE

Next, let us treat the situation assuming we are dealing with waves. In Figure 6.4, OA is a wavefront in free space, and A travels with speed w,, f r o m A

A wave passing from one medium into another, where the phase speed is Figure 6.4. different, changes direction tly Huyghens principle. to 6 in time Lt. Angles OAB and OCB are right angles, and side OB is common to both triangles. Thus, since angle A06 w,At = O B s i n r and w,Lt = OB s i n be written, by dividing out At and 06, as
w2 -=

= i a n d a n g l e O B C = r, we h a v e

i. T h i s l a t t e r s e t o f e q u a t i o n s c a n

Wl

sin IT -_ sin i

((5.33)

If this result is applied to light waves, it is just Snells law. The derivation is the same as that used in deriving Snells law. Combining the results of Equations (6.32) and (6.33), P2 Pl sin I ; = -_ sin I sin r sin i we can write

(16.34) (6.35)

w2 - _ -

WI

and therefore, PIWl = PZWZ (15.36) potential, the

T h u s , a s t h e p a r t i c l e ( w a v e ) t r a v e l s i n t o t h e r e g i o n o f nonzero product pw remains constant. In terms of suming that the wave amplitude or its

and w,

w = is

wk,

so the product across the

pa/k
surface,

remains constant. Now if a linear boundary condition is assumed, such as asderivative continuous

6.7 De Broglie

relation

145

the frequencies w, a n d wz must be equal; otherwise, the amplitudes would get out of phase and the boundary condition could not be satisfied for all time. Although we do not yet know all the physical laws obeyed by de Broglie waves, it will be seen later that linear boundary conditions do exist and, therefore, the frequency remains thle same. Hence, since pw/k does not change in crossing the surface, the quantity p/k remains the same, or, in terms of p,,p?, k, and

kZ,

PI P2 -=k, k,

6.7 DE BROGUE

RELATION

As the electron moves across an interface between two media, the ratio p/k remains constant. If it tllen unchanged. Since p/k mo,fed into a third medium,

p/k

would still remain un-

changed. Thus, no matter what the speed of the particle is, remains unchanged, we can write: __p whereh (read

p/k

will remain

=hk

de Broglie Relation -I

(6.37)

bar) is a coristant Broglise.

independent of speed. This is precisely the re-

lation assumed by de

Since a general inertial frame of reference was

used, this result is independxent of the frame of reference and should be relativistically invariant. The theoretical discussion does not tell whether A depends on the kind of particle or is a constant independent of particle type. ThIe to this question show must that be the obtained constant by is performing independent experiments of particle on various Experiments type, answer particles.

and1 thus this

J? is the same as that discussed in connection with photons, with (6.38) a universal constant. CJne such experiment is discussed in the next section.

If de Brogiie waves carry momentum relation between energy and f,requency.

= %k, w e c a n d e r i v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g

It was shown that in free space,

w/k =

E/p

[see Equation (6.:30)].

Thus, since

p = hk,

___~
(6.39)

E = hw IIn terms of the frequency, u =: w/2~, E =

de Broglie relation 1 the energy can be written as: 21rtiu = hu

(6.40) comparison of

If E = kw a n d p =: h k in the inertial system R, then from the for

the transformation equations for energy and momentum with the transformations

a n d w i n E q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 1 9 ) t h r o u g h (6.22),

t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n E a n d W

in G must be E = $0 (6.41)

1 4 6

Matter WlJYBS and the relation between p and k must be p = I=,k The de Broglie relations are thus relativistically form-invariant. Finally, if E = Iiw and P = Ak, then the invariant, (6.42)

E2
C2

P2

= m2c2 0

(6.43)

can be used to calculate the unknown constant C in Equation (6.24). The result is

From Equation (6.38),

we see that for electrons the constant m,c/%

is 27r divided

by the Compton wavelength, h/m,c. To summarize briefly the logical arguments leading to de Broglies relations, if a particle has wave-like properties so that a wave of phase speed w is associated with the particle in Free space, then WV = c,, where V is the particle or group speed. If these waves carry energy and momentum, with E = trw and p = .fik, then the transformation laws for k and (I) a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e f o r p a n d E. So, instead of two different sets of transformation equations, there is only one set. Further, all these relations are relativistically form-invariant, provided the constanth has the same value in every other inertial frame.

6.8 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION De Broglie predicted that electrons

OFti behave like waves with a wavelength

would

X = h/p. When these waves enter a crystal with regular lattice spacing, they should scatter and show interference, much as light does on a grating. These m a t t e r w a v e s w e r e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n 1 9 2 7 b y Davisson and Germer, who observed diffraction peaks in a beam of electrons scattered from a Nickel crystal. The experimental arrangement is diagramed in Figure 6.5. The hot cathode F emits electrons which are accelerated through the electron gun, which strike a crystal of Ni and are diffracted back at an angle 4 into a detector. Knowing the accelerating 2-n/X. potential V, one may compute the electrons momentum, and knowing c$ and the lattice spacing of Ni, one may compute the wavelength X, or k = Hence, one can measure the value of h for ellectrons. The positions of the diffraction maxima are determined by constructive interference between waves scattered from different sets of parallel planes within the crystal. This is called Bragg diffraction. w e s h a l l deri,ve the relation between the diffracto the result in Equation (6.48). I n t h e n e x t f e w paragl*aphs,

tion angle $ a n d t h e w a v e l e n g t h X, of the incident electrons. Anyone not interested in the details of this derivation should sk.ip

6.9

Bragg

equation

147

1.

.-.

To golvanometer

Nickel crystal

Figure 6.5.
Dsavisson and

The

experimental

avangement

in

the

electron

diffraction

experiments

of

Germer.

? BRAGG

EQUATION
X, outside the crystal, and let the waveis, in general, inside. different The inside the are They kinetic energy electrons

Let the wavelength of the particles be length crystal, thlen inside the crystal the be X2. hcls The because electron

wavelength

different

incident normally on the crystal surface and pass straight into the crystall.

undergo Bragg diffraction from some set of parallel planes of atoms inside

the crystal (See Figure 6.6). Let 0 be the angle of incidence between the incoming

.
Figure the 6.6. Incident and Davisson-Germer

.
experiment.

reflecte,d

electron beams near the surface of a nickel crystal in

beam and the normal to some set of parallel planes. We will first find the Bragg equation for diffraction maxima. Figure 6.7 is an enlarged picture of a portion of two atomic planes, P, a n d P,. Lines A and B a r e t w o p a r t i c l e w a v e r a y s w h i c h reflect partially at 0, o n p l a n e P, a n d at 0, on plane P,, respectively. For

148

Matter

waves

Figure

6.7.

Beams incident on different partially reflecting parallel planes interfere due

to different path lengths. the two reflected rays t o a d d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , t h e p a t h d i f f e r e n c e , QO,S, rays O2 tance, must or QO,S Then the Bragg condition is 2d cos = 2d cos 0 0 = nX?, n =: 1,2,. . . (6.44) be an integral number is n times the wavelength X,. 0, Q, the distance 001 of the

From triangle

cos 8. The path difference is then twice this dis-

The most intense diffraction peaks will occur due to reflections from planes rich in atoms. It is found that the dominant diffraction comes from the planes indicated in the diagram of Figure 6.6, where the dots indicate lines normal to the paper containing nickel atoms. The distance packing in the diagram is diffracting planes can be expressed in terms of the D between planes of densest distance D between atoms in D = 2.15 Angstroms for nickel. The spacing between

the crystal, For the two parallel planes in the diagram, in terms of 0,

Dsin6

(6.45)

Therefore, for Bragg diffraction, in terms of sin 28), I-IX,

a n d t h e a n g l e 28 (2 cos 0 sin 0 = (6.46)

= D sin 28

6.10 DIFFRACTION OF ELECTRONS

The diffracted electrons come back toward the crystal surface; their anglse of incidence on the surface ils i = 20, and their angle of refraction is 4, the angle of o b s e r v a t i o n , a s s h o w n In Figure 6.8. From Equation (6.33), there will be CI w a v e length change when the electrons pass back into the free-space region. Since the frequency does not change, from Snells law, sin 4 -=sin 28 W?
Wl

XIV -c--z

A,
x2

bu

(6.47)

1 4 9

Fllgure and the

6.8.

W h e n t h e e l e c t r o n wove e x i t s f r o m t h e c r y s t a l ,

Its a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e i s 2 6

angle of refraction is 6, the angle of observation. we obtain (6.48)

Eliminating A, and 0 from equations (6.46) and (6.47), nX, = D sin4

E q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 8 ) c a n b e usecl to e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e t h e w a v e l e n g t h . T h e quantity incident this A, is the wavelength outside the crystal, i.e. it is the wavelength of the electrons. The angle #J is the angle of observation of the diffracted elec-

tron beam and n, which is the order of the diffraction peak, will be equal to 1 in case. In Figure 6.9 are the experimental results. The intensity is plotted for various accelerating voltages V (in volts) in polar coordinates. It is seen that a diffraction

4ov
Filgure beam 6.9. at

44v
Curves, plotted of different angles

48V
in polar scattering.

54v
coordinates, showing

60V
the intensity

64V
of the scattered

68V

maximum occurs when V = 5 4 v o l t s a n d $J = 50. These results may be used to c a l c u l a t e t h e c o n s t a n t , 27rIi. The lattice spacing D of nickel is known from x-ray diffraction analysis to be 2.15 Angstroms. Taking n = 1 in Equation (6.48) for the first order maximum, we find for the wavelength: A, := 1.65 x lo- meters (6.49)

150 Matter waves Next we calculate the momentum, knowing that the accelerating potential was 54 V. So the electrons energy was 54 eV, which is much smaller than the rest energy. Hence, we can use the nonrelativistic kinetic energy change to find the momentum: p2m0 Using e = 1.6 x = eV, or p = GoeV (6.50)

lo-l9 coul, m,, = 9.1 1 X: 1 O-3 kg, the result is: p = 3 . 9 7 x 10~m24 k g m/set (6.5 1) 2rli/X o r

T h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f 2~h for this case is obtained from p = hk = Xp = 2xh, a n d w e f i n d : 2ah = = (3.97 6.55 x lo-) x ( 1 . 6 5 x lo-) i-set

x 10-34i-sec

(6.52) we

Within experimental accuracy this value of 27rfi is equal to the value of 2x5

w o u l d h a v e o b t a i n e d i f w e w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h p h o t o n s w h e r e Xp = h, Plancks constant. In their original experiment, Dovisson and Germer observed about 30 diffraction peaks under varying conditions of detector orientation and incident electron energy; these experiments, as Thus, nature h. appears and Hence, to be such there in that is terms well OS others using neutrons, protons, of several constants constant, relating Plancks electrons, etc., show the same numerical value for 27rA as we obtaineol here. instead only of one momentum constant wavelength, universal

experimentally, 2rh
i

Plancks

constant, (6.53)

Plancks constant --___

In fact, usually%

is defined as an abbreviation for the symbol h/2r. of an electron can be computed from the de

In terms of h, the wt3velength

Broglie relation, X = h/p, just as for a photon.

exomp/e

1. A particle has III mass of 1 kg and a speed of 30 m/set, about like a softball. What is the wavelength of the de Broglie wave associated with the particle?

dJiiOll

The

momentum

i s mv = 3 0

kg-m/set. T h e n

the

wavelength,

using

6 . 6 3 x 1Om34

i-set, i s X = % = 2 . 6 1 x 10e3 m e t e r s

A wavel engt h as small as 1O-34 meters could never be measured in a direct experiment because the smallest diffraction gratings available are crystals, which have a grating space of about lo- example 2. Neutrons have a mass of 1.675 x length of such a thermal neutron? meters. 1O.-27 kg. Slow neutrons coming out of a What is the wave-

nuclear reactor have kinetic energies of about T = 0.0466 eV.

Superposition of two photographs of diffraction patterns produced by beoms of particles passing through polycrystolline oluminum. Figure 6.10. The upper half of the photograph is the pattern produced by diffraction of a monoenergetic electron beam; the lower half is the pattern produced by x rays. The appearance of diffraction rings of similar radius is a direct demonstration of the wave nature of electrons. The slight discrepancies in the radii of the rings results from the use of electrons and x rays of different wavelengths.

152 Motfer waves

so/ution The nonrelativistic expression for kinetic energy may be used, hence p =

2/2moT = 5 . 0 0

x 1 O- i-sec. Then x = + = 1.33A

This wavelength is comparable to crystal atom spacings, and could therefore be observed.

6.11 UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR PARTICLES

We have seen how particles of energy E and momentum p have associated with t h e m w a v e s o f f r e q u e n c y v a n d w a v e l e n g t h X. Hence, one could measure the energy of a particle by measuring u, or one could measure p by measuring X. W h e n w e d i s c u s s e d l i g h t w a v e s e a r l i e r , w e s a w t h a t i n a s i n g l e measurelnent w h i c h l a s t e d o v e r a t i m e At, a n i n e v i t a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y Sv in the measured frequency would be present. This uncertainty was such that, to within an order of magnitude, Avat N 1. Since E = hv, in terms of the uncertainty of energy, AEat N AE, the product of AE a n d at must be terval ilx, the uncertainty in momentum LIP

h.

Similarly, for a measure-

ment of momentum in a single measurement which takes place over a spatial infor a light wave is given by

(15.54)
These considerations were based principally on the wave nature of light and did not depend on the wave speed. In a similar way, particles have de Broglie w a v e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m , w i t h e n e r g y r e l a t e d t o f r e q u e n c y , a n d momentum related to wavelength in just the same way as for light. So we would expect an uncertainty principle for matter waves similar to that for light.

6.12 UNCERTAINTY AND SIINGLE-SLIT

DIFFRACTION

Due to their wavelike nature, particles can undergo diffraction. To illustrate the uncertainty principle for particles, imagine, for example, a beam of particles represented by a plane wave propagating in the +x direction, as in Figure 6.1 1.

--X

-+i

Figure

6.1 1.

A beam of particles traveling in the x direction is represented by a plane

wave propagating in the x direction.

6.12

Uncertainty

and

sing/e-s/it

diffraction

153

In this plane wave, the amplitude or wavefunction, by definition, does not depend on y or z, so tile particles in the wave all have y components of momenta equal to zero. However, since the wavefunction does not depend on y, one knows nothing about the y coordinates of the particles. There is just as likely to be a particle at y = + 1 lm as at y =: O m . So if the uncertainty in the y positilon 0, so the uncertainty in y momentum is ApY = 0. of the particle is Ay, Ay =: r . The y momentum, however, is definitely known: pY = Let us imagine making a measurement of y position. This we could do by putting a slit of width a in the path of the beam of particles, as in Figure 6.12. Then

Figure 6.12.

A slit placed in the path of the particle beom causes the particles passing

through the slit to have their y positions measured to an accuracy of Ay z the slit width. only those particles will get through whose y positions are somewhere inside the slit. Thus, all particles passing through have had their y coordinates measured to within an accuracy equal to a, the width of the slit. For these particles, the uncertainty Ay is then roughly, Ay e a On passing through the slit, the particles will be diffracted due to

(6.55)
their

wavelike character. Experimentally, it is found that upon using a beam of many electrons, a single-slit diffraction peak is observed which has the same form as that observed for light. Mor#t of the particles will go into the central diffraction Thus, in order to account for the particles going peak as illustrated in Figure tj.13.

other than in the straightforward direction, we must assume that the particles will have acquired some indefinite amount of y momentum in passing through the slit. To make a rough estirnate of the uncertainty in this momentum, Apv, let us assume that all

the

particles go into the central diffraction peak. Then the Apr in y momentum. From the dia-

maximum magnitude of the momentum pr, such that a particle goes into this region, is roughly equal to the uncertainty gram, if p = lows that, in terms of 0, h/X, a n d /I is the position of the first diffraction minimum, it fol-

and so,

Apv

h sin 19

(6.57)

154

Matter

waves

Figure

6.113.

fraction pattern.

beam of particles passing t h r o u g h a s l i t g i v e s r i s e t o a s i n g l e - s l i t d i f -

But from the study of single-slit diffraction, it is known that the first minimum occurs at Vi X = a sin 19 or a = x . 2 sin ti

diffrac:tion

(6.58)

Thus, combining this result with Equation (6.57),

we find that

Since a is the uncertainty in y position, a = Ay, we obtain the following rough uncertainty relation:

which is of the order of magnitude of Ii. In this hypothetical measurement of y position of a particle, an uncertainty in y momentum is introduced by the measurement process. More rigorous calculations show that the correci uncertainty relation is

In general, it can be shown that there is one such relation for each coordinate of a particle, so we also have for the uncertainties, LIP. a n d AZ, the relation ap, nz ;> % A, and similarly for Apx a n d LIX. As in the uncertainty principle mognifor light, the uncertaintier,, Ax, Ap,, etc. are defined to be the root mean square deviations from the mean. In our discussion above we used only order of t u d e v a l u e s f o r ay a n d Lip,. Analyses of other kinds of measurements always show that there are uncertainties in momentum and position connected by the above relations.

6.14

Energy-time

uncertainty

155

13 UNCERTAINTY IN BALANCIING

AN OBJECT

To illustrate one effeci of the uncertainty principle, consider the problem of bala n c i n g a n icepick on its point. Let the icepick b e a n itdeal icepick, one c o n s i s t i n g o f a C are single particle of mass m concentrated at the position of the center of mass of the w i t h i t s p o i n t a d i s t a n c e ! a w a y . ( R e a s o n a b l e v a l u e s f o r m alnd to balance the icepick ,m = 100 g, and 4 = 20 cm.) C:lassically, one has to place

,the particle exactly a b o v e t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t o f t h e p o i n t w i t h t h e t a b l e t o p , and one also has to place the particle at rest. If the particle is not at rest, the icepick will fall over because of the initial velocity. If the particle is n o t e x a c t l y over the point of contact, gravity will make it fall over. This means that to balance an icepick, both the position and momentum of the particle must be exactly determined. However, according to the uncertainty principle, both the position and the momentum cannot be determined precisely at the same time, so if the position of the particle is such that the particle lies exactly over the point, then Ap z h/2Ax E ti/O. The uncertainty in momentum of the particle will become v e r y l a r g e ; a n d h e n c e t h e mc~mentum will likely be large, so the icepick will fall fall over. (See Figure 6.14.) Thus, it is \x\P,zh (falls) over. If the particle is exactly at rest, then the position of the particle is undetermined, so gravity will make the icepick
.\x 0 l I)

IP, 0 (balance)

il /

..

-X

Figure 6.14. The uncertainty prlnmciple implies that an icepick cannot be balanced on its point, for both position and momentum of the center of moss would then have to be clefinitely known, which contradicis the uncertainty principle. on its point! It is not too hard to c:alculate on its poinit if one it is approximately

impossible to balance an icepick starts with the smallest possibl:z

roughly the average time one c:an expect to keep the icepick

AxAp;

or about 5 seconds with the reasonable choice of 4 a n d m g i v e n a b o v e ( s e e Problem 6.15).

4 ENERGY-TIME UNCEiRTAINTY
It is also ordinarily true for particles, as well as for light waves, that AEAt u ft. One way to interpret this is as follows. Suppose a wavetrain, illustrated in Figure

1 5 6 Matter WoeS

-- -__ Af-------Figure 6.15. Amplitude of 01 wove train passing on observer in time At.

6.15, passes the position of the observer, and that the wave train lasts for since it lasts only for o bite by

a time

At. Then it is impossible to associate a d e f i n i t e f r e q u e n c y w i t h t h a t w a v e t r a i n , time. The train can be thought of as a superposition of woves of many frequencies and the spread in frequencies AU is roughly given

AvAt

N 1/27r. Since the corresponding spread in energies is

SE

hAu,
If the

then to within an order of magnitude, actions may sometimes be thought of mesons exist only for a time 10mz3
OS

AEAt

v h. For example, nuclear intermesons.

due to an exchange of 7r

set, then for

AEAt

zz

ii/2,

the uncertainty

in their energy would be roughly 5

x lo- ioules, o r i n e l e c t r o n v o l t s ,

3
example

x 10eV. m moves at about lo3 m/set,

If a hydrogen atom with a diameter of about lo-

considered as a wave train, it takes about lo-l3 set t o p a s s b y a n o b s e r v e r ; t h e n the spread in frequencies of the wave tram is in order of magnitude about lOI set -. The uncertainty in energy __ 1 o-l3 is = roughly, 1 o-34 ~ zz 1 o-l3 1 Oe2 joules

ti

In electron volts, this uncertainty in energy is lo-/l.6

lo-l9

= 0.006 eV.

This uncertainty may be compared to the average thermal energy of an atom in a gas of hydrogen atoms at room temperature, around 293 K, which is ksl, w i t h ka = 1 . 3 8 x 1O-23 j/K. The uncertainties are about the same to within an order of magnitude.

6.15 PROBABILITY INTERPIRETATION

OF WAVE FUNCTIONS
wavefunc-

Since particles have waves associated with them, one might expect a tion #to

exist which could be used to describe whatever quantity it is in o particle

which is wavelike. One should be able to describe such phenomena as diffraction through a slit in terms of this wave function. If one performs a single slit diffraction experiment with a beam of electrons, in which the intensity of the beam is so low that only one electron should go through the slit system at a

6.15 Probability interpretafion of wove funcfions

time, then the directions. Thus, electrolls as they pass through seem to go randomly in various it appears that we cannot predict exactly where any one elec-

157

tron will go. However, it is folJnd experimentally that after observing many elect r o n s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h which just proportional to the calculated they go into some small range of directions is diffraction intensity for waves. For lighlt waves,

the same thing happened; the diffraction intensity was found experimentally to be proportional to thle probability of finding a photon in the small range of angles. In that case, if $ is .the w a v e f u n c t i o n d e s c r i b i r i g t h e l i g h t w a v e a t t h e screen, the intensity is proportional to 1rl/ / . It is thus natural to assume that for a p a r t i c l e t h e r e e x i s t s a w a v e f u n c t i o n # s u c h t h a t ( 4 , is propo&onal to the probability of finding a particle near a point. 1 G(O) ) times some Thus, one cannot predict the position of any one particle, but with the wave a m p l i t u d e , $, o n e c a n s a y t h a t t h e s q u a r e d m a g n i t u d e ing a particle in the range of Ipositions ,probabi/ity Suppose we had a Idouble tion point P a t ht range d6 o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e d is proportional to the probability of finddo. Therefore, II/ for particles is called a amplitude. No better interpretation has ever been found for #. set up so that, as in Figure 6.16 at the observa19, the probability amplitude for finding a particle is $, w h e n

I
I I

,-~:;-~,-~------- -- --...------ p ----:'1---6-11

Figure 6.16.

Wavefunctions $, and $2 from two sources add at P.

slit 1 only is open, and #2 when slit 2 only is open. When both slits are open, it is observed experimentally that if the beam intensity is high, so that there are Inany particles incident on the slits, then the usual double-slit intensity pattern is seen. If the beam intensity iz, so low that only one particle at a time can go through the slits, then the individual particles passing through go off in various directions. However, after ob,;erving for a long time, it is found that the probability with which they go into some range of directions dB is just proportional to the calculated diffraction intensity for waves. We may conclude that these waves obey Huygens principle, and that they obey the principle of superposition. Then to explain mathematically the double-slit diffraction pattern which is actually observed when both slits are opened, the total probability amplitude at P must be

$ = $1 + $2

(6.24)

1 5 8 M a t t e r waves and the probability for finding a particle in p r o p o r t i o n a l t o 1$1 + $1 / do. I f w e a m p l i t u d e G(x) wavefunction marizing the can be used of to the calculate will be, in terms of $1 a n d #?, a wavefunction density, so the or that probability the probSumprop-

d0

have

which is a function of the single position variable x, then the the $ probability which

ability of finding a particle in the range dx will he given by 1 IJ 1 dx. properties wavefunction describes wavelike erties of (3 particle, we can say: (1) The wavefunction b)(x) is called a

probability amplitude because the obso-

l u t e m a g n i t u d e s q u a r e d o f t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n 1#i(x) / , times the differential dx, is proportional to the probability of finding a particle within the range of coordinates dx. (2) The probability amplitude obeys the principle of superposition: e.g., if $1 (x) and $2(x) are the wavefunctions when slit 1 only is open and when and the probability of finding a slit 2 only is open, respectively, then when both slits are open, the wavef u n c t i o n i s t h e s u m $1 ( x ) + $2(x), particle in dx is proportional to

I #I(X) + b(x) I dx
6.16 EIGENFUNCTIONS OF ENERGY AND MOMENTUM OPERATORS

Since particles have wavelike character, in effect, it is possible for a particle to go through both slits of a double slit system, and interfere with itself in doing so. This is a type of behavior which is impossible to explain on the basis of simple mechanical laws of the type, which describes the behavior

F
of

= dp/dt. these

Therefore, we must find an equation waves. This equation should be

probability

a wave equation of some kind, but in situations where ti can be considered to be negligibly small, it shoulcl on predict the same results as ordinary mechanics based criteria that the wave equation must satisfy, which will

= dp/dt. are a

We shall now discuss this wave equation. number of

There

give us some clues as t o w h a t f o r m t h e e q u a t i o n m u s t h a v e . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e equation must be consistent with the previously discussed wave properties of particles moving through free space and passing into a refractive medium. Also, it must agree with Newtonian mechanics in some limit. We will obtain the wave equation by analogy wittl the equations of motion of ordinary mechanics. Let us first try to find o wavefunction # which corresponds to a beam of particles of exactly known momentum. This function will be called a momentum eigenfunction, and the corresponding value of momentum will be callecl t h e momentum eigenvalue.

Thus,

consider a wavefunction describing a beam of :zero;

particles which are traveling with exactly known momentum in the positive x direction. In this hypothetical situation, the uncertainty in x momentum is so by the uncertainty principle, the uncertainty Ax in the x positions of the particles is infinite. Hence, the particles are spread out all along the x axis. If there are no spatial boundary conditions such as reflecting walls, which could rnake

6.16 Eigenfunctions
some x coordinates Ipreferred tribution of particles along the

of energy and momentvn~

operators

159

over others, and if the particle beam is prepared then there should be a completely uniform disx axis. Thus, the particles must be distributed with

so that it is of uniform interlslity,

e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y e v e r y w h e r e a l o n g t h e x a x i s , a n d t h e s q u a r e o f t h e wavefunction, / #(x,t) 1 2, must te a constant, independent of x. could not be of the form of a sine or t) 1 2 would be a varying function of x. HowThis means, for example, that #(x,t) cosine function, because then / #(x, ever, $(x,

t) could be of a complex exponential form, say:

,$ = Ae+()

where A is a constant. This satisfies is to describe a wave with phclse phase @(x, t) must be of the form: @(x,t)

11+1=

IAl =: constant. If this function

speed w traveling in the positive x direction, the

f ( x

- wt)

(6.61)

where, so far, f is some arbitrary function. Therefore,

$ = Ae(-)

We also know that the particle speed must be equal to the group speed of this wave. Then, if the function group speed, was derived $ corresponds to an exactly known group speed, the for for a packet of sinusoidal waves grouped closely becomes exact momentum will be known exactly. In Chapter 1 the expression vg = dw/dk, about a central frequency, Y =z: w/27r. The expression vII = do/dk

in the limit as the frequency spread approaches zero. Hence, for a packet of known momentum, we need to consider a wave of definite frequency, but with z e r o f r e q u e n c y s p r e a d . A p h a s e f ( x - wf) = k x - wt = 27r(x/X - vf) w o u l d then correspond to an exactly known group speed and hence to an exactly known momentum. Let us check that this group speed is correct. Since kj2 is a constant, using E = fiw, p = hk, we h a v e dw kc2 hkc2 pc2 mVc2 -=,=~=~= 2 dk hw E IllC _ V - k c
2 2

for a particle with energy mc and momentum mV. T h e w a v e f u n c t i o n t h e n t a k e s the form: ,$ =

Ael(kx--Yf)

(6.64)

Since the connection between momentum and wavelength is that between energy land frequency is .f = hv, written in terms of momentum p and energy E as follows: $ or $ =
A~~(P~-E~)F

= ill/X, a n d

the above wavefunction could be

= Ae

,(2*/h)(

px - Ef)

(6.65) (6.66)
in the known.

T h i s w a v e f u n c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a w a v e o f d e f i n i t e w a v e l e n g t h , travelilng x direction, which means that the x component of momentum is definitely

160

Matter

waves satisfies all the requirements for probability interpretation-

W e s e e t h a t t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $ = Ae(pxmE) ,wavefunction of this form can have the

it to represent a beam of particles of definite x momentum. Only a complex correct t h a t 1 $ 1 is a constant representing particles whose positions are completely wnknown. Also, the frequency is definite, which means that the particle velocity V, which equals the group speed vg , has a definite value.

6.17

EXPECTATION In practice,

VALUES will

FOR

MOMENTUM consist of

IN

PARTICLE of perhaps

BEAM many different

waves

usually

superpositions

frequencies, and hence many different momenta. We might be interested in the average value, or expectation value, of the momentum. To see how this may be calculated, suppose there were two sources of partic:les, 1

Source 1

r------

as in Figure 6.17, each

- P,

-X

Source 2

Figure 6.17.

Considerotion of the superposition of two beams of particles of different

-I c
1 of

- P,

momenta gives rise to differential operators representing observable physical quantities. producing uniform beams traveling in the x direction, with $, t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n from source 1 when source 2 is off, and $2 the wavefunction from source 2 when source 1 is off. Then the tcstal is, by the principle wavefunction I,LJ~ when both sources 1 and 2 are on superposition, #r = $1 + .G2 (68.67)

The probability of finding a particle in dx with both sources turned on would be equal to / $1 + $2 I dx This interpretation must still be valid, even when the sources do not produce electron beams of the same momentum. So let us assume the individual wavefunctions are:
,$, = ,qe*~:~l~-E,)fi, $2 = A2e(P2x-E2)/h

(6.68)

w h e r e A, a n d larly, 1 AZ I dx

A2 are constants. Then 1 Al / 2dx

would be the probability of Simiin dx

finding a particle of momentum p, in dx when source 2 is turned off. is the probability of finding a particle of momentum

p2

6.17 Expectation values for momentum in o

porficle

beom

161

when source 1 is turned off. The total probability of finding a particle in some i n t e r v a l 0 5 x < L when both sources are on would be proportional to

Jl$, +

$2 I

2dX =

&/XI I$1 I 2 +

I#2 I

2 +

+:+2 +

+GIcII)

(6.69)

In this expression, the asterisks mean complex conjugates. grals one at a time. In calculating ) 1c/, ) , b e c a u s e 1 ei(plx-Er)h 1 = 1, S o , [dx 1 $1 1 = 1 A, I 2L

Consider these inte-

all the x and t dependence goes out,

(6.70)

Similarly,

-1

.I 0
However, when calculating an,

dx / $2 / 2 = I integral like:

A2

/ L

(6.71)

1 J
0

dx#;rl2 = j-&,A,kA2exp (-PI + h

p,
considerations

p2)+

+ tE1 ;

E2)f

(6.72)

if we assume I to be large and oscillate so that on the average with the general here. Then, for large L, we have:

is not equal to ~2, t h e n t h e e x p o n e n t i a l w i l l (This is in agreement

the x integral will be zero.

in Appendix 2.) We shall assume this happens

(6.73)
Thus the total probability of finding a particle in the interval 0 5 x equal to o 1 yj,/ 2dx = L( 1 AI / + 1 A2 / ) s I I is

(6.74)

This is just the sum of the probabilities for finding particles of the two momenta in the interval, as we might have expected. S i n c e ( A , ( 2 is the probability of finding a particle of momentum pr i n t h e
I i n t e r v a l , a n d 1 A2 / S t h e prtobability

of finding a particle of momentum or expectation value, of the

p2

in of

the

interval,

then

the

average

value,

momentum

this beam of electrons should be:

PI 1 Al 1 I + p2 1 AZ L

( P )

=:

(6.75)

/ A, / 2L + / A2 / 2L

In the above expression, the factors L all cancel out, so the expectation value of momentum reduces to

PI I AI 12 +
() independent of the imerval = 1A, 12 +

p2 /

A2 I :

1 A? 1 2

considered, provided it is sufficiently large.

162

Matter

waves

6.18 OPERATOR FORMALISM FOR CALCULATION OF MOMENTUM EXPECTATION VALUES

Now we shall demonstrate a simple formal way to calculate expectation values w h i c h a g r e e w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i o n i n E q u a t i o n (6.76), u s i n g t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $. Consider the wavefunction $, , which has a definite momentum p, . terentiate the exponential function to x, keeping t constant. Since for any constant a, we have (6.77) it follows that (6.78) We may write this last equation as Let us dif$, = A, e x p [i( p,x - Elt)/h] with respect

4 ~;w,t) = Pl$lb,f)

(6.79)

T h e c o n s t a n t s h / i , m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e x d e r i v a t i v e o f #, have the effect of multiplying $ by a number equal to the x component of momentum. If ; $ #, =

p,$,, w h e r e pl h a s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e f o r a l l v a l u e s o f x a n d f, t h e n w e c a n s a y t h a t t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a s t a t e o f d e f i n i t e m o m e n tum. If the effect of the differential operator (h/i)(r3/ax) mentum had the value p,. The operator (ii/i)(d/dx) is ordinarily called the p. operator, or momentum eigenfunction of the momentum operator, or pXoP. times the same operator. example The When this operator acts on a function and gives a constant is called an eigenvalue. pX,,, a n d w h a t a r e t h e ix/L); (c) ICC = on the wavefunction were to give something other than p, $, , then we could not say that the x mo-

function, the function is called an

constant

Which of the following functions are eigenfunctions of corresponding eigenvalues? (a) IF/0 = In(x/L).

sin kx; (b) $b := exp(-6rr

solution

Only

It/b

is

momentum

eigenfunction:

so t h e e i g e n v a l u e i s pb = -67&/L. II/. a n d d/b are riot eigenfunctions, because when differentiated they do not yield a constant times the same wavefunction: A ;I$. -_-= ; ,3x iik - c o s k x # const. x #a i

6.78 Operator formalism for cch~lotion

of momentum expecfation values

163

3 arCc --_= 1
i ax

const.

X +<

T h e e i g e n v a l u e s p. a n d pb corresponding to #. a n d $,b therefore, do not exist. In the case of Figure 6.17, with superimposed beams of different momenta, if the momentum operator acts cm the total wavefunction, + Aze(P2-b)fi (6.80)

rF/T := 11, +

ic/2 = A,e8(P~X-Eli/k times tiT;

then it does not give just a nulnber

instead, the effect is:

Hence $1 + $2 is not a momentum eigenfunction. Now, multiplying the above equation on the left by #: and integrating from 0 to 1, we get:

(6.82)
When we integrate over some large length I, the righthand side of this equation has two terms which average to zero, because if oidally with changing x. p, ti p2, t h e y oscillate sinusThen the remaining two terms give:

L J0
W:P..,& = we have: L(P, 1A, 1 2 +
~21

A21 1

Thus, from Equation (6.26),

L J0 dx#:pxop tir -~ t dx$: $r */ 0

expectation values may be written would still hold if the .totaI

PI

1 A, 1 +

~2

1A, / + /

I I -__2
A2 A2

I2

(6.84)

T h i s i s j u s t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f m o m e n t u m g i v e n iln Equation (6.76). Thus, concisely in terms of operators. The procedure w a v e f u n c t i o n $ were a superposition of many moi n t h e i n t e r v a l 0 < x I L is:

m e n t a r a t h e r t h a n just two. Thus, in general, the average x component of momentum per particle for pclrticles

(6.85)

164

Matter

waves

6.19 ENERGY OPERATOR AND EXPECTATION VALUES

Energy eigenfunctions con be discussed in a similar way. The wavefunction $ = exp(ipx get: (6.86) This equation could be written as: -

iEt)/h

is

wavefunction

representing

particles

of

definite

known

energy. On differentiating partially with respect to time, keeping x constant, we

ih&$ = E#
Since this is true for all x and tion. It would be:

(6.87) particles of definite

t,

the

wavefunction rlepresents

energy E. We could define an energy operator on the basis of the above qequa-

E,, = ih -!at
A function is said to be an eigenfunction of an operator if the effect of the operator acting on the function is to give a constant-the eigenvalue-multiplying the function. An eigenfunction of the energy operator
Ae -iEt/k.

jhd/at

would be

Just as an expectation value of momentum could be written in terms of momentum operators, so can an expectation value of energy be written in terms of E,,. The expectation value of energy for particles in the region 0 5 x 2 I w h e n L is large, if the wavefunction is I,L and the energy operator is ii%/&, is given by:

(6.89)

Clearly, if # is an eigenrtate of the energy operator, then the expectation value of E is equal to the corresponding eigenvalue. An expression such as (6.89) can be interpreted in terms of probabilities; if P(x)dx i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g a particle in dx, then the average of some property f(x) is just

(f) = hx)fWx --p&c

In this case, -/P(x)dx #*fo,*. These some is analogous to J+*$dx, Also, if f(x) is represented by some operator f,,, t h e n P(x)f(x) rules for computation (For of expectation f.,($*$) values of a be

(6.90)

so P(x) is analogous to g*#. is analogous to quantity have

physical

s h o w n t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f q u a n t i t i e s $*f,,$ other combination, example,

should be used rather than incorrect.)

would

6.20 Schrodinger equation

We have defined differential operators for momentum and energy, given by Equations (6.79) and (6.88). .Similarly, for y and z components of momentum, we could write: P In summary, when an

165

YCP

--. zz tla
acting

i ay'
on

P
a

zT

=_A

i a2
has the effect of multiplying

operator

function

that function by a constant, this constant is said to be the eigenvalue of the operator, and the function is said to be an eigenfunction of the operator. The wavefunction e+(~~~~)~ represents a beam of particles of definitely known momentum pX, and definitely known energy E. It is also an eigenfunction of the operators pxop a n d E,,,. The eigenvalues are just the physical volues of the momentum and energy, respectively, for this particular beam of particles. value When the wavefunction is not an eigenfunction of lated in terms of EqLlations are important, becaur,e values.

P,~,~, the expectati#on

( a v e r a g e v a l u e ) o f the x component of momentum may conveniently be calcu(6.85) and (6.89). These mathematical expressions more interested in particles there are many times when we

not having definite momentum or energy. Then the operators allow us to compute expectation

20 SCHRijDlNGER

EQUATION

Now that the energy and momentum operators have been introduced, we can a t t e m p t t o f i n d a wave with a constant potential equation that the wave function of a particle should CI number of regions separated by parallel planes in each region. If a particle moves perpendicuenergy satisfy. Suppose we consider

lar to the separating planes, we need consider only the dimension parallel to the particles motion. Calling this the x direction, we then have the potential energy graph shown in Figure 6.18, where regions I, II, III are the constant po-

Figure

6.18.

Graph of a poterltial energy curve which consists of a number of constant

potentiol energy regions. tential energy regions. In any of these regions, it should be possible to have a wavefunction which is a momentum and an energy eigenfunction. ,terms of momentum pA and energy ET, That is, in

166 Matter waves In the expression for # we have now written ET for energy to imply total energy including rest energy. Thus, Er = moc2 + E.. w h e r e E is the part of the energy wavenot including rest energy. That is, for low-energy particles, E is the total energy in the nonrelativistic sense, kinetic energy plus potential energy. Let a function be written in the form I+& = #(x,t) use #(x,t) exp (-imoc2t/h). It is convenient to

here instead of &, because then the rest energy need not be con$r gives:

sidered explicitly. This is ordinarily done in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. The energy operator acting on

;f, f$ = (f, f$ +

mOcz$)exp (w)

( E

m0cz)$exp(T2) (6.93)

After cancellation of the terms in m,,c2 a n d t h e p h a s e f a c t o r the above equation can tie written as:

exp(-im,,ct/Ii),

w iA;)+=E$
S i n c e i?i Cl/at I& a/at relativistic total energy, ;)I a/nf = E,,.

(15.94)

a c t i n g o n #T i s t h e o p e r a t o r f o r t o t a l e n e r g y , t h e o p e r a t o r

acting on # can be interpreted as the operator corresponding to the non-

Now we are in a position to obtain a nonrelativistic wave equation. A wave function $ which is an eigenfunction of pXoP a n d Eop, w i t h e i g e n v a l u e s pX a n d

E,

is given by ,J = ~~h-x~-Ef)fi ((5.95)

It should therefore be p,ossible course,

to find a solution of this form, of the general

wave equation, in each region of constant potential energy (Figure 6.18). Of

p.

varies from region to region, while E must remain constant if energy relationship between pX, E and V for a particle

is conserved. The nonrelc3tivistic of mass m is

We shall assume that thi!, same relationship holds in quantum mechanics if V is constant. Using pX,, a n d E,,, a lationship for the wavefunction of differential Equation equation (6.95) is: which leads to this re-

(6.97) or writing out the differerltial operators in full,

tr2 a* + v+ = ;j-y II/ 2 m ax2 sat

(6.98)

6.2 7 Schrodinger equation for vorioble pofenfiol

167

Here

the

operator

means that the function upon which this operator acts

is differentiated partially twice with respect to x:

& 2$ f ti ax 0
2

(6.99)

Thus,

for

example, -(h-1. - ) a 1 2 e%uh =

2

2mo \I
Suppose next that # were

ax
ok

_Px _ i 2m0 1

ew/~

combination of energy-momentum

eigenfunctions,

corresponding to different energies E,, such as (6.101)

E a c h o n d e v e r y terln i n Equation (6.98), in the

ttiis,

superposition satisfies the differential equation, potential energy region, provided

constant

(6.102)

Therefore, tial energy

any

wavefunction should

describing satisfy the

motion

of

particle

in

constant (6.98).

poten-

region

differential

equation,

Equation

.2 1 SCHRiiDlNGER
We shall assume

EQUATIOIN FOR VARIABLE POTENTIAL

that for a continuously variable potential energy, V(x), the dif-

ferential equation still holds. This is reasonable but not Irigorous, since in a certain sense, a continuous potential energy can be thought of as a large number of narrow constant potential energy regions.

In three dimensions,, the relation between energy and momentum is:

& + v := & (pZ + p; + pf) -t v = E

By the same line of argument which led to Equation (6.98), tion arising from this would tie: the differential equa-

(6.104) or

Schrodinger equation

(6.105)

This is called the Schrodinger

equation, after Erwin Schrodinger who first pro-

posed it. While our discussion rnakes Equation (6.105) appear to be a reasonable

1 6 8 Matter w a v e s wave equation, the equations correctness depends own whether or not it predicts

the experimental results. As will be seen, it agrees with experiment to a high degree of accuracy; examples of this will be given in Chapter 8, on the hydrogen atom. In the SchrGdinger equation, the operator, ii2 a2 -,,s+$+fq z ( has the physical significance of the kinetic energy operator. In three dimensions, t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $ is a function of x,y,z a n d t, a n d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g Hence, extending the u p a r t i c l e i n t h e v o l u m e e l e m e n t d x d y d z i s 1 ic/ 1 dxdydz.

formalism for calculation tof e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e s , f o r e x a m p l e , w e w o u l d e x p e c t that if the wavefunction is normalized to unity, the expectation value of the kinetic energy would be

+ arC, + !i?!?! dxdyd

ay2 az2

If more than one particle is present, the relationship between the momenta und the total energy is P: 2ml and the SchrGdinger I P,
2m2

; . . . + $ + J = E obtained by the following prescription:

(6.106)

equation

is

Replace

p:

by

and let all these terms operate on the wavefunction $, which is a function of all the variables:
$ = 45(x,,y,,z,,x2,y2,22 I . . . , x,,y,,z,,f)

(6.1107) we can use the

Similarly,

to

find

relativistic

wave

equation

for

one

particle,

relativistic relationship between energy, potential energy and momentum. This is

p2c2 + mgc = (ET - V)

6.22 Solution of the Schrbidingerequation

Here or includes the rest energy, moc2.

for o constanfpotenfial

169

The corresponding wave equation is

(6.109)
if V does not depend on t. This is called the Klein-Gordon equation. I t d o e s n o t have spin (intrinsic angular Imomentum) has spin included, applies equation. d escribing the propagation of matter tc relativistic appearing in it, and it applies to spinless Dirac equation, w h i c h in detail only electrons. We shall consider particles. Another relativistic wave equation, called the the SchrGdinger

T h e w a v e e q u a t i o n , E q u a t i o n (6.105),

waves, is the equation we obtained from considerations of conservation of energy. After elimination of the rest energy, the equation in one dimension takes the form of Equation (6.98). Although Equation (6.98) was shown to be true in a region where V is constant, as already noted, it is also true when V is varying. If the consequences (of this equation turn out to agree with experiment, then we wave equation is valid. In the next sections can be satisfied that the Schrbdinger equation.

w e s h a l l s t u d y s o m e s i m p l e p r o p e r t i e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f Schrijdingers

.22 SOLUTION OF THE: SCHRiiDlNGER CONSTANT POTENITIAL

EQUATION FOR A

Let us consider a state of definite energy E, so that

j&z, l+$=E$
af Op
Here E is the total kinetic $ptotential energy. The equation

(6.110)

must have a solution of the form: I$ = @(x)e-EF

(6.112)

W h e n t h i s i s p u t back into the Schrtidinger

equation, all time dependence will

cancel out, and the equation will be one for the spatial part of the wavefunction,

F12 d2@((x) -- -- + V@(x) = E@(x)

2m dX2

(6.113)

This is a second order differential equation, which cnn be written in the form:

(6.114)

170 Matter waves

In this form, it is very similar to the differential equation for simple harmonic motion, which, for a displacement a(t), is: (6.1 15) In our case, however, E - V may not always be a constant, since the potential rnay vary with x. So in general, the solutions may be difficult to find. SuppsDse, however, that in some range of x, V is constant. Then we can put

k2 = ___2mF - V) ti2

(6.1 16)

and k will be a constant. We can then solve the Schlrtidinger equation by analogy, for the general solution of Equation (6.1 15) can be written in either the form: + = a s i n wt + b coswt with a, b arbitrary constants, or @ in = the exponential + BemW form: (6:l 18) (6.1 17)

Ae

where A, 6 may be complex constants. This latter form is allowed in our case, because the wavefunction a(x) By analogy, then, in terlns of (6:l 19) tor k constant, a general solution for the wavefunction Cp <l)(x) = Ae + Bemkx (x) is: (6.120) may be complex.

This is simply a superposition of momentum eigenfunctions discussed previously, with 1 k / = / pX 1 /ii. T h u s , w h e n E > V, we expect oscillatory solutiorls i n s p a c e . W h a t h a p p e n s when E < V? Although this case would appear to violate our intuitive feeling that kinetic energy should be positive, it is still possible to find a wavefunction which satisfies the wave equation in a region of suck, high potential energy. The quantity !solutions

= -\/2m(E - V)/b2 d e f i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s f r a m e b e c o m e s lpure

imaginary: are

k =
of

in

i-\/%(V form of

- E)/k. T h e n hik := FK, or decreasing Be-

and the general

the

increasing D(x) =

exponentials: (6.121)

AeXx +

where the arbitrary constants are A and 6.

6.23 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The arbitrary constants which appear in these solutions are determined by means
of boundary conditions, which are special conditions placed on the wavefunction

6.23

Boundary

conditions

171

due to the particular physical situation in which the particles find themselves. Suppose, for example, that the system is set up so that it is impossible for a particle to be found in the range of positions x > x0. T h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y , ( $ ) = 1 @ / , of finding a particle would conclude that: @ = 0 for x > x0 (6.122) in the range of x > x0 m u s t b e z e r o , a n d s o w e

Next, let us consider the behavior of # in a transition region where V is changing very rapidly from some value VI to some other value Vz. Suppose, for simp l i c i t y t h a t t h e bounclary of tlhese regions is at x
V

:= 0, as in Figure 6.19. In

x=0

Figure 6.19.

Potential energy curve for V(x) = VI = const. x 0; V(x) = const. X 0. a

region I, V = VI, t h e ,wavefunc:tion will be of the form cb, = Ae + Be-, superposition of momentum eigenfunctions. In region II, where V = corresponding wavenumber is k 2, the wavefunction will be of the form: q>,, = cez^ + De-W

Vz a n d t h e

(6.123)

The value of the wavefunction at x = 0 in region II is related to the value of the wavefunction at x = 0, in region I, just on the other side of the boundary, by
IWO

boundary conditions whic:h The wavefunction is

give us two relations, between the constants conditions are: across the boundary: (6.124)

A, B, C, D. The two bolJndory (1)

continuous

or

@I Lo = @II lxco
(2) The derivative of the wavefunction is continuous across the

(6.125)

boundary: (6.126)

or (6.127)

172

Maffer To

waves understand the reosons for these two conditions, suppose $ changed nearly

discontinuously across the boundary. This would be the same as having a slope which is arbitrarily large at the boundary, as in Figure 6.20. The sudden increase

Figure in the slope, &&lax,

6.20. would have to be very woLlld be

w o u l d i n t u r n m e a n t h a t a$/dx

large. Likewise, if the slope were discontinuous at the point, az#/ax2

so large as to be undefined at the point. However, if the potential energy and $ do not become large at the point, Schr6dingers e q u a t i o n t e l l s u s t h a t d2$/axz does not become large at the point. Thus, if the wave equation is to be satisfied, 1c/ and &J/ax must be continuous. A useful analogy might be to consider two strings of different mass per unit length, tied together and sustaining wave motion while under tension. It is obvious that the displacements of the strings on opposite sides of the knot would be the same. This is analogous to continuity of the wavefunction representing displacement of a matter wave. Also, it is easy to see that the slopes of the two strings on each side of the knot would have to be equal (if the knot is massless); otherwise, there would be an unbalanced component of tension acting on the knot and producing an infinite acceleration. This is analogous to continLlity slopes of the wavefuncti,3n. Since the one dimensional SchrGdinger equation is of second order in the deare specified at one point, rivative with respect to x, if the values of 1c/ and &#/(8x Sothen of

and there are no discontinuities, a unique solution can be found by integration. a given physical situation can be represented uniquely by a wavefunction. go to infinity, $i must Id would give infinite particle densities, or A n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n o n t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s t h a t , a s x,y,z not approach infinity. Cbtherwise,

else lead to infinite total probability. In fact, for particles which are restricted to a limited region by some binding force, the wavefunction approaches zero at infinity. A number of examples of these ideas will be studied in the next chapter.

PROPERTIES OF PLANE WAVES

A p l a n e w a v e m a y b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a w a v e f u n c t i o n o f t h e f o r m eick.-*); the phase k . I - of i s a r e l a t i v i s t i c i n v a r i a n t . It follows that the propagation

Summary
vector

173

and

frequency

satir,fy the

following

transformation

equations

between

inertial systems:

k; = k,

w := --+!i! (0 - vkx)

k: = k,

These equations imply that wi - k2/c2 is o r e l a t i v i s t i c i n v a r i a n t , a n d h e n c e t h a t the equation

WV

= cZ is invorioint.

Here, w is the phase speed of the matter wave

w = w / k , a n d V =: dw/dk

is the group speed of the particle with which the

wave is associated. V i t ; identical to the particle velocity.

DE BROGUE RELATIONS
The momentum, propagation vector, and wavelength of a particle (de Broglie waves) are related by p=+-1 x and energy and frequency are related by

E = li)iw = hv
w h e r e h = h/2x; h is Plancks constant.

DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT
In the Davisson-Germer of diffraction experiment, showed electrons that a were scattered was off nickel. with The the

existence

peaks

wavelength

associated

electron, and the position of the peaks showed that the wavelength was consistent with X = h/p, where h IIS Plan&s constant.

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE FOR PARTICLES

In any experiment in which both the x component of position and momentum are measured simultaneously, the Llncertainties satisfy the inequality, Ax in position and ApX in momentum

w h e r e Sp, and Ax are rms deviations from the mean. Similarly, in a measurement of energy which lasts for #a time At,

AEAt = h

174

Matter

wakes

PROBABILITY INTERPRETATION OF WAVEFUNCTION

Associated with a material particle is a wavefunction #. In one dimension,

or Ional to the probability of finding the particle in the range dx. I#Idxisp ro p t If 1F/, is the probability amplitude, or wavefunction,. for particles from source 1 alone, and #2 is that for source 2 alone, then when both sources are on, the total w a v e f u n c t i o n i s obtainecl to 1 $1 + $2 1 2dx. by superposition of the individual contributions, and is lcil + $2. The total probability of finding a particle in dx is then proportional

ENERGY AND MOMEINTUM

The momentum pX

OPERATORS

of a particle can be represented by the differential operator:

h .a Pxop = - ax i
The energy operator is:

When an operator acts cln

a function to give a constant multiplied by that same The function $/ = Ae (p~X~E)F energy, the average value is an eigenfunction or expectation value

function, the function is said to be an eigenfunction of that operator and the constant is called the eigenralue. of both pX indefinite zomentum follows: or and E,,, w i t h e i g e n v a l u e s pX and E, respectively. For any state of indefinite

of the momentum may conveniently be calculated in terms of operators as

SCHRijDlNGER

EQUATION

After eliminating the rest e n e r g y , t h e n o n r e l a t i v i s t i c : w a v e e q u a t i o n s a t i s f i e d b y t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $(x, V(x, y, z, t), describing a particle having a potential energy energy equation: y, z), is obtained from the conservation Iof

Problems by replacing all the quantities by their corresponding operators and allowing them to operate on the wavefunction. In one dimension, the wave equation is:

175

;&= LT!?- ?++v$ ift 2m ( i dx )

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
(1) The wavefuncticln is continuous across a boundary at, for example, x = 0: $1 lxx0 = $2 is IrEO continuous across the boundary:

(2) The derivative o,f

the

wavefunction

rzf

JIEO = 5 Ixzo

(3) The wavefunction remains finite or goes to zero as the coordinates go to infinity.

1.

Use Equation (6.22) to derive the general Doppler effect; assume that in orle frame, light of frequency o is propagating at angle H relative tc, the positive the frequency observed is y8 = 1 - YCOS e/c __- b /- - v2/c2 1 x axis. Show that in another frame, moving at velocity v along the x axis relative to the first frame,

Usew =

27rv =

kc.

2. If the group speed, vg = dw/dk, a n d p h a s e s p e e d , \Y = w / k , a r e r e l a t e d b y 2 vgw = c, w h e r e c 1s a constant, find the most general relationship between (L and k. Answer: w2 = ck + constant. $=e

3.

s uppose

that in the Iree parlicle wave function,

rjkr-d)

= ,GJ~ - Eyf/ff ,

the

nonrelativistic kinetic: energy, % my2 = p2/2m, were incorrectly used for Er W h a t would be the relationship between the momentum p and the group speed? Find the relationship between the group speed and phase speed, w. Answer: p=mvg; w== %v,. 4. An electron (mass == .91 x 10 n30kg) m o v e s a t a s p e e d o f 2 x 1 Om/sec i n a region where the potential energy is zero. It hits the plane boundary of a region where its potential energy is - 4.1 1 x 10 -14 ioules at an angle of incidence of 60 Find its angle of refraction. Answer: 30.

176

Matter waves 5.

What are the phase speed and wavelength of a proton moving at a particle speed, ( a ) 1 0 0 m/set ( b ) 2 >. 1 O8 m/set?

A n s w e r : ( a ) 9 x 104m/sec,
( b ) 4 . 5 :< lOm/sec,

3.96

x lo-m,: x 10m5m.

1 . 4 7 7

6.

An electron is accelerated through 50,000 volts in an electron microscope. What is t h e s m a l l e s t d i s t a n c e Ibetween o b j e c t s t h a t c o u l d p o s s i b l y b e o b s e r v e d ?

Answer: 5 x

10-cm. i n e l e c t r o n v o l t s o f e l e c t r o n s i n a b e a m i n c i d e n t a t ar a n g l e surface, reflected coherently from planes 2 angstroms

7.

W h a t i s t h e k i n e t i c ewrgy of 30 relative to a

crystal

apart? Assume this is the fourth order reflection, that the planes are parallel to the s u r f a c e , a n d t h a t n o w a v e l e n g t h c h a n g e i s s u f f e r e d u p o n p a s s a g e i n t o t h e crystsal.

Answer: 201 eV.

8.

Electrons

hitting

metal

target

produce

x rays

with

minimum

wavelength

of

angstrom. What is the electron wavelength?

Answer:

1 . 1

x 1C9cm.

9.
10.

W h a t i s t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e w a v e l e n g t h s o f 1 O9 eV e l e c t r o n s a n d 10 eV p h o t o n s ? Answer: For If 1 + 1.3 x 1om7.

- & < x I &, t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n o f a p a r t i c l e i s $ = a ( X, - ~~)e~-~.

l$12. 1s a p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y , f i n d 1 4

a. F i n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f t h e K c o m -

p o n e n t o f momentu,m,

Answer: 11.

For the wavefunction of Problem 10, find tions from the mean.

IxAp,,

w h e r e Lx and

Ap, a r e rms d e v i a -

Answer: 12.

fi

5 = 0.5986 > X/2. / 14 and the distance to the screen is 1 = 1 meter. What should the

A n e l e c t r o n g u n i n a T V t u b e h a s a n o p e n i n g o f d i a m e t e r a. E l e c t r o n s c o m e o u t w i t h a s p e e d Y o f 1 0 0 m/set,

diameter a be in order to minimize the size of the spot on the screen if there is no focussing? Take into account that uncertainties in the position of electrons at the

screen arise both from uncertainties in the initial position of the electrons within the g u n a n d f r o m diffradion.

Answer: 13.

z mv

= 0.11 cm.

What is the minimum possible kinetic energy, consistent with the uncertainty principle, of a proton confined size of a nucleus? t o a region of size 5 x lo-I5 m e t e r s , w h i c h i s t h e apprclximate

Answer: 14.

A b o u t 0.83 MeV.

A p a r t i c l e o f m a s s m Imoves a l o n g a v e r t i c a l w i r e i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d o f t h t ? e a r t h a b o v e a r i g i d imperletrable height is always greclter floor, which is at height x = 0. Hence, the particles

than zero and its potential energy is

mgx. U s i n g t h e u n c e r -

tainty principle, estimate the lowest possible energy of the particle. Do you think this energy is observable?

Answer: 15.
An ideal

1/L,m3(gA)23,
icepick of mass m = 100 g concentrated at its center of mass, which is a i s s e t o n i t s p o i n t a n d a n atttzmpt is

d i s t a n c e r = 2 5 c m f r o m t h e p o i n t o f t h e icepick,

made to balance it. This is impossible, of course, because to balance it, the center of mass must be both directly over the point (L\X = 0) and at rest

(Ap, = 0).

If sin 0

Problems

177

2 0, s h o w t h a t t h e Vewtoni~an

equation of rotational motion is d2H -= dt2

yH

i- % (-1~ + Lp/m\ r/g) w i t h t h e s o l u t i o n r6 = % (1.x - lpjm v r/g)emvg .e \/e, w i t h Jx and -Ip t h e i n i t i a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d m o m e n t u m . F o r x t/y/,, the

negative exponential can be neglected. Use the uncertainty principle to estimate the maximum time, on the average, during which the center of mass of the icepitk moves

t h e d i s t a n c e /2 r s i d e w a y s i n f a l l i n g , i . e . t h e t i m e f o r t h e be:st b a l a n c e y o u c a n e x p e c t . A n s w e r : t .- 6 sec.

16.

A p a r t i c l e o f mcrss m has a wavefunction,

+ik,y+ik,z-

w h e r e w is an angular frequency. Find the potential energy of this particle tion of x, and find the total energy for this state. Answer: % mu
2

crs a func-

x , cr t w o p a r t i c l e s y s t e m w i t h m a s s e s ml, rn2 a n d p o s i t i o n v e c t o r s

17. The wavefunction of

w h e r e e2/4rt0

i s o c o n s t a n t . F i n d t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y ancl t h e t o t a l e n e r g y . W h a t i s 2 -

the physical meaning of this stcrte? -e ty, 1 mlm2 - -__ e 4 +

y2j2
h2k2 +

lL,

~~

z2)

m, +

m2

(4,aceX)

2(ml

m2)

7 examples of the use of SchrOdingers equation

In this chapter several examples will be presented to illustrate the use of the Schrodinger equation and the application all the of boundary conditions. In the process of studying these examples, the physical meaning of the wavefunction should become clearer. For simplicity, dimension. e.xamples will be done only in one

7 . 1 F R E E - P A R T I C L E GAU!iSIAN

W A V E PAC:KET

In Chapter 6 we saw that the nonrelativistic timedependent Schrodinger equation for free particles moving in one dimension is:

h2 a$ --_ =: ;fi !P!

2 m 8x2

at

(7.1)

and that a typical solution is a wavefunction of the form 1c, where E = E(p) = p2/2m = Ae(WE)

(7.2)

is the nonrelativistic kinetic energy. Physically, this

solution might correspond to a beam of particles uniformly distributed along the x axis, moving with definite particle velocity, v = and an energy eigenfuriction. By superposition of such eigenfunctions corresponding to different values of momentum (and energy), we can build up interesting solutions of the free-particle Schrodinger equation. For example, as was also discussed in Chapter 6, the wavefunction

,p/m,

and with definite energy

E = E(p). The solution In Equation (7.2) is thus both a momentum eigenfunction

1F/ = A, exp !(P -;'1"-']

178

+ A2 ex,P [jk% -;:f/2m)]

(7.3)

7.1 free-particle Gaussian wave packet

w i t h p, # ~2, i s l i k e w i s e a s o l u t i o n t o E q u a t i o n (7.2), b u t i t i s n o l o n g e r a momentum or energy eigenfunction. We which now wish to discuss the quantum-mechanical to our intuitive notion description of a of a free as particle, well corresponds more closely particle being

179

localized in space. The solution in Equation (7.2) is certainly not well localized, because there is no information at all in this wavefunction about the x coordinate of the particle; all x c#Dordinotes are equally probable. A wavefunction describing ) a localized particle, with sclme small uncertainty L, x i n p o s i t i o n , m u s t h a v e a large uncertainty in momentum according to the uncertainty principle, LIXLIP, % h. To obtain a localized wave packet, we will consider a more general super-

position of free-particle momentum eigenfunctions of many different momenta. This superposition has the form: +(x, t) = c A, exp [ where the numbers A, are arly constant coefficients. Since ;hx

y?!z!Y

each

(7.4)
term in Equation

(7.4) satisfies the SchrGdinger the sum satisfies it.

e q u a t i o n , which is a linear differential equation,

We can also consider the superposition of wavefunctions with a continuous distribution of momenta by passing from the summation in Equation (7.4) to an integration: Il/(x,f) i(px - - ip2t/2m) = ,= dpA(p) exp ~--~ Tl / [ I

(7.5)

where A(p) is any function of p. Now to obtain a function which is localized in space, we shall consider the superposition in Equation (7.5), with A(p) chosen to give a distribution of If the momenta (appearing in the integral momenta about some central value, pO.

in Equation (7.5) are distributed symmetrically about the value p,,, w e w o u l d expect the particle to m o v e witlh a n a v e r a g e m o m e n t u m pO = mv,. Furthermore, if there is a large spread in momenta, i.e. if t o b e p o s s i b l e t o h a v e IIX s8maII. given by a gaussian, as follows,: Ap is large, we would expect it We shall choose a distribution of momenta

A(p:l =

--L2*v'Gh2

While this is only one of an infinite number of choices, the choice in Equation (7.6) is particularly interesting for several reasons and is not too difficult to handle mathematically. The constants in front of the exponential in Equation (7.6) make the function It/(x, t) a normalized one, so that the total probability is unity. Thus, we shall study the wave packet:

(7.7)

180 7.2

Use of Schrodingers equation

PACKET

AT

0
description of the particle at time t = 0:

Consider first the resultin

The integral may be performed with the help of Table 7.1, after changing elP to epoxhe(p~po)xh and introducing a new integration variable by the substitution

Y = P - PO:

Clearly, at this time the wovefunction is localized in space, near the origin at x = 0. The probability density is I I) I 2 = J& (?XP (7;) (7.10)

which is a normalized gaussian

distribution centered a t x

0.

Thus

at

0,

(x) = 0. To calculate A: at this time, we need

=
initially localized.

dxx2--m-X t/ffa \ ff2

)I

12

= (r
d5

(7.11)

from Table 7.1. Thus, cz is a measure of the distance within which the particle is

TABLE 7.1 irex,, (-5 +

Some Integrals Involving Complex Exponentials

;by)dy =

&aexp[-($r], Realpartofa > 0

~J.p (-$) ydy = i a36

l:yexp (-$)dy = Q

The oscillating factor exp (ip,,x/Fr),

which multiplies the gaussian

in Equation

(7.9), corresponds to the fact that the particle has an overall momentum

po,

7.3 P o c k e t f o r t because, calculating the expectation value of momentum, we have:

> 0

181

) ( - 5 x + PO) dx = p0 ( P ) = j5 $* +. $ d x = 2; -[: e x p ( - g! i lJ2 -xx (7.12) T h u s t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s t o a p a r t i c l e w i t h a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y , v0 pa/m. is: The rms deviation from the mean momentum, or uncertainty in =

momentum,

{j; -&,?Xp

(-;;;) 1-y

2;F + p;

$1 dx -p;}2

Note that at t = 0 the uncertainty product is the minirnum allowed by the uncertainty principle,

ApA.x =:
Thus, at first the gausslan

(7.14)

wave packet is actually a minimum uncertainty packet; packet is of particular interest.

this is one of the reasons the gaussian

Summarizing our results so far, w e h a v e , a t t = 0,

(x) = 0, Ax = L45
(P) := po, 4~ = --&

(7.15)

(7.16)

.3 P A C K E T F O R t > 0
Next, we shall calculate the expectation values and uncertainties at any later time t. We would expect that the average momentum and uncertainty in moment u m w o u l d n o t c h a n g e w i t h itime, s i n c e t h e r e a r e n o f o r c e s t o m o d i f y t h e momentum distributiorl. This could be verified by detailed calculation using the I$ in Equation (7.18) below. To calculate x and Ax, we need the wavefunction J/(x, f) at an arbitrary time and hence must perform ,the p integral in Equation (7.7) at an arbitrary time. This may be done in a straightforward way, using the integrals in Table 7.1, although the algebra is a little messy. The integral may be writtell as:

182

Use of SchrGdingeri

equahon

PO) ; i

Pot mfti -4 (7.17)

The first integral in Table 7.1 then gives us:

u
+ zm) exp

1 2

( x - pot/m)s2 + i (Pox ff2 + iht/m h

- Pit) 2m

(7.18)

This wave function leads to a probability density of

u +*+ = / $1 2 = -~
VGVF+ ti2t2/m2 This distribution is centered

- a(:~ - pot/m)2 e x p ~[ (a4 + A2t2/m2)

a b o u t t h e p o i n t x = ,p,,t,/m, corresponding to an This agrees with the result (p) of Equation t/m, is, of course, also the expectation value

(7.19)

average particle speed of p,,/m. (7.12). The distribution c:enter, p0

of x. The rms deviation of x from its mean is:

4~~

+ h2t2/m202 VT -

117.20)

This Ax is least at t = 0 and increases thereafter. This is because of the possible presence of momenta greatly different from p,, w i t h i n t h e m o m e n t u m distribution, resulting in the possibility that the particle may be moving with velocities greater or less than the average, pa/m, and thus the possibility of the particle being farther and farther from (x) as time progresses. If the particle is v e r y s h a r p l y l o c a l i z e d ill space initially, that is if u is very small, then from Equation (7.20) it is seen that the wave packet will spread very rapidly, because at large times, Ax - tit/ma. This is due to the complementary presence 0.f v e r y high momenta, which must be present in order that

Ap

be large,

Ap > %/2Ax.

If the particle is not very well localized initially, (large a), the wave packet spreads slowly. We could expect that at sufficiently large times, the spread of the packet would be on the order of principle is satisfied at all times,

Avt

= Apt/m = ht,/2am. The uncertainty Ax from

in Equation (7.20) is of this order of magnitude for large since

ApAx = f h

---

t.
and

The

uncertainty

Equations

(7.12)

(7.20)

7.4 Sfep potenfial; high energy E z V,, Let us put some numbers in, to see how long we can expect a particle to remain reasonably well localised. Suppose we consider an electron with mass of a b o u t 10m3 kg. If it has a few electron volts kinetic energy, such as it might pick up in a low volttage vacuum tube, it is moving with a speed of around TO6 m/set. Also, if in an experiment the electron is initially localized distance Ax of 0.01 cm, then the spread in velocities, tion (7.20) the spread in the distribution will be to within a %/(2Axm), 16 w h e n

183

-Iv

= Ap,m =
by

is on the order of 1 m/set, vlery small compared to the speed. Now, from Equamultiplied iiif/m = u2. S i n c e (T i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 0 . 0 1 c m , t h i s t i m e i s o f t h e o r d e r o f 10m4 sec. While this rnay not seem a long time, with a speed of lo6 m/sec, t h e electron will have gone lo2 meters, or about 300 feet, in that time. During this displacement, the packet will spread only about 40% in width. Thus, for most macroscopic experiments, ws do not have to worry about the electrons beset, o r unimcoming nonlocalized. For a macroscopic object, such as a stone of 100 gm mass, the time required for Ax to increase by a factor of ~/2 is around 1O25 about 10 years. This indiecates why quantum mechanics is ordinarily portant for the descriotion of Imacroscopic a gaussian

bodies. The spreading and motion of

wave packet is illustrated in Figure 7.1.

Pf / A
,,,i Packet at t>O Packet at t=O

--

1 --L k? X x=p,t/m 0 Figure 7.1. Graph of probability density in a Gaussian wave packet. The wave packet Ispreads in space as time progresses.

STEP POTENTIAL; HIGH ENEIRGY E > Vo

The first example involving the matching of boundary conditions will involve the one dimensional and potential to energy the shown in Figure 7.2. a This is called force a
step

potential,

corresponds

particle

experiencing

very

large

over

very small distance wflen

goirg from region I to region II. In region I the potential

energy is zero, and in region II it is the constant V,,.

184

Use of Schrbdingers equatron

Figure

7.2.

Step potential such that V = 0, .x < 0; V = V, x 0

If the nonrelativistic wavefunction is of the form +b(x, t ) = @(x)emEfi (7.22)

then the one dimensional differential equation for the spatial part of the wavefunction @P(x), for a particle of mass m, is:

In region I, since V = 0, the equation is:

The equation can be rearranged by multiplying throlugh

by 2m/h2: (7.25)

or, with k = +[2mE/tiZ]2 (7.26)

In this form, it resembles the harmonic oscillator eqblation of classical mechanics, j; + wx = 0, and has solutions which are oscillating in space, @, where A and 6 are constants. In region II, the differential equation is: (7.29) = Ae + Be-k (7.28)

h2 #a,, + V,Q),, = E@,,

2 m iix

7.5 Beam of incident parficles or (7.30) Since we are assuming E :, V,, the solutions are of a form similar to those in Equation (7.18); putting N = +[2m(E - V,/FI]~, Qb,, where C and D are constants. =T Ce +-De- we have: (7.31)

185

7.5 BEAM OF INCIDENT PARTICLES

The constants A, B, C, and D in Equations (7.28) and (7.31) are determined by the

imposition of physical boundary conditions. As an example, we shall consider w h a t h a p p e n s w h e n a b e a r n o f p a r t i c l e s o f e n e r g y E is incident on the step potential from the left. The inc:ident beam corresponds to a nonzero in Equation (7.31); i.e., since,the momentum operator is pX = -ihil/ilx, Ae corresponds to a beam of positive x momentum, pX = volue of A the term

hk.

The term Be- (7.31),

would correspond to a beam of particles in region I traveling to the left, such as could occur if the step could cause particles to be reflected. In Equation the term Ce corresponds to a beam of particles traveling to the right, due to particles transmitted through the potential barrier, while De-IO* corresponds to particles incident on the barrielr from the right. If the experiment is set up so that a source of particles is far tc the left, then we have to allow for a transmitted beam in region II; but there is no source for particles incident on the step from the right. Hence, we must h a v e D G 0 in Equation (7.31). Thus, for this particular problem, a,, = Celar (7.32)

N o w l e t u s a p p l y b o u n d a r y ,:onditions We must satisfy the condition!;:

a t x = 0 t o f i n d B and C in terms of A.

and

W i t h t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n , .x = 0, thle first of these conditions gives us: A+B=C The second condition leads to: ikA - ik6 = icvC (7.36) are usmed to find 6 in terms of A, (7.35)

If the two equations, Equations (7.35) and (7.36), the result is: B ~= 1 +

@lk)A (a/k)

(7.37)

186

Use of Schriidingers equation

Likewise, the solution for C gives us:

(7.38)
Then the wavefunctions are:

(7.39) Q),, = A 2 O* (a/k)e

1 +

Thus, incoming particles in region I moving in the positive x direction are partially reflected and partially transmitted into region II.

7.6 TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENTS

An interesting relationship is obtained if Equations (7.35) and (7.36) are multiplied together and the resulting equation is multiplied by ft/im. Then

hk --A2 = !%B2 -+ %C2

This

equation

has

very

simple

physical

interpretation.

We

shall,

for

convenience,

assume that A is real, ard thus from Equations (7.37) and (7.38), particles. Then, in the function @, number of particles of Imomentum

/3 and C must

a l s o b e r e a l . I n g e n e r a l , 1# / i s p ro p r t o ional t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y o f = Ae + Be-, A is proportional to the Iik per unit length along the x axis. Let us

a s s u m e t h a t A i s normalized, s o t h a t A2 i s e x a c t l y t h e n u m b e r o f inccmming particles per unit length. Since%k is the mornentum, and the term,

hk/m

is the particle speed, of incoming particles

iikA/m, in Equation 7.40 is the speed times the number of in-

coming particles per unit length. This is equal to the Inumber a r r i v i n g a t x = 0 per unit time. Likewise,

tlkB/ m

is the number of particles per

unit time reflected back into region I by the step at x := 0. Similarly, the number of particles transmitted through the step

iiaC2/m

is

x = 0 into region II, per

unit time. Thus, the overall meaning of Equation (7.41) is that the number of particles reaching x = 0 per unit time equals the total number leaving that point per unit time; i.e. the total number of particles is conserved. One can define a reflection coefficient

to be the fraction of incident particles

reflected, or the ratio of the number of particles goming back into region I to the number of incident particles at x = 0. Thus, from Equation (7.37), R = PB'/m) ( 1 - a/k)' = ~-~ ( 1 + a/k)

(likA/m)

(7.42)

Likewise, the transmission coefficient T is defined as the fraction of inc:ident particles which are transmitted, or the ratio of the number of particles going into

7.7 Energy less than region II to the number of incident particles:

the sfep height

187

h/k ___-..( 1 + a/k)

(7.43)

W e s e e t h a t T -I R = 1; this is another form of the conservation of particles equation. As the energy E becomes very large compared to the potential height V , , w e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e p#DtentiaI mission coefficient should approach to be less and le,ss important, so the transunity. Since a/k approaches one in this limit, E = V,, o( = 0 . T h e n would not be

Equation (7.43) shows that this is indeed the case. When ticles Thus, obeyed the Newtonian mechanics rather particles than quanium

the transmission coefficient is zero and all the particles are reflected. If the parmechanics, T that would equal to unity for all energi(zs# wave properties cf classically.

E _>
the

VO, a n d t h e r e would be no particles reflected. cause reflections occur

7.7

ENERGY

LESS

THAN

THE

STEP

HEIGHT

S u p p o s e t h a t E < V0 f o r t h e s a m e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y f u n c t i o n , w i t h a s t e p height V,. Then, in classical mechanics, no particles could go into region II where V = V,, since there the kinetic energy would have to be negative, leading to imaginary speeds. Hence, Newtonian mechanics would say that all the particles are reflected. We shall see ,that quantum mechanics gives the same result. If in region I, Ae + Be- (7.44) E <: V,, we still have for the !solution a, =

However, in region II, since E < V,, the solutions must involve real exponentials, a,,, where p = ~%~\l~->),%, = CemU + D e if (7.45) D # 0,

A s x m-r 5, etilX m+ + x. H e n c e ,

there would be an infinitely large probability of finding particles infinitely far inside the classically forbidden region. This is not reasonable, so D must be zero. The remaining solution in region II is the same as the solution for E >s V,, b u t w i t h tl r e p l a c e d b y ifi. I f t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o w a p p l i e d a t x = 0 , the equations relating A, B and C are: A+B=C and ik(A - B ) = -PC (7.47) (7.46)

Then, in terms of A, the solutions for the coefficients are:

6 = 1 - t . (p/ik) ------A;
1 -(@/ik)

C = --?-A
1 - - (,3/ik)

(7.48)

188

Use of Schrtidingers

equation

In this case, even if A i:, real, 6 a n d C a r e b o t h c o m p l e x , a n d s o t h e n u m b e r of particles reflected back into region I per set is

hk 16 12 = !E!
m The reflection coefficient is then:

,m

(7 49)

R = @JB*/m)
(hkAA*/m) z[l All the particles are therefore

[l +- WkNl - Wk)l
-- (P/ik)l[l reflected.

I.4 1 _ 1

+ (Blik)] 1 24

(7.50)

Even though the transn-ission coefficient T i s z e r o , t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t a rneasurement would never show a particle in region II. In fact, the number of p a r t i c l e s i n r e g i o n I I p e r Jnit l e n g t h i s 1a,, 1 = 1C 12e~2pX. c:urrent The net particle to the right is simply zero in that region. I n N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s , t h e particles can penetrate into a region which is forbidden classically.

probability of finding a particle in region II would be zero. Thus, in quantum mechanics,

7.8

TUNNEUNG

FOR

SQUARE

POTENTIAL

BARRIER

One implication of this penetration effect is that if the higher potential region is not very wide, particles will have a possibility of tunneling through to the other side, and of being transmitted. Classically, this would be impossible. To illustrate quantum mechanical tunneling, we will use the potential energy shown in Figure 7.3, with V = V,, a c o n s t a n t , b e t w e e n x = 0 a n d x = a . W e

Figure

7.3.

Square potertial barrier used to illustrate quantum mechanical tunneling.

7.8 Tunneling for a square potential barrier assume that elsewhere, V = 0. As was the case in the previous section, the solution in region I is now:

189

aI = Aelk +
In region II, if E <: I$,, the solution is:

Be-k;

= t2mE h

(7.52) H e r e w e c a n n o t c o n c l u d e t h a t D = 0 , s i n c e remgion II does not extend to

x = + X. If the source of particles is to the left in region I, and there is no source far to the right, then we may allow for the possibility of particles tunneling through the barrier and ceontinuing on to the right by taking the wavefunction in region III to be

a,,, =

Fe

(7.53)

A s b e f o r e , %k 1A 1/ m is the number of particles per unit time moving to the right in region I and hitting the potential barrier, hk / 6 ( /m is the number reflected, and Ftk 1 ,F / / m i s t h e n u m b e r t r a n s m i t t e d i n t o r e g i o n I I I . I n t h i s example, the particles in bo?h regions I and III have momentum of magnitude Ak. There are two boundary conditions at x = 0: continuity of the wavefunction and of its derivative; and there are two similar conditions at x = a. They give

at

x = 0

A+B=C+D ik(A - 8 ) = /3-C i- D )

Ce-@ + hii = Fe
(7.55) (7.54)

clt x = a

(j(-Ce-

+ D e ) z= jkFe

Solution of Equations (7.54) a n d (7.55), for 6, C, after some algebra,

ancl F, in terms of A, gives us

/:I t8 = .-~--_ (/3/k)2](1

[I -

- e-2pn) zi(fi,kGl + eeziT A

(P/k)](l - emzd) +

(7.56)

c = .-~--_ [l - (P/kj](l

211 + GUk)l
2i(P/k)(l + 2[1 i(P/k)]e-@ 2i(p/?;T +

- e-O) +

(7.57) e-T A (7.58)

D = ._~--[l - (P/k:12](T

- e-O) +

ee2ia) A

F = .-~--[l - (/3/kj2](l

4i(/3/k)em(ti+rk) - e- ) + 2i(P/k)(l +

- A e-O)

(7.59)

While these results are somewhat involved, it is easy to substitute them into Equations (7.54) and (7.55) a n d t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e y a r e s o l u t i o n s . S i n c e t h e

190

Use of SchrGdingers equation

particle speed is the sarne in I and III, the transmission coefficient is simply T = FF*/AA*. It is T= ~__ [l - (/J,Ic)~]~(~ 16(P/k)2e e m2do)2 -a __-t 4(fl/I~)~l:l + em2o0)2 (7.60)

If @a is large compared to one, the exponentiais in thle denominator of Equation (7.60) are very small cornFlared to one, and can be dropped. In this case,

Because

the

exponential,

-2p0,

traction of particles getting through is very small when

rapidly becomes small with increasing /3a, t h e -~ /3a = d2m(Vo - E)a/h

is large. Thus, as the enerfly becomes smaller compared to V,, or the width of the potential barrier becomes greater, fewer particles tunnel through. Of course, in Newtonion mechanics no particles would get through.

example I. When two materials are placed in contact, an electron often has to go through a potential barrier of a few electron volts to get from one material to the other. There are a nulnber deliberately. For electronr,, Take V, E = 1 eV ancl m a of solid state devices which are made this way = 9.1 x = 3 10m3 kg anld Ii e mda. = 1.05 1Om34 /sec.

Angstroms,

a reasonable distance between

atom layers. Estimate the value of the exponerltial

dh.Vl

2pa = 2 .\/2m(Vo
Ii

- E)(J
x 10m3)(1.6 x 1.05 10.-19)(3 x lo-) ~- = 3 . 0 8 .

2-\/2(9.1

x 1o-34

Therefore, e -O = e m308 example

= 0.046. So the tunneling is reasonably probable.

2. Hydrogen impurities in a solid might diffuse through it by tunneling of the hydrogen nucleus (the proton) from one lattice site to another. The proton mass is about 1836 times that of the electron. Take the other parameters to be the same as in part (1) of this Example. Find the exponential in this case.

so/utmn Since the only change from Example 1 is in the mass, the exponent is increased by a factor of ~?836. 1013 Then em = e-32 := 2 x 10m57. The proton in oscila frequency of around lating about its equilibrium point in the solid might have

per second. This is essentially how many times the proton hits the barrier

per second. The product of lOI and the exponential is a measure of the order of magnitude of the probability of a proton jump per second. This is of the o r d e r o f 10-44, complete y negligible. If the quantity, V. - E, were lowered by a factor of ten or more. this diffusion would begin to be more important.

7.9 PARTICLE IN A BOX

As a fourth illustration of the solutions of the one dimensional Schrtidinger

equation, we shall consider the case of a particle confined to a finite region, a

7.9 Particle

in D box

191

one dimensional box of length 1. By this we mean that the particle is definitely inside the box and is kept there by rigid impenetrable walls at the ends, x = 0 a n d x = 1. This is illustratecl in Figure 7.4. Since the particle is confined to a To infinity

To hfinity
i

,. I,

x zz L

Figure

7.4.

Potential energy function for a particle in cl one dimensional box. in position ax is about L, so the uncertainty

region of size L, the uncertclinty

apX in momentum pX should lbe a b o u t h/L. H e n c e t h e p a r t i c l e c a n n o t h a v e a definite momentum. It can, hcwever, still have a definite energy, as we shall see. w h e r e cP(x) We still assume that the energy is definite, so $ z= @(x)e-Er, + satisfies the differential equation:

i s t h e s p a t i a l p a r t o f t h e w o v e f u n c t i o n . Hence, inside the box, where V = 0,

We expect this equation to tell us what @( x )

IS

inside the box. The situation is :solutions of definite fre-

somewhat analogous to the case oi a stretched string held rigidly at both ends. In that case also, a wave may exist on the string, and quencies arise only when an integral number of half wavelengths of the wave can fit into the length L of a string. Thrs gives rise to standing waves on the string. A similar situation should hold for the de Broglie interfere destructively with itself, an integral wave!; in the box of length L. number n of half wavelengths If A i s t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f a d e B r o g l i e w a v e , t h e n i n o r d e r f o r t h e w a v e n o t t o should fit into the box, or: nX -= L 2 The magnitude of the momentum would then be

h
The kinetic energy would be

hn

p=x=z

(7.64)

(7.65)

192

Use of SchrGdingers equation So only a discrete set of energies or frequencies would be allowed. These would be determined by values of the integer n.

7.10 BOUNDARY CONDITION WHEN POTENTIAL GOES TO INFINITY

Now let us see how this same situation would be treated using the Schrodinger e q u a t i o n , E q u a t i o n (7.6:!). To solve a differential equation like this, we need to have boundary conditions, statements analogous to the requirement that the displacement at the ends of the stretched string must vanish. In our case, we know the particle is inside ra.pher t h a n o u t s i d e t h e b o x . T h e r e a s o n t h a t Q, is zero all outside the box is that the walls are assumed to be perfectly rigid, so thlclt

particles bounce elastically off the walls, or, e q u i v a l e n t l y , t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l energy is infinite outside. The probability of finding a particle outside is therefore zero; so, for x outside the box, / a(x) 1 = 0. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e v a l u e must be continuous, the of @ itself must be zero outside. Since the wavefunction

value of the wavefunction just inside the box must be zero at either end, so @(x = 0) = @(x = I) =: 0 (7.66)

The slope of the wavefunction must also be continuous, and it might appear at first glance that both th,: w a v e f u n c t i o n a n d i t s s l o p e a r e z e r o a t t h e e n d p o i n t s ; but this would mean the wavefunction would vanirh everywhere, an unreasonable solution. To see why the slope of the wavefunction can be finite at the endpoints, suppose the potential energy outside the box were not infinite, but h a d a l a r g e c o n s t a n t v a l u e . T h e n f o r x > L , @ = Cemdx square root of the potential energy. Outside, , with fl proportional to the --pa. d@/dx = -PCe- =

Hence, although @ approaches zero as V, -+ ~3, /? a p p r o a c h e s i n f i n i t y a n d t h e p r o d u c t p@ can remain finite. Indeed, d@/dx must be finite everywhere, both inside and just outside the box. The boundary conditions for the case of the p a r t i c l e i n a b o x a r e t h e r e f o r e g i v e n b y E q u a t i o n (7.66), w i t h n o f u r t h e r a v a i l able information on the slopes finite. d+/dx a t t h e e n d p o i n t s , e x c e p t t h a t t h e y a r e

7.11 STANDING WAVES AND DISCRETE ENERGIES

We now have a differential equation, Equation (7.60), with boundary conditions.

For ease in writing the equations, let

k = P42A
Then the SchrGdinger eq(Jation, Equation (7.32), d2@ -= dx2 -k2+ bec:omes:

(7.67)

(7.68)

This equation is the same as that discussed in connection with the step potential, and has oscillatory solutions of the form of Equation (7.28). For the present

7.7 7 Standing waves

appllication, however, it is more convenient to write the

and discrete energies in trigonometri-

193

solutions

cal form, as a sum of a sine and a cosine: @(.I() = A c o s k x + 6 s i n k x where A and

(7.69)

6 are two arbitrary constants whose ratio is to be determined

from, the boundary conditions. One condition is @(x == 0) = 0. This gives us: a(O) := A cos (0) + 6 sin (0) = 0

(7.70)

or A = 0. The second boundary condition is @(x = 1.) == 0. This gives us: S(L) = 6 sin (kl) = 0 (7.71)

This could be satisfied by settinsg B = 0 , b u t t h e n t h e w h o l e w a v e f u n c t i o n w o u l d vanish, which is not the desired solution. The other possibility is sin (kL) = 0. The sine function has zeros at vcrlues of L such that: kL = no

(7.72)

,where n is any integer not equal to zero. If n = 0 , a g a i n t h e w h o l e wavef u n c t i o n w o u l d v a n i s h , s o this, case is excluded. The possible wavefunctions are then: n = 1,2,3,...

Only positive integers are taken, because negative integers just duplicate the same wavefunctions with an o,veroll sign change; thle o v e r a l l s i g n , h o w e v e r , i s 6 can be determined by normalization. t h e p a r t i c l e i n t h e r a n g e d x i s 1@n / dx, not physically significant. The constant T h u s , i f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f fincling then for one particle in the box,

(7.73)
Using the formula

(7.74)
we find that

If, for convenience, 6 is taken 10

be real, the final fort-r

of the eigenfunctions is:

(P(x) = jqsin f?),

= 1,2,3 ,...

The constant in front of the sine function is called the normalization consfanf. Having solved the differential eqiJation with boundary conditions, we can now

194

Use of Schrodingers equation find the allowed energies. From the definition of k, Equation (7.66), E _ hk: 2m or (7.78) the energy is: (7.77)

This is the some CIS t h a t o b t a i n e d b y a n a l o g y w i t h a s t r e t c h e d s t r i n g . T h e m a i n point to be seen here is that because of the boundary conditions, only a discrete set of energies crre possible; the energy is quanfized. The smaller the size of the box L, the larger will be the spacings between allowed energies. Physically, it is the confinement of the electron to lie within a small region which gives rise to the discrete energy spacings. In classical mechanics, any energy would be possible for this mechanical situation.

7.12

MOMENTUM

AND

UNCERTAINTY

FOR

PARTICLE

IN

BOX

To investigate the momentum, the sine function can be written as a superposition of exponentials. For example, for n = 1, the ground state, the wavefunction is:

,;& a,(x) = - : (e, _ e-m;,) ( 1

The term involving given by:

(7.79)

elnx by itself would correspond to a value of momentum

(7.80) The term e -In would correspond to a value of momentum, px appearance motion of of the these particle exponentials in either in a, with with equal equal amplitudes direction probability; the = -hir,IL. to So the

corresponds

wavefunction

aI is a superposition of waves of equal but opposite momenta. Thus the expectation value of the momentum is zero. This c:ould bme verified directly by calculatI ing o dx J #*()i/i)d#/dx. T h e d I f ference in the momenta of the superposed

w a v e s s h o u l d g i v e u s a measure of the order of magnitude of the uncertainty in px. T h u s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y , (7.81)

Also, Ax is on the order of L, so AxAp, z h, in agreement with the uncertainty principle. A more careful calculation of the uncertainties using rms deviations from the means could easily be made, but the crude argument given above is sufficient to illustrate the uncertainty principle in this example.

7.13 lineor molecules cqpproximoted

by particle in t) box

195

.13 LINEAR MOLECULES APPROXIMATED BY PARTKLE IN A BOX

Frequently, physicists represerlt e n e r g y l e v e l s b y a d i a g r a m i n w h i c h h o r i z o n t a l bars This have allows a vertical to spacing see at proportional o glance to the energy spacing of between the levels. In one the energy structure system.

Figure 7.5 an energy level diagram is shown for the particle in o b o x , w h e r e t h e

Figure

7.5.

Energy level diagram and possible transitions for D particle in o one

dimensional box. energies are E, = n2h2/8m1. Here the distance of the bars from the base line

corresponding to the zero of energy is proportional VO n2. This is essentially a one dimensional plot of allowed energies with energy increasing upwards. The particle have can exist in stationary values. states, If states of definite frequency, should only if the the energies particle, these discrete some external influence disturb

then it might change from one of these states to another. For example, if the particle started in the state labeled nt by the integer II, and ended up in the state (u for upper, & for lower), then it would have to lose energy:

(7.82)

This energy could be given up in the form of a photon The energy of the photon would be: E Therefore, the differences betweerl =: hu = E, - Et

(7.83)

levels in an energy level diagram are propor-

tional to the light frequencies we rnight expect to see emitted from the system. Physical systems for which the particle in the box is a good model are found in certain classes of long straight molecules of varying lengths L, w h i c h a t t r a c t

196

Use of SchrGdingers equation electrons in such a way thot the electron moves back and forth between the ends of the molecule in a standing wave. The observed energies are closely approximated by those of the particle in a box, Equation (7.78). When the electron makes transitions between these energy states, absorption and emission of photons are observed. If the upper state is the n = 2 state, and the lower state is the n = 1 state, then for a molecule of length photon should be: 3h Z-8mL2 The wavelength of the photon would be given by: (7.84) L the frequency of the

A = c = 8m~2c u 3h
For the electron, m = 9. I1 x Angstroms, this wavelength is in the visible region: x x lo-I)(3 lo-)] x 10)

(7.85) 7

10m3 kg. Then, for (2 molecule of length 1 =

x _ 8(9.11 x

10m3)(7 [3(6.63

= 5.39 x

10m7 m = 5 3 9 0 A n g s t r o m s

(7.86)

7.14 HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

The final example to be !,tudied in this chapter is thle one dimensional harmonic oscillator. The study of the quantum mechanical Iharmonic oscillator is very important, because a number of physical systems can be considered to behave like a collection of harm,>nic oscillators. For small ,vibrations, particles in Imost molepotential wells have simple harmonic vibrations. For instance, a diatomic cule has the energy level:, of a one dimensional harlnonic rotational and atomic levels). Also, quantized waves (photons) can be represented as harmonic oscillators. harmonic oscillator must first The total energy operator oscillator potential is

oscillator (along with

sound waves (phonons) and light

T h e Schrodinger equation for a one dimen!jional the is kinetic energy operator is -(t,2/2m)d/ax2. K, the

be obtained. For a particle of mass m with displacement x from equilibrium, it,a/(jt. Also, for o sFlring constant harmonic

V = % Kx. These operators lead to the Schrtidinger e q u a t i o n :

ax2

(7.87)

I f , a g a i n , a s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e w i t h definite energy is assumed, so that $ = +(x)emE, the equation for ~1) Ii2 2m is: d2Q t ; Kx+ = E+ (7.88)

dx

7.14 Harmonic oscillator Since in microscopic systems, frequency is more easily measurable mechanics, than spring

197

constants, frequency 27ru. Then,

it is desirable to eliminate for a harmonic in terms of w, oscilla?or

by expressing

it in terms of the angular w = -\//K/m

from Newtonian

hz2 d2+ - - - - 2m dX2

i mw2x2@

:= EG)

(7.89)

Let us verify that for the propelr choice of a, an energy a0 where =

eigenfunction

is: (7.90)

aoe-1/2crx2
The

a0 is a normalization constant. (7.89), contains:

first term ill the differential equation,

Equation

aOe-li:!n:2

tnzx2

(?)

(7.91)

The differential equation

then becomes: !!2Cu + 2m 2

= 1 m&)2,x2 aoe-1/2<XX2 E

a0e

I,2

,x2

h2nr2 ---x 2 + 2m

(7.92)

Since

this must

hold for any arbitrary of x2 must be zelo.

x, in order to have Thus, -ti2cu2/:2m +

a solution the sum of ?4rnm2 = 0, and this

the coefficients

leads to a value for a,

Then

for the remainder of the equation

to be

satirfied,

the energy

eigenvalue

must be: E = E. = f wh (7.94)

Note equation tainty Equation

that the probability density is gaussian in form. One product ApAx would

1 @o / 2 f or this solution to the Schrodinger might suspect that for this Equation case the uncerof (7.9), indicates Comparkon of the wavefunction packet,

be a minimum.

(7.90) with the free-particle gaussian so for this case, (XI,

that 12 r~ = % cr2,

&=.L cI=-!= 0
VT-i cy

(7.915)

VCG

(P;,

= 1

Hence, that

again,

AxAp = ti/2.

In fact,

it is because

of the

uncertainty

principle zero. Clas-

the minimum

possible energy of the oscillator is greater than

198

Use of SchrGdingers equation sically, the minimum enegy state of an oscillator would occur when the E,,,, ~nass

was at rest (p = 0) at the position of zero displacement (x = 0 ) . T h e n b o t h kinetic and potential energies would vanish, and k n o w n , w i t h Ax = -Ip = 0 v i o l a t i n g t h e princ:iple Since = 0. This is not possible in quantum mechanics, b e c a u s e t h e n b o t h p o s i t i o n a n d m o m e n t u m w o u l d b e of uncertainty. Axz = (x2). (x) = ( p ) = 0 f o r t h e o s c i l l a t o r , Apz := ( p ) a n d

The average value for the energy in the grourld state is thus: (E) = & ( p ) + ;K ( x ) =: & Ap2 1 K 2 20 + ; KAx2

1 %*a =--.+ 2m 2 Since CY = mw/ii,

(t7.99)

(E)=~~+~K~=ahw+ahw=~kw
positive, and forces the ground state energy to have a positive value.

(7.100)

Thus, in a sense, the uncertainty principle requires both (p) a n d ( x ) t o b e

7.15 GENERAL WAVEFUNCTION AND ENERGY FOR THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

The general solution of the one dimensional harmonic +
l

oscillator 0 as x *

Schrodinger * x, is, for

equation which satisfies the boundary condition, a = mu/h,

*tx)

= x, o4 x2~e-1/2~=2, &=a

for n an even integer

(7.101)

@(X)

% &=O

crAx2te

-1mJ

for n an odd integer

(7.102)

By substituting into the Schrodinger equation, Equation (7.63), general expression for the energy is found to be:

one may find

the coefficients o4 in terms of a,,, and determine the energy eigenvalues. The

E, ==
The first five of the eigenfonctrons w a v e f u n c t i o n @0

hw,

n ==

0, 1, :2,3, . .

are given in Table 7.2, along with their energy

eigenvolues. The lowest (energy, %hw, belongs to the state described by the already discussed. This is called the zero point energy. T h e / @, 1 . five lowest possible energy eigenfunctions of Table 7.2 are graphed in Figures 7.6 through 7.10, along with their probability densities,

FigtIre 7 . 6 .

Wovefunction and probability density for the ground state (n = 0) of the energy.

harmonic oscillator. The horizontal1 bar beneath the origin indicates the range of possHble positions for classical motion with the r,ame

\/
Figure 7.7. with n = 1. Wavefunction and

+I

rL-a -l/2

probability d e n s i t y for t h e harmonic

rL-a-l/2
oscillator

X
state

(y-l/2
Figure 7.8. Wavefunctian and Iprobability density for the harmonic oscillator sttrte

with n = 2.

PI
3

a-l/2
Figure 7.9. with n = 3. Wavefunction clnd probability d e n s i t y for the harmonic oscillator st.ate

I4
4

f -I Al!?l
Figure 7.10. with n = 4.

cl/-k
Q-l/2

Wavefunction and probability density for the harmonic oscillator state

204

Use of Schrtidingers TABLE 7.2

equation Eigenvolues and Eigenfunctions for Fkst Five Simple Harmonic Oscillator States Energy Eigenvalue E

Quantum Number .__ 0 a H 0

l/4

Wavefunction +n

-1/2ax2

; hw

The coefficient aO,

in the case of each eigenfunction a,, m a y b e f o u n d b y a,,,

requiring that the total probability of finding a particle be unity. Thus, for the probability density is, from Equation (7.90), ao*Qo and the total probability is: = 1 a0 1 emax2

(7.104)

from Table 7.1. Therefore, assuming it is real and positive, the value of a0 determine a0 for each state.

for

this state is (a/~), as shown in Table 7.2. A similar integration must be done to

7.16 COMPARISON OF QUANTUM AND NEWTONIAN MECHANICS FOR THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
It is of interest to compare the probability distribution from quantum mechanics to that from Newtonian mechanics for a state of high n. If in Newtonian me&anits the position of the particle is measured at arbitrary times, one would expect that the probability of finding it in dx is inversely proportional to the speed,. i.e. proportional to the time

dt

= dx/(dx/dt)

that the particle spends in the range of

positions dx. In Problem 21 of Chapter 2 it was found; that the probability is then:

(7.106)
for an amplitude x0. The classical amplitude equating the maximum pcltential x,, for 11 given energy is founcl b y

energy to the total energy:

7.16

Comparison

of

quantum

and

newtonion

mechrmcs

205

The probability density, l/(z\/~~~~ xi), is plotted in Figure 7.1 1 as the dctted curve for E = I/;! fiw, corresponding to n = 20. The quantum density, 4b*@,

Figure 7.1 1.

Comparison of cIazSsicoI

(dotted) and quanltum

mechanical (solid) distribu-

tion functions for the one dimensIonal

harmonic oscillator with n = 20.

is the corresponding solid curve for n = 20. Between -x0

a n d x0 the main dif-

ferences are the oscillations <and z e r o s i n t h e q u a n t u m c u r v e . O u t s i d e t h i s r a n g e of x, t h e N e w t o n i a n probabiliiy density is exactly zero; the particle cannot go into a region in which the kinetic energy would be negative. There is a tail to .the quantum curve in those regions, however, indicating a possibility for the particle to be found there. In Figure 7.12 are given probmobility density plots for a harmonic oscillator classical density. These plots correwith1 n = 10, together with the ,corresponding

spond to a particle which is free to move in the vertical direction but is bound by the oscillator potential in the horizontal direction. If several thousand measurements of position of the oscillator were made and plotted on a graph, the resulting plot would have the appearance of the Figure. T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s may be seen more easily by considering a gaussian wave packet similar to that discussed for the free particle ot equation is satisfied by: the beginning of this chapter. The reader may verify by substituting into Equotion (7.87) that the Schrodinger 4(x<+) =

(is 4 exp - i a(.X - xg co5 wty 7r ) [ -; :2 of + 1-

1 axxo sin ot - 4 (YX~ sin 2wt 11

(7.107)

206

Use of Schrodingers equotioIl

0.3

-7-7---T

0.2

0.1

0 -10 -5 0 Distance in units of5 10

Figure 7.12. Density of points is proportional to the probability density for the harmonic oscillator with n = 1; quantum mechanical density at the top of the diagram, classical density below. This function is a superposition of many stationary states thus does not correspond to a definite energy. The @n exp(-iE,f/Fr), density is: and

probability

licl= fi

exp[-a(x

- x0 c o s wt)] with its

T h i s i s a w a v e p a c k e t o f c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i d t h l / d a = fi/mw, macroscopic mass of 1 kg and a spring frequency of 1 teristic width of the gaussian What about the energy is around The lo-l7 m. purposes, the position is known with negligible error. spread? expectation value of the energy cycle/set, for

center moving with the Newtonian simple harmonic motion, x = x0 c o s w t . F o r a the characall practical operator, Therefore,

ihil/at, is easily found with the help of Table 7.1 to be: (E) = ; mw2x~ + a Aw

This is the Newtonian energy plus one-half the zero point energy. Since the zero point energy for a frequency of 1 cycle/set mean is: is approximately 1Om34 i, one can forget about it for macroscopic bodies. The rms deviation of the energy from its

This is ~2 times the square root of the Newtonian energy times the zero ooint energy. For a macroscopic body, AE is negligible compared to E; it is about 10-l i if E is approximately a joule. On the other closely as we can measure, lhand, AE is very large compared to the zero point energy. So we conclude that for macroscopic bodies, as quantum and Newtonian mechanics agree for the

7.7 7 Correspondence principle in quantum harmonic

theory

207

oscillator. Of course, ,for microscopic bodies this is not true. In partic:uapproaches the ground state wavefunction and E ap-

lar, as the maximum classical displacement xg approaches zero, the wavefunction,. E q u a t i o n (7.44), for the stationary proaches the zero point energy. Also, ground state.

AE

approaches zero as one would expect

17 CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE IN QUANTUM THEORY

The above discussions of the classical and quantum descriptions of a simple harmonic oscillator and of a gaussian wave packet far a free particle provide illustrations of the application ,to quantum theory of the correspondence principle, which was discussed in (Chapter 3, in connection with special relativity. According to this principle, the quantum theory shauld results as the classical theor--Newtonian classical theory is known to holcl, give essentially the same mechanics--in situations where the

such as in situations involving bodies of macro-

scopic mass and size. It was seen, for example, that a wave packet describing a particle of macroscopic mass had negligible spreading, and, similarly, that a well-localized oscillator having negligible spread could be obtained for an osciilator of macroscopic mass. These situations almost always involve the superposition of an extremely larfge number of stationary states, leading to large quantum numbers. Hence, anotiler w a y o f s t a t i n g t h e correspontdence principle is that the classical theory must lbe involvinlg extremely large quantum ioules), the quantum an appropriate limit of the quantum theory

numbers. For example, in order for a particle of mass 1 g, in a one dimensionlal box of length 1 cm, to have a kinetic energy of 1 erg (1 O- number n must be determined through Equation (7.38), rV (8)~~10~3)(10~2)2(10-7) and so: (7.1 11)

(6.63
or t l X 102

x 10-34)2

(7.1 12)

As another example, the classic:al oscillator has an energy of order mwxz; for this to be described by a packet or superposition of quantum oscillators, which have energy of order nhw, we must have: u mw2x~ (7.1 13)

nfiw or form = 1 g, w = 1 set-,

x,, = 1 cm, = 102

v y4: = (10-3)(1)(10-2)2 ~ Ii 1 o-s4

So in these examples n is indeszd large.

One can actually show rigorously that if the oscillator wave packet, Equation (7.107), is expressed in terms of
L

superposition

of

oscillator

wavefunctions,

#(x,t)

= xA.@,(x)exp n =o

(7.1 15)

208

Use of Schrtidingers equofion

then to describe a macroscopic particle, the majority of quantum numbers n which contribute to the above sum are given appro.ximately above, and are hence very large. Numerous additional examples of this correspondence between quantum and classical theories in the linit of large quantum numbers will be discussed in later chapters, the in connection atom. with statistical mechanics, lattice vibrations in solids, and hydrogen by Equation (7.1 13)

FREE

PARTICLE
similar to those of a Newtonian distribution. Subsequently, the c:ases,

A free-particle wavefunction with propertiess

particle may be formed with an initial gausSsian

w a v e f u n c t i o n i s a l s o g a u s s i a n , w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p a t i a l w i d t h increasing with time due to the uncertainty in the momentum. For macroscopic Newtonian and quantum mechanics agree.

STEP POTENTIAL
If

> V,,

the

wavefunctions

are

simple

oscillating

exponentials

in

the

two

regions separated by the step. By using the conditions that the wavefunction and its derivative are continuous at the step, one may find the amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves. The particle current is proportional to the magnitude of the amplitude squared times the speecl. current or reflected current to the incoming current is The ratio of the transmitted the transmission or reflection the

coeffkient, respectively. The sum of these coefficients is unity, expressing conservation of number of particles. For energies below the top of the step, reflection coefficient is unity.

E < V,,,

SQUARE POTENTIAL EIARRIER

For a square potential barrier of height V,, some of the incident particles may tunnel through to the other side even if E of order Ed, << V,,. The fraction tunneling through is E)/h w h e r e a is t h e b a r r i e r w i d t h a n d p = \2m(v,--

PARTICLE IN A BOX
A particle confined in o finite region can have only discrete energies. This is illustrated by the discrete energy eigenvalues of the particle in the one dimen-

Problems

209

sional

box. At the boundaries of .the box, where the potential energy suddenly must be zero. These boundary conditions lead ~l,2n2/8m12, with n a nonThe lowest energy is greater than zero.

goes to infinity, the wavefun:tion

to standing waves with the discrete energies, E, = negative integer for a box of length 1.

HARMONIC Molly discrete

OSCILLATOR

physical systems approximate the harmonic oscillator potential for srlall energies. In this case, t h e l e v e l s a r e e v e n l y s p a c e d ; E, = (n + % )FIw, oscillator would have in

vibrations, i.e. for low energies. This is another system in which there are only w h e r e o is the angular frequency which the harmoni: gaussian bound.

Newtonian mechanics. Again in this case, a solutiorl lmay b e f o u n d w h i c h i: of shape and moves like a Newtonian particle. Here, the uncertainty in gaussian w i d t h b e c a u s e t h e p a r t i c l e 11s and quantum mechanics are For macroscopic systems, Newtonian the momentum does not inc,rease t h e equivalent.

1 . C o n s i d e r a p a r t i c l e o f m a s s llO- k g i n s i d e a o n e d i m e n s i o n a l b o x o f l e n g t h 3 c m . Suppose it is in a state such that i..s s p e e d i s a b o u t 1 cm;sec, to within 0.1%. What #IS

the corresponding quantum number n, and the corresponding uncertainty in the

quantum number?
Answer: 9 x 10z3; 9 x 1 Ozc-so q u a n t i z a t i o n o f F IS u n i m p o r t a n t . ~rnass m with a potential energy 2. A simple harmonic oscillator consists of a particle of o f % kx, w h e r e have 7i/2Ax \/k/m consistent

k is a constant. Estimate the minimum energy which the particle may

with the uncertainty principle, (Use i.e. by assuming form &J. = L (p>) ihe e n e r g y . the exact Ap,& 2 X/2) I f

and minimizing -

lOI p e r set, w h a t i s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e n e r g y i n eV? eV. e q u a t i o n f o r a m a s s m w i t h a p o t e n t i a l energy

A n s w e r : Emln * ifi +F; 0 . 3

3. W r i t e t h e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l !jchrGlinger

corresponding to that of (a) the gravitational field near the earths surface; (b) the i n t e r a c t i o n o f a n e l e c t r o n w i t h a f i x e d p o i n t p o s i t i v e c h a r g e , q. 4. L e t p b e t h e a n g l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e x a x i s o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f a p a r t i c l e i n t h e x y plum:. Thus, in terms of

x a n d y , (6 = tan- ( y / x ) . S h o w t h a t $ = e@ satisfier, the two

e q u a t i o n , w i t h V = 0 f o r o p a r t i c l e c o n s t r a i n e d t o r-rove -1

d i m e n s i o n a l Schrodinger -2 2 d iClay

i n a c i r c u l a r p a t h w h e r e x2 + y2 = R2 i s a c o n s t a n t . h2/2m (a$/ax
+ E$ = 0 . W h a t i s t h e e n e r g y , 15, i n t e r m s o f t h e c o n s t a n t s , n a n d R? have o n l y o n e v a l u e f o r a g i v e n If the wave function can

p, f i n d t h e p o s s i b l e v a l u e s

that n can have.

2 2

Answer:

?-.n
2mR2

= 0, * 1, +2,. . .

2 10

U s e o f SchrGdingers equafion

5.

The

rigorous

definition

of

Lx i s

the

root

mean

square d e v i a t i o n

from

the

average

of x, or:

s i m i l a r l y f o r Sp. Find Lx,

-Ip, and

.Ix.Ip,

for the lowest-energy level of o

particle

o f m a s s m i n a o n e d i m e n s i o n a l b o x o f width&. ____ possible. = 0.567h > ; fi, t h e

m i n i m u m

6.

Using the exact time-dependent given in Equation (7.18),

gaussian

wave packet for a .Ip,, and

localized verify that

free particle ther,e e x -

calculate (p,) and

pectation values do not change in time.

7.

A for

one 0

dimensional < x < 1.

potential that k

is if =

V V,

= >

Vo E

> >

0 0,

for the

<

and E

x must

>

L,

and

is

= =

Show

energy -\/2m(Vo

satisfy

tan(ltL)

2/3&/(k2

- @) w h e r e

~?%E/tr andp =

- E)/h.

8.

F o r t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n o f E q u a t i o n (7.9), Sx.lp s h o w term t h a t ( E ) = (pji/2m) with + %h2/mc2, the to

= 1/2 h w h e n t = 0 . A l s o f o r t = 0 , energy, plus a quantum F i n d 1E

Newtonian the

associated

the wave packet -..- -

due

momentum

distribution.

w h e r e I. s -L

AE = d=- (E))). dx =

In addition to the integrals given in Table 7.1, use are independent of time.

x 4e -*x2

% t/*/tu These results

9.

I f I$, a n d icz a r e t h e normalized

w a v e f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e t w o l o w e s t - e n e r g y wave4, + 2$* a n d f i n d

f u n c t i o n s f o r a p a r t i c l e i n a o n e d i m e n s i o n a l b o x , normolize the expectation value of the energy.

Answer: 10.

9h2W2 ___
2vGl value of the momentum

F o r t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n o f P r o b l e m 9 , f i n d t h e expec.tation as a function of time.

Answer: 11.
Show that the function $ = A sin sional Schrtidinger equation, (k,x) sin (k,y) sin (k,z) satisfies the three dimen-

I f t h i s i s t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i n a b o x o f d i m e n s i o n s a,b,c, find the possible values for k,,

i n t h e x,y,z d i r e c t i o n s ,

k , , k , , and find the possible energies E. ,...

Answer: 12.
If the potential energy is V = V0 > 0 for 0 < x < a and V = 0

elsewhere,

find the transmission

#coefficient

f o r E > V,.

Show thot this approaches one for

large E. What would this transmission coefficient be for Newtonian mechanics?

Proble nl!i 8(ru/k)2

211

Answer:

k=
13.

For
r z mass

----__ and (? = \/l!!T - 0) ii 1/

particles x2 m, i n s i d e CI spherical container of radius r, V = 0 for + y 2 + .z2 < R. t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s z e r o a t r = show that there ore solutions of the three

R . F o r a p a r t i c l e of
wave equation of

dimensional

t h e f o r m : $ = o s i n (kr)/kr

6 Ek. W h a t a r e t h e p o s s i b l e v a l u e s o f

k and E?

Answer: 14.

k =

y,E

$:fs,n

= 1,2,3,.

F o r t h e p a r t i c l e i n t h e sphericol the form:

box of Problem 13, show that there are solutions of

where

Ir i s t h e a n g l e r e l a t i v e t o t h e

z axis, cos

0 =

z/r.

Write the transcendental

equation, the solutions of which would give the possible values of related? What is the probability of finding the particle at z = O?

k. How ore k and E

Answer: 15.
In three

tan(kR) =

kR; E = hk2/2m;
the potential

zero.
energy = V, > ct particle 0 for r > sees is The V = 0 $ for = V

dimensions,

4x +

y2

z2

<

and

R.

solution

o s i n (kr)/kr q =

e -IE g i v e n f o r r <: IS w h e r e

R . F o r r L R a n d E <: 0 , s h o w t h a t t l s o l u t i o n i s

bge-.,

@ = 1/2m(vov~ E)/h. T h i s $ s a t i s f i e s t h e boundcn-y

condition,

# + 0 ~1s

* z. F r o m t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s a t

r = R,

find

relationship between p and k. This leads to the possible values of

E.

16.

Two

Answer:

tan(kR)

-k/6.
c o n s t r a i n e d t o m o v e o n t h e x a x i s , a r e con- x1 )2. T h u s , t h e Schrodinger e q u a t i o n be %

p a r t i c l e s o f m a s s e s ml a n d m2,

nected by o spring, so that V = comes:

k( x2

+
N o w l e t x = x2 t h e center similar

;k(x2 - x,)% =

E+
+

--. x1, t h e r e l a t i v e c o o r d i n a t e , a n d X = (mtx,

m2x2)/(m,

+ m2),
a n d a

o f mctss c o o r d i n a t e . U s e for

expression

a/a x2

tJ/dx, = ?Ix/Jxt(djdx)

?iX/rYx,(~/~X)

t o o b t a i n CI d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i n t e r m s o f x a n d X . w i t h CD,, t h e o n e

S h o w t h a t t h e r e i s a s o l u t i o n o f t h e f o r m @ = @,,(x)emkX dimensional harmonic oscillator with the reduced solutions.Verifythat + E =

E, +

k2ii2/2(m,
E,,

m2)

m o s s , g i v e n b y H = mlm2/(ml E?

m;,),

and with

the harmonic

oscillator energy, given by o f t h e t w o p a r t s o f @ and

E, = (n + %)h a What i s t h e p h y s i c a l significanc:e

equatilsn

17.

Assume that the general solution of the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator is of the form G =

f(x)e-2
and

ax2, w i t h a = mu/ii.
find o r e l a t i o n s h i p

S h o w t h a t (ii2/2rn)

d2f/dX2 - -

ACM df/dx + ( E - t i t i w ) the differential equation

f = 0. Assume that

f = ,&Coa~x2,
between at and

Substitute into a&+, by setting

the coefficient of each power of

x to zero. Show that

04 = 0 f o r

4 > n/2 if

212

Lke of Schri;dingers equof;on

E ~~ % h o = n h w w i t h n a n e v e n i n t e g e r . T h u s , f n u m b e r o f t e r m s . Similar results occur for: f = is, a p o l y n o m i a l w i t h a f i n i t e - - I Then n is U&X + .L&O

an odd integer.

18.

By comparison with the one dimensional simple harmonic oscillator Schrbdinger equation, show that:

By operating on Equation (1) on both sides with

8dld.x

- mu/f x a n d c o m p a r i n g x) a,, = a+, t h a t w h e r e a,+, i f $,, .= % t i w ,

t h e r e s u l t w i t h Equation !2), s h o w t h a t (d/dx - mw/h i s a n e i g e n f u n c t i o n w i t h E = E,,,, t h e r e a r e e n e r g i e s I!, == (n + % )fiio. mti>/h, f i n d @, and @, b y t h i s m e t h o d . that the expectation and (7.1 = E, + hw. T h i s

s h o w s

S t a r t i n g

w i t h @ = aem IX w i t h CY =

19.

Verify

values for the energy and its uncertainty 1 0 ) are correct for the harmonic oscillator

AE wave

given

in

Equations Equation

(7.109) (7.107). the

packet,

20.

Show

that

expectation

value

of sin

the wt

momentum for the

is

the

same

~1s

the

Newtonian wave

m o m e n t u m , p = mV = -mmxO packet, Equation (7.107)

,simple

harmonic oscillator

21.

F i n d t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y i n t h e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l Schrodinger satisfied by the wave function:

I--

equation that is

ev itit/m

[x

(pot/m)

2
+ ;

cr2

/2

gt]

hit/m

Show that the probability density is: Ic*+ = 0 -yE-----vTV ~7 + A2t2/m2 ew _02(x s9t2j2 Fb0tlm ~ ~___

(m

+ h2f2/m2)

What is the meaning of this density?

Answer: 2:2.
momentum V =

v
is

=
the

-mgx.
wovefunction of Problem 21, ttie e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f t h e for the potential energy Newtonian value , (pX) = p0 + m g t ,

Show that for the

-mgx.

hydrogen atom and angular momentum

We have seen how electrons can behave like wave!; when traveling from one just point to another, such as when they pass through crystals and are diffracted trons,. as described by the Schrodinger l i k e x r a y s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r i t w i l l b e s h o w n h o w t h e w a v e l i k e c h a r a c t e r o f elc:mcequation, can be used to explain many of the observed properties of hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen atom at rest is to be pictured as consisting of a negatively charged electron and a much more massi\/le, positively charged proton. The attractive Coulomb force between the oppositoly charged particles keeps the electroll b o u n d t o t h e h e a v y p r o t o n , w h i c h r e m a i n s nearly at rest while the electron probability waves may oscillate in many different ways in the nearby neighborhooo of the proton. The states of oscillaticln, having a definite energy-or definite f r e q u e n c y - - a r e quite stable and are IO called stationary discrete The spectrum. positions of the stationary state energy levels were first calculated by Bohr sfotes. Transitions between these stationary states give rise

the emission or absorption of photons of discrete frequencies, and hence to a

using some very simple postulates, a number of years before the Schrtidinger wave equation was discovered. Although Bohrs theory was not entirely correct, when the wave equation was solved for the hydrogen atom the energy levels were found to lie at exactly the positions calculated by Bohr. The problem of the hydrogen atom, because it involves only two particles, is one of the very few problems for which the SchrGdinger equation is exactly soluble in terms of simple functions. The solution of this problem and its agreement with observation has been one of the most spectacular successes of quantum theory. We shall first briefly discuss the I3ohr theory of hydrogen. We shall then see how the wave equation leads to quantization of energies and will discover, as w e l l , t h a t t h e w a v e e q u a t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t t h e atorns quantized. angular momentum is

1 PARTICLE IN A BOX
Before discussing the theory of hydrogen in detail, it will be useful to recapitulaie some of the ideas used in Chapter 7 in the quantum mechanical description of a

213

2 14

H y d r o g e n atom and ongulor

momentum

particle in a one dimensional box. There it was seen ,that

a discrete set of sta-

tionary state energy levels arose due to the confinement of the particle within the box of finite size. The smaller the box, the more widely spaced were the energy levels. The energy levels of the particle in the one dimensional box may be represented in the energy level diagram in Figure 8.1, where energy is plotted ll up-

" := 2 t

n:=l

I
Figure 8.1. Energy level diagram for the particle in 0 one dimensional box ellergy. emitting wards, with the horizontal lines representing the allowed values of the slilghtly, it may make transitions between states and conserve energy by

These are the stationary states of the system, and if the system is perturbed or absorbing a photon. If, for example, the transition goes from an upper state of energy E, to a lower state E,, the frequency of the emitted photon will be given by:
hu = E, E, = ^

63.1)

Since the energies are discrete, the possible frequencies u are discrete, and the spectrum will also be discrete. Atoms are systems in which electrons are confined to a small volume, known t o b e ot dimensions on the order of a few angstroms. In this case, the potential energy is negative, and is due to the attractive Coulomb force between electrons alnd nucleus. Although the particle in a box has zero potential energy, and moves in one dimension rather than in three as do the electrons in atoms, we should be able to get a rough idea of the energy level spacing in atoms, arising from confinement particle of the electrons, by comparing the lower energy level spacings of a in a box whose size is roughly that of an atom. the wavelength of light given off in the transition

For example, let us ccllculate

from the state with n = 2 to that for n = 1 for a length L o f t h e b o x e q u a l t o three Angstroms. The energies for the particle in the box are given by:

(8.2)
Then for the 2 + 1 trarlsition,

8.2

Balmers

experimental

formura

215

Therefore, using form the mass of the electron, 9.1 1 :< 10m3 x = 8mLc 3h 8(9.11 x __10-3)(3 x 1C-)2(3

kg, x 10)

3(6.63

x lCl-) p.4)

? 10-m = 1 0 0 0 A n g s t r o m s .

This is comparable to the wavelengths emitted by atoms for transitions between the lower states, which strongly sulggests that the wavelike character of the elecof the emitted light is trons in the atom is responsible for the observed discrete spectra. It should be noted that the reciprocal of the wavellength stationary states: 1 -= x $ (E - 4 ) given by a simple formula, involving a difference between the energies of t,wo

8.2 BALMERS EXPERIMENTAL FORMULA FOR THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

We shall now consider in detail the lightest and simplest element, hydrogen. The spectrum of hydrogen contains rnelny discrete lines. By fitting the experimental data, Balmer showed in 1885 that the values of the Iwavelengths can be expressed by the n, following = 1,2,3,. formula: . .; fl* = n, -1, n, + 2,. . in this spectlurn

T h e R y d b e r g c o n s t a n t RH has been rneasured with great accuracy by spectroscopists. It has the value:

R, = 10,967,758.1

IT-'

(8.7)
o

The fact that, as in the case of the particle in a box, l/X is proportional to definite energies, and that transitions between thl2se

difference of terms suggests that the hydrogen atom has stationary states of states give rise to the down to a lower discrete spectral lines. For a transition from some energy level E,

level 4, the values of l/X would be given by Equation (8.5) above. In the case of hydrogen, when the electron and proton are separated on infinite distance, the potential energy is defined tcl be zero. The potential energy in the

oc~uctl
ill la

atom must therefore be negative. The magnitude of the potential energy must be larger than the kinetic energy in order for the system to remain confined parison bound state, Then the nonrelotivistlc energy levels should be negative. Upon cornof Equation (8.5) with the experimental result in Equation (8.6), we see the values of the hydrogen atom energy t h a t a p a r t f r o m a n a d d i t i v e constlsnt, levels must be given by:

16

Hydrogen

otom and

angular

momentum

8.3 SPECTRAL SERIES FOR HYDROGEN

The energies E, = -R,hc/n can be represented by the energy level diagram in n = 1. As n takes on larger and

Figure 8.2. The lowest-lying level is labeled

FiglJre 8.2. Energy level ~diagram energy is at the top of the di~~gram. larger integral
E,

for the electron in atomic hydrogen. The zero of

values,
=

the
:=

energies
-

E,

approach

zero.

In

electron

volts: >: 10)

-R,hc

--( 1 . 0 9 7 x 1 07)(6.63 1 . 6 x lo-

x 1W3-)(3 i/eV

= - 1 3 . 6 eV The value of

(8.9)

E2 is one-fourth of this or -3.4 eV. A transition from the n = 2 to - 13.6) eV

the n = 1 state would then correspond to a photon of (energy --3.4-(

or 10.2 eV, w i t h a w a v e l e n g t h o f 1 2 1 6 a n g s t r o m s i n tile u l t r a v i o l e t . T r a n s i t i o n s d o w n t o a g i v e n s t a t e fr,Dm all higher states give rise to series of spectral lines which have been given the names of the scientists who first observed them er.perimentally. Thus, for example, the various transitions n := 2 + r) = n := 1, etc., down to the lowest (ground) state, corlrespond violet lines known as the l-yman series. The 1216 angstrom line 1, n =: 3 + above to a series of ultracalculated

is the line having the longest wavelength in this series. The transitions leading to the Lyman series are depicted schematically in the energy level diagram, Figure 8.3. The names of the various series of lines
O:3 -2

are g i v e n i n T a b l e 8 . 1 . W i t h i n

Lyman series

-1 ~

Energy level diagram showing the series of transitions down to the ground Figure 8.3. level which give rise to the Lyman series of spectral lines. easch series, the lines are labeled y, CC, 8, y, 6,. . . in orcler of decreasing wavelength

(increasing energy). The TV, p,

6 lines of the Balmer series lie in the visible.

8.4 Bohr model Names of the Series of

217

TABLE

8.1

Spectral lines observed in Hydrogen. n = 2,3,. . -~+ n = 1 L y m a n s e r i e s n = 3,4,. . + n = 2 B a l m e r s e r i e s n = 4, 5,. . -~+ n = 3 Paschen s e r i e s n = 5, 6,. . -+ n = 4 Brackett Etc. unnamed series n = 6,7,. . * n = 5 Pfund series

mpIe

What is the energy in eV of a photon in the fi line of the Lyman series?

ution T h e /I line of the Lyman series corresponds to a transition from the n = 3 state to then = 1 state. The energy is: ( 1 . 0 9 7 x 10)(6.63 1.6 x loo-:I-)(3 x 10R)(%) = ,2,,,=\,

x lo-l9 i/G

8.4

BOHR

MODEL

FOR

HYDROGEIN

We have inferred from the experimental data that there exists a series of energy levels in hydrogen. This is a complact way of describing the experimental dmata, and is certainly consistent with the previous discussion of de Broglie waves. Lei IJS now approach the bound electron-proton system frown hydrogen have the values they do have. We will the point of view of theory,

and see if we can predict or explain mathematically why the energy levels, in firsi discuss the theory of Bohr, in which the electron is pictured CIS m o v i n g i n a n o r b i t d e s c r i b e d b y N e w t o n i a n mechanics, but with an additional condition on the orbit circumference due to the wave the properties wave of the electron. of This theory is not correct. to find However, the because theory. it agreed with experimental energies so well, it did cause people to think more about orbits. We first consider those aspects of the Bohr model of hydrogen which can be treated using Newtonian mechanics. In Bohrs model, an electron orbits around a proton under the action of electrostatic forces. We will initially assume that the proton mass is so large that the proton can be treated as being at rest. Also we shall assume the electron moves in a circular orbit of radius force r. T h e Newtonialn equation F = ma, means that the electron mass times the centripetal properties particles and eventually correct Also, it gives an intuitive, although incorrect, feeling for the quantization of the

acceleration in the circular orbit is equal to the electrostatic force of attraction. Thus, if the electrons speed is v,

(8. IO)

where e is the electronic charge and Z is the number of protons in the nucleu!j. (For hydrogen, Z = 1. H o w e v e r , w i t h Z = 2,3,. . . , o n e w o u l d h a v e t h e B o h r

218

Hydrogen

atom

ond

ongulor

momentum

model for singly ionized helium, doubly ionized lithium, etc.) The energy we desire to find is, accordirlg electrostatic potential to Newtonian mechanics, the kinetic energy plus the energy:
E = i my Ze2 __ 4*tor

(8.1 1)

The speed may be eliminated between Equations (8.10) and (8.11) to find that the total energy is:

E= -1x
2 47rtor

(8.12)

which

is

one-half

the

potential

energy.

8.5 QllANTlZATlON

IN THE BOHR MODEL

Next we may use the wave nature of the electron to obtain quantization conditions on the orbits of the electron which will lead to a discrete set of energy levels. The de Broglie wavelength is Plancks constant divided by the momentum, or:

x=h mv
wave than amplitude must fit continuously onto itself after each revolution. This

(13.13)

Imagine the electron de Broglie wave propagating around in the circular orbit. In order for it not to interfere destructively with itself after many revolutions, the would mean that the circumference of the orbit is an integral number of wavelengths, so as the electron goes around the orbit, the wave is periodically repeated. This condition is
m,X = 27rf;

m, =

1,2,3,...

(8.14)

This equation may be rewritten from the expression for the de Broglie wavelength as: m v r = (k).F)= $ = ,n,-fi

(13.15)

Since mvr is the angular momentum, Equation (8.15) states Bohrs original rule for the postulated quantization of angular momentum. This quantization rule was generalized by Bohr and Sommerfeld to apply to elliptical orbits, but we shall discuss only the circular case. The speed may be eliminated between the quantization condition, Equation (8.15), and the Newtonian force equation, Equation (8.10). The resuilt, after solving for r, is: r = 47rt0m~ti2 Zem

(19.16)

8.5 Quantizotion in the Bohr model

Finally, this radius may be substituted into the energy equation, Equation (8.6). This gives the Bohr formula for the energy levels: E n = -1 Zem 1 ~mZ, (8.1:7)

219

2 (47rQ)

This result says that the energy levels of the electron in hydrogen are negatiive, corresponding to a bound state, and are inversely proportional to the square of an integer. Thus the energy level diagram will look just like that of Figure 8.2 from experiment. The quantization arises in Bohrs theory from a condition, Equation (8.15),. on the allowed values of orbital angular momentum. Physically, this can arise frown a boundary condition which, stated mathematically, takes the form of a perllodicity condition. For a particle moving in a circular orbit, the particles position is described by an angle cp. This is quite different frorn the case of a particle in a box, because the circle is endless. The wave, rather t/Ian $((F), then as p increases, #(cp) bouncing back from .the p has the value increases by ;!a:, ends, just keeps on going. If the wavefunction at the angle will change in some fashion; if cp

so that the wave has come around to the same physical point, the wavefunction is +(cp + 27r), a n d t h i s s h o u l d b e t h e s a m e a s #((F) itself. Otherwise, the wavefunction would not have a unique value at a given pllysical point. Hence, instead of a boundary condition, we have a periodicity condition: (8.I 8) This equation is the mathematiccll cumference of the orbit must contain analogue of the requirement that the ciran integral number energy of wavelengths.

We can now see if the energies obtained in Equation (8.17) have the correect m a g n i t u d e . I n a n a l o g y w i t h E q u a t i o n (8.8), t h e theory may be written as: -R,hc EC----2 m, (8.19) derived from the Bohr

where, since Z = 1 for hydrogen, (8.20)

The subscript x on R, denotes that we treated the proton as a particle of infinitle mass, since we assumed it was at rest. This constant R _ has been written in terlms of two basic physical constants; t h e C o m p t o n w a v e l e n g t h , A, = and the physically dimensionless fine structure constant fine structure constant is an extremely important h/me, which The physics was discussed in connection with Compton scattering of photons by electrons; cy s e2/47rcOlic. constant in fundamental

and occurs in many places, such as in small corrections to atomic energy IeAs due to relativistic and intrinsic angular momentum effects. The Compton wavelength is A, = 2.4263 x lo-* m ; t h e f i n e s t r u c t u r e c o n s t a n t h a s t h e v a l u e a =:

220

Hydrogen atom and angular momenfum l/l 37.036. Therefore, RI can be evaluated, and is found to have the value: R, = 1 . 0 9 7 3 8 x lOm- (13.21)

8.6 REDUCED MASS

T h e v a l u e o f R, differs from the experimental value of R, of Equation (8.7) starting in the fourth significant figure. T h e agreement error in is close enough. However, it can R, the theoretical Rydberg constant = is: 1 ---. 1 r330 (8.22) readelr be made might well think that this even closer. The fractional

R, -RH _--RH

6 . 0 x lo3 ~ 1 . 0 9 6 8 x lo7

W e m a y a l s o o b s e r v e that the mass of the proton is just 1836 times the muss of the electron, which suggests that we may be able to arrive at even closer agreement if we take into account the motion of the proton. In a two-particle system, one particle does not move is given by: rc = (reme + r,m,) (me + m,) (8.23) the around the other, but both move around the common center of mass. The position of the center of mass

where the subscripts e and p

refer to electron and proton, respectively. Alsc,

position of the electron relative to the proton is: r, = re - rp (i3.24)

The force between electron and proton depends only on the relative displacement rc land r , . If Equations (8.23) and (8.24) are solved for r, a n d rp i n t e r m s o f r, and substituted into the Newtonian force equations

F =

m a for the r , alone. (8.10) the

two particles, then two equations result, one for rc alone and one for accelerated. m,m,/(m, The equation The for rr gives quuntity p is a radial equation the similar to

The equation for rc simply states that the center of mass of the system is not Equation Likewise, b u t w i t h r r e p l a c e d b y t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e r , alld m r e p l a c e d b y p = + m,). called reduced moss. total orbital angular momentum of the atom, including a small contribution from motion of the nucleus, deperlds only on p and r,. It is brvr,, where v is the speed of the electron relative tc the proton. If the total angular momentum is set Iequal to m,fi i n a n a l o g y w i t h E q u a t i o n (8.15), all the theory is as before but with /.r replacing m in the energy. Thus the energy levels are 1 E, = -AL2 (47rt,h) m2, into account, the preclicted

Thus, when the slight motion of the proton is takervalue of the Rydberg corlstant for hydrogen is

(8.26)

8.7 Schriidinger equation for hydrog,en TABLE

6.2 Experimental Values of the Rydberg Atoms

221

Constant for Some Multiply-lonized

Atom

Rydberg Constant m 1
10,967,758.1 10,970,741.9 10,971,734.8 10,971,734.4 10,972,226.4 10,972,729.5 10,972,872.3 10,973,062.3 10,973,183.5 10,973,228.6 10,973,300.4 10,973,353.9

2He3 ?He4 3Li6 3Li7 4Beq 11

5B

IH 1H2 1H3

12 6C 14
7N

80

16

This agrees with experiment to seven significant figures. The Rydberg constants for other similar systems such as singly ionized helium, doubly ionized lithium, etc., which also have hydrogen-like spectra, may be found by putting in the reduced mass for the nucleus-electron system and by multiplying by the sql.lare of the nuclear charge number Z2, gas in Equation (8.17). These agree equally well with experiment. A list of some observed Rydberg constants for multiply ionized

atoms

is given in Table 8.2. The Bohr model thus {gives a simple and compact of an enormous amount of experimental m, data.

explanation

The characteristic size or radius of the hydrogen, atom for the ground state may be found from Equation (8.16) Iusing fine structure constant and the Cctmpton mass corrections), = 1 and Z = 1. In terms of thle this is (neglecting reduced wavelength,

A<
==: 2wa

= 0.529 x

lo-m = 0 . 5 2 9 A n g s t r o m s

(8 :2i7)

The speed of the electron in its orbit may be found by substituting the radius r of Equation (8.9) into Equation (8.8). The result is
C N m,

(8.28)

Then, for the ground state of the hydrogen atom, v/c is about /,,,, much less than unity. This justifies the nonrelativistic treatment in the theory.

SCHRtiDlNGER

EQUATION FOR HYDROGEN

which agrees well with

We have discussed a simple picture of the hydrogen (atom

experiment as far as the energy levels are concerned. However, this model carlnot be used in finding the probability of a transition from one state to another with emission or absorption of a photon. It also cannot be applied successfully to more

222

Hydrogen

atom

and angular momentum IUS a neutral helium atom witlh

complicated atoms such

two electrons. Further-

more, although with the Bohr theory the quantum number in the energy expression is proportional to the orbital angular momentum, the correct theory to be discussed next shows that the energy is actually not dependent on this angular momentum. The correct way to approach these problems is b,y means of the three dimensional Schrtidinger equation. If for the hydrogen atom the two-particle wave equation is used, it may Ibe separated into a part describing the center of Imass motion and another part describing relative motion. The part giving the relative motion is found to be silnilar to the SchrGdinger mass of the proton is asslJmed e q u a t i o n o b t a i n e d wherl the to be infinite. The only difference is that in place and is placed at the origin. the small corrections due

of the electron mass m, tile reduced mass p appears. Let us then, for simplicity, temporarily assume the proton is infinitely massive After m the deriving the energy levels, v/e can then to Inotion - - k. T h e e l e c t r o n i s a t p o s i t i o n (x,y,z) a d i s t a n c e r = ( x + yz + z)/ f r o m proton. In three dimensions, the
32

introduce

of the nucleus about the center of mass by making the replacelment

kinetic

energy

operator
2

is: (8.29)

2 y 2 EL!! = _- +$+$ 2 m 2m ( C?X Y 1

The potential energy for the hydrogen atom, where Z = 1, is:

=-eZ
4ircOr For a wave function of the form $ = #(r)e-lElfi, inger equation in three dimensions is then: a <stationary

(8.30) state, the Schr6d-

(8.31) Because r is a moderately complicated function of x, y, and z, whereas the potential energy depends only on r , it is more convenient to work with spherical polar coordinates r , 0 a n d q. These coordinates are defined as follows: r is the distance from the origin to the electron as seen in FiglJre 8.4; p is an angle in the xy Plane, measured from the positive x axis to the projection of the vector r onto t h e x y p l a n e ; 0 i s t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n r a n d t h e z axis. Thus the coordinate tralisformations are: r = VFTjT x =: r,sinflcoscp

0 = tan-

(2: ) a n d

=: r:sinOsincp

(8.32)

z =- r ~cos

19

8.8 Physical

interpret&ion

223

Figure The kinetic energy operator

8.4.

Spherical polar coordinates.

expressed

in

spherical

polar

coordinates

is

derived

i n A p p e n d i x 1 . T h e r e s u l t o f m a k i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t o s p h e r i c a l polar coordinates is: ~ -. + rz t a n 19 afI equation becomes:

2
POP With this operator, the Schrijdinger

a2

(8.33)

r2 sin 0 ap*

(8.3,4)

; PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF DERIVATIVES WITH RESPECT TO r

The terms in Equation (8.34) involving only derivatives with respect to r have a

very simple physical interpretation. Suppose we have a steady source of particles at the origin, which emits particles of definite energy that travel radially outward symmetrically metric de in all directions. This corresponds radially to cl stationary which spherically be rNym-

Broglie

wave

propagatllng

outwards,

will

described

b y s o m e w a v e f u n c t i o n $(r,

t) = @ (r)emiE. It is not difficult to guess what the

form of the spatial part of the wavefunction must be. In order to have an outg o i n g s p h e r i c a l w a v e , +(r) exp(ip,r), must involve an exponential factor of the form

where p, is the radial component of momentum of the particles. This ,for a beam of particle:, of

i s a n a l o g o u s t o a f a c t o r o f t h e f o r m exp(ip,x) momentum pX propagating in the x direction.

In addition, if the system is to remain stationary so that particles do not pile up at any one radius, the number of particles to be found inside a spherical shell centered at the origin of radius r, area 4rr2 and thickness dr, must be the same

224

Hydrogen atom and angu/a,r momentum f o r a l l r . T h u s , ) ll/(r) ) a4 7rr2dr = c o n s t a n t , independent of r. The probability

density ( $(r) ( 2 must be inversely proportional to the square of the radius. This is the quantum analogue of the well-known inverse square law for the intensity of outgoing spherical waves, found in classical physics. Since / g(r) tional to l/r', t h e radius itself, so we would expect the wavefunction to be given by: P,F a(r) or #(r,t) = Ae = *e r
i(,,,,-Et),7

/ 2 is propor-

a m p l i t u d e #(r) itself must be inversely proportional to the

(13.35)

(13.36)

W e m a y n o w u s e t h i s r a d i a l w a v e f u n c t i o n a(r) to derive the form of the operator corresponding .io p , , the radial component of momentum. Since E is d e f i n i t e l y k n o w n , a n d E = p;/2m, known, and so a(r) We might expect, t h e r a d i a l momentum must be definitely with eigenvalues p,. must in fact be an eigenfunction of prop

by analogy with one dimensional wave motion, that p, h/i(a/cYr). H owever, if we differentiate ipc)

would involve a term of the form using this operator, we find that

(13.37) because of the appearance of the factor r in the denominator of a(r). not an eigenfunction of h,/i(cY/ar). as: Thus @ is

However, the above equation can be rewritten

-ti a -i (ar

+1 cp=p,@ r

Therefore, @ is an eigenfunction of --ih(a/(Ir

+ 1 /r),

with eigenvalue p,. We

can therefore identify the operator on the left of the above equation as:

Pr,,
From this, the kinetic Ienergy be obtained as:

?=I a -+1 = T r (dr r1

operator corresponding to radial motion can

8 . 9 so/uliorls These are precisely the terms involving derivatives with respect to r in tion (8.34), to radial motion. T h e r e m a i n i n g t e r m s , i n v o l v i n g d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o H a n d p, w i l l b e shown later to have a similar interpretation in energy due to rotational motion. termls of contributions to kirletllc

225

ECIIJCI-

and thus may be interpreted as the contributions to kinetic energy clue

SOLUTIONS OF THE SCHRijDlNGER

EQUATION
solutions. of Equation r, 0

It has been found that there exist energy eigenfunc:tion

( 8 . 3 4 ) w h i c h m a y b e w r i t t e n i n t h e formlof a produc:t of functions, each folctor in the product being a function of only one of the independent variables and CF. The solutions can be written as follows:

w h e r e R,t (r) is a function only of r ; otma(fI) is a function only of cp. on C or m; that 0 5 t < n; and

is a function only of H; a n d P,, F The energy levels depend on II, a positive integer, but not

tis an integer associated with the total angular momentum t,uch m, is a positive or hegative integer, or zero, associctted 1 m, 1 < .t chase,

w i t h t h e z component of angular momentum such that

The simplest of these solutions, corresponding to the ground state, is ons in w h i c h t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n d e p e n d s o n l y o n r a n d n o t o n 0 or CF. I n t h i s the SchrGdinger equation, Equation (8.34), reduces to: (E3.42) and the simplest solution is: #loo = -\/T/Ka3 em (8.43)

where the constant a is the Bohr radius, equal to 0.5~29 angstroms for hydroI;gen, and given by: 47rtJ12 (, = -~ me2 T h e l a b e l s o n t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $Io0 mean #*# o v e r a l l s p a c e ( 0 5 r < 5, 0 Differentiation with respect to r gives 5 us: H n = 1, ! = 0, m, = 0, as (l3.44) will be derlsity

seen. The function is normalized so that the integral of the probability 5 ir, 0 5 p < 2~) s h o w t h a t t h i s i s a solution by direct substitution into Equation l(8.34)

is unity. We c:an or (8.4.2).

d(e-) --.
dr

1 = --e -+
a

(8.45) canc:els #l00 are

s o t h a t t h e s e c o n d t e r m i n E q u a t i o n (8.42), -(h2/2m)(2/r)d~,,,/dr, the potential energy term, -(e2/4ator)#loo. Two derivatives of

226

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum equivalent to multiplying by a factor of l/a, E, = -;.; = so the energy must be: -me -

2(4moh)*
This is identical to the ground state energy given by the Bohr theory. In fact, solutions to tllis three dimensional equation, values given by the Bohr theory formula: E q u a t i o n (8.42), exist which satisfy the boundary conditions, provided the energies have only the

(8.47)
However, the integer n, which is called the principal q u a n t u m n u m b e r , h a s nothing to do with angular momentum. For a given -value of the integer, there are n2 solutions which differ in their dependence on the angular variables 0 a n d cp. All these solutions have the same energy E,; they are said to be degenerate. I n Table 8.3 are given all the wave functions for n = 1, 2 and 3. Nornralized Wavefunctions for Low--Lying States of Hydrogen. 1 -r/c, Te iua &(I - - f $exp (-i b):

TABLE 8.3

= 1

* 100

l, = 2

* 2oo =

+ 210 =

.-rexp

- i

41hG3

If 2 a 1

cosfl

*21, + , = $6 e x p - i 5 s i n Be *a ( )

n = 3

Figure 8.9.

Squares of hydrogen wavefunctions for 3d states with m = 0, =I= 1, &2.

Figure 8.10.

Squares of hydrogen wavefunctions for 4d states with m = 0, &l, +2.

Figure 8.12.

Square of 6f (m = 0) hydrogen wavefunction.

230

Hydrogen afom and ongulol-

momentum

Figures 8.5 through 8.12 are probability density pictures of the squares of some of these wavefunctions. These pictures have been drawn in such a way that, if one were to make a few thousand measurements of position of the electron in t h e g i v e n s t a t e , a n d theri plot all those positions as dots on polar graph paper w i t h r v e r s u s 0, the density of dots would appear as in the pictures. The density of dots is thus proportional to the probability of finding the electron at the plotted r and 8. The reader may verify that the wavefunctions given in Table 8.3 satisfy Equation (8.34) with the proper energies, by direct substitution into the equation. In general, the functions, R,t, are of the form of an exponential e, times a polynomial in r; the functions, OtmP are of the form (sin 0) a polynomial in cos 0, a n d ame(cp)
Im*l

times

is proportional to elmp. T h e s e w a v e f u n c t i o n s

satisfy the general orthogonality properties discussed in Appendix 2: JdV#,$l,F ic/.,t,,,,, = 0 unless n = n, !. = t, m, = rni 118.48)

8.10 BINDING ENERGY AND IONIZATION

We will frequently might of a be be interested in in systems

ENERGY
in which in a is the constituent or water particles have in

negative energies due tea t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s w h i c h b i n d t h e m t o g e t h e r . S u c h particles addition electrons atoms, of protons nucleus, called molecules a drop of water. To remove any one of the particles from the system requires the positive amount energy, which binding energy. In other words, the term, bindinsg energy, refers to the positive amount of energy which must be added to a system of particles bound together by attractive forces, in order to separate the system into its constituent particles and place them at rest an infinite distance away from each other. Sometimes, the term is used fsor t h e amount of energy required to remove just one of several bound particles of a system out of the range of the attractive forces; then the specific particle to which the term refers should be made clear from the context. For examplle, the binding energy of the hydrogen atom in the ground state is 13.6 eV, since this is the energy which would have to be added to the atom in order to separate the electron from the nucleus. The binding energy of an electron in an excited state of hydrogen electron is from less the than this, since Thus, less the additional binding energy is required on to the separate specific the state nucleus. energy depends

which the system is in imtially. T h e ionization energ;, of an electron in an atom is the energy required to rein its ground state, from the atom. The iomzation m o v e t h a t e l e c t r o n , wtlen state.

energy is thus the same as the binding energy when the electron is in its ground

8.11 ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM MECHANICS

In Newtonian mechanics, a radial force, such as the Coulomb force, exerts no torques about the origin, and thus angular momentum is conserved. By investi-

8.72 Angular momentum componenfs gating the meaning of angular momentum in quantum mechanics, we will be able to see the quantum analogue of the conservation of angular momentum. We w i l l f i n d t h a t t h e a n g u l a r p a r t o f t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n , w h i c h i s et,,, (Q@,,,J(p), P corresponds to an eigenfunction of the total orbital angular momentum operator, and that (a,*(p) component of the is an eigen,function momentum. Thus, of the operator corresponding to the z the total angular momentum and the

231

angular

z component of the angular momentum of the atorn pendent of time.

are definite numbers inde-

Just as momentum itself is represented by a differential operator in quantum mechanics, so is angular momentum. In Newtonian mechanics, in terms of r a n d the momentum

p,

the vector angular momentum of CI

particle is given by:

L=rxp
The same definition is used in quantum mechanics, but with the momentum operator inserted for

p.

Thus, for example, the z component of the angular

momentum operator is:

L = xpy

- ypx =

4~ $ - -

y LL)

(8.49)

.12 ANGULAR MOMENTUM COMPONENTS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES

It is desirable to express this operator in terms of spherical polar coordinates. This could be done by straightforward coordinate transformations; however, it is easier to note that since only first derivatives occur in Equation (8.49), respect to r, 0 and cp: (8.50) where A, B and C can be functions of the coordinates. The coefficients A, 6 and C can easily be determined by comparing the effect of the two expressions for L, when differentiating some simple functions. If the latter operator acts on the f u n c t i o n , r = V!K + yz + z2, It gives A. But the form, Equation (8.49), erating on r gives: (8.5 1) opin spherical coordinates I, must be some linear combination of the derivatives with

-ih(x-$

- y-f--r

= jli(y -

7) = 0

T h e r e f o r e , A = 0. L i k e w i s e , L, o p e r a t i n g o n c o s -8(x2 + y2)2/r. The form, Equation (8.49), since, as we have seen, it gives zero whemperating i s n o d e r i v a t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o z appeqring

Ij = z / r g i v e s

-6 s i n 6 =

operating on z/r gives zero on a function of r and there The form,

in Equation (8.49). Therefore, 6 = 0.

W h e n L, o p e r a t e s o n t a n cp = y / x , i t g i v e s C se? ~0 = C(x2 + y2)/x2.

232

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum Equation (8.49), then gives

(8.52)
Therefore, C is -$I, is: 1, = -;b r;-; and

the

operator for the z component of angular momentum

(8.53)

In a similar way, we could show that 1, = it, sin cp i c o s cp a $ + __t a n 0 dip

sincp d a I , = ;it -cos cp - -t tan f98(p ) as ( When any of these angular momentum operators act on a fwnction of r only, the

result is zero, since there is no derivative with respect to r involved. Thus, the ground state wavefunction and, in general, wavefunctions for which & = 0 and w h i c h d e p e n d o n l y o n r , n o t o n ti or cp, momentum. This is in contlpast angular momentum of ti. correspond to states of zero angular to the Bohr model, where the ground state had an

8.13

EIGENFUNCTIONS

OF L, AND AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER

Using the L, operator of Equation (8.53), we may give a rigorous interpretation to the number m,. I n t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n $.e,,,,, in the factor Gm,(p) Therefore, this is an eigenfunction of the = eim@ 1, operator, because t h e (o dependence is contained

(8.55)

1, e'"'* *

-j&--e ap

hp.C

= m,he

imp

(8.56)

Hence, such a state can be said-to possess a definite value for the z component of angular momentum. These values must be quantized. Since the probability density 1# / m u s t b e single-valued in space, a reasonable condition on value at cp = 0 a s a t cp = 2a. @m is that it has the same ,m,(ZZ, = 1, or that m, is an This means that e

integer, which could be positive or negative,, or zero. This argument is really the same as that used in disciJssing the Bohr model, in which it was necessary that the wave amplitude fit onto itself after one revolution in order that the de Broglie wave not interfere destructively with itself. Mathematically, this is expressed by the periodicity condition am,(~) = @~~,(cp + 27r), which can be satisfied only if mp is an integer. mp is called the azimuthal quantum number.

8.74 Square of the total

Thus, the z component of angular momentum has the possible values w h e r e m, is a positive or negative integer, or zero. The functions T a b l e 8 . 3 h a v e z c o m p o n e n t s o f a n g u l a r momentulm,

233

km,,
in

given

varying from -(n - 1)h

to +(n - 1)h for a given n. These are zero for n =: 1; zero and iti for n =: 2; a n d z e r o , &Ii a n d 126 for n = 3. No solutions exist for values of m, o u t s i d e the range ) m, / 5 (n - 1)ti. It is also possible to find sums of the wavefunctions #em, s u c h t h a t L, or L, yield an integer times h. For instance, the reader may verify, using Table 8.3 and Equation (8.54), that:

and

(8.57)
are eigenfunctions of L , . H o w e v e r , e x c e p t w h e n X = 0, for any single wavefunction Ic/,t,P, values. the x and y components do not have such definite quanti.zed

.14 SQUARE OF THE TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTIJM

Another operator exists which does square of the angular momentum, yield a d e f i n i t e q u a n t i z e d v a l u e ; t h i s i s t h e L2 = Lz +

L: +

Lz.

The

meaning

of

the

square of L, is, for instance, just the differential operator L,, that:

applied twice:

Lz$ = L,(L,#), a n d L2 is the sum Iof three such terms. In Appendix 1 it is shown

Ll+c = --is2 -$ + -(
t a n 0 a0 kinetic energy operator in Equation (8.34). Thus, be written in terms of I2 as follows:
2 L2 &+2mr

+-J-2$, sin B f3(p2 )

(858)

It is interesting to note that this same combination of operators occurs in the the kinetic energy operator c:an

The

contribution

to

kinetic

energy

arising

from

the L2

term

makes

sense;

in

classical mechanics, an object of moment of inertia I a n d a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m L has a kinetic energy L2/2/, of the electron is mr2, due to rotation. In this case, the moment of inertia kinetic energy can thus be written as the motion and a contribution due to rotational equation, Equaa n d t h e tatal

sum of a contribution due to radial tion (8.34), is in the

motion. Since the only angular dependence in the Schrb;dinger depending only on r and a

L2 t e r m , a n d t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s t h e p r o d u c t o f a port
pari depending only on the angles, the energy

eigenfunctions, iCnp,*, must also be eigenfunctions of L2.

234

Hydrogen atom and

angular momentum

8.15 LEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS

We next consider the eigenfunctions of the square of the total angular momentum, 8: L 2, in the special case in which the z component is zero, or m, = 0. Then there is no dependence on ~0 and the operator effectively depends only on

(8.59)
Let us look for wavefunctions P& (cos H), finite at 19 = 0 and H = x, such that

L2Pt = ( c o n s t a n t ) x P&
The function #to.

(8.60) L2

PC here is the same as 04,(B) in the hydrogen my = 0 fCficti,ons,

The constant on the right of this equation resulting from the action of

is t h e e i g e n v a l u e , o r a p o s s i b l e v a l u e o f t h e s q u a r e o f t h e t o t a l a n g u l a r
momentum. One solution is P,(cos 8) = 1, a constant. This corresponds to a state of total angular momentum zero, as was the case for the & = 0 states of the hydrogen atom in which the wavefunctions did not depend on 0 or p. L2 act on it: d(cos 8) __d8 Then, from Equation (8.59), = -sin 8; !.%(COSB) d8 = -COS fj (8.61) A second solution is P,(cos 19) = cos 8. The eigenvalue for his function is found by letting

L2cos,Y

= h2(cos8

+$j= 2h2cos0

(88.62) Legelldre
The is

In general, the functions Pc(cos given the J(&-

19) are polynomials in cos 19, called

polynomials, in which only even or only odd powers of cos B appear for a
4. The highest power of cos 0 i n t h e 4th polynomial is (cos 0)x. eigenvalues. . . . . Some Eigenfunctions of Lfor m, = 0. The general equation for the Legendre polynomials are given in Table 8.4 for 4 = 0, 1,2,3,4, corresponding + l)ti2; J-= 0, 1,2, along with

eigenvalues

T A B L E 8.4 Functioh & = 0: A/= 1 : & = 2: R, = 3: &=4: P, = 1 P , =coss P, = 3- cc2 8 - 1 2 2

Eigenvalue of 1 0 = li20(0 + 1)

2V = Vl(1 + 1 ) 6h2 = A22(2 + + 1) I) 1)

2 P, = 2 co53 8 - 3 cos 0 5-

12h2 = h23(3 9 8 2oIi2

p 4 =3s cos4 89 8

-F co2 0 +

= ti24(4 +

8.16 Summary of quantum numbers Note that the total angular momentum squared is nlot the square of an integer times ?i2. T h e a b o v e s t a t e s a l l c o r r e s p o n d t o mp = 0. For states in which m,, is not zero, it can be shown that L2 has thle same eigenvalues &($ + l)h2. Since the square of the z c o m p o n e n t o f a v e c t o r c a n n e v e r b e g r e a t e r t h a n the square of the vector, (hm+J2 5 hx(& of the magnitude of m, m u s t b e mum value of / mp / m,l ,c + were 1, + 1). Hence, the maximum value instead of 4, then 1: would be =/e.Ift I were assumed that the maxi-

235

raJ/ + 1) + 4 + llh2,
individual values of I,

which is greater than d( 4 + 1)A. This is not possible.

Thus, actually the square of the z component, Li, c a n n e v e r b e a s g r e a t a s L2. The remaining contributions to L2 (arise from x and y components squared; the and L, remain unknown. momentum qulantum . ., *&ii number &: There are then 2 4 + 1 possibll: v a l u e s f o r t h e z c o m p o n e n t o f t h e a n g u l a r momentum for a given orbital anglJlar

m,A = 0 , fh, *2h,.

By letting L2 a n d L, act on the various functions in Table 8.3, the reader may verify the properties discussed for these functions.

16 SUMMARY OF QUANTUM NUiMBERS

Detailed analysis of the complete

FOR HYDROGEN ATOM

wavefunctions, (8.63)

shows that the total energy depends only on the principal quantum number n: E = % me4 =---. n (47rtJin)2 = 1,2,3,... (8.64)

The energy does not depend on & or m,, as it does (incorrectly) in the Bohr model. In order to satisfy the condition that the wavefunction goes to zero as, r goes to infinity, it can be shown to Ibe necessary that & be less than n. Thus, (8.65)

de= 0,1,2 ,..., n - 1 The three quantum numbers: n = 1 , 2 , 3,...

n .- p r i n c i p a l q u a n t u m n u m b e r ; mp - - a z i m u t h a l q u a n t u m n u m b e r ;

4 .- orbital angular momentum quantum number; m4 =

4 = 0,1,2,. . . ,n - 1 l,... 0 ,..., +&

-&,-AL +

give a complete description of the possible states of a point elec:tron m o v i n g i n the Coulomb field of a massive nucleus, neglecting the intrinsic angular momentum of the electron. For a given n or given energy, there are n2 distinct angular momentum states, so we say the energies are n2-fold degenerate. When relativistic taken into effects and the spin or intrinsic are angular momentum and of the electron is are less. account, the energies changed slightly the degeneracy

236

Hydrogen atom and angular momenfum A l s o , a s m e n t i o n e d a t the s t a r t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n , t h e r e d u c e d m a s s , p = m,m,/(m, + m,), should be used in the various equations rather than the electron mass, to incorporate the effect of motion of the nucleus.

8.17 ZEEMAN EFFECT

The angular momentum (quantum numbers c:an be made observable in one way

by placing the atom in a magnetic field. A charged particle which has some angular momentum also has a magnetic dipole moment. This magnetic moment interacts with the field and causes a slight splitting of the energy levels into additional levels. To see how this comes about, consider a classical negatively charged electron, going around in a circle of radius r with speed v, as depicted in Figure 8.13. The angular momentum is L = m v r . If the electron carries the

-e

(II>

Figure

8.13.

A classical point charge moving in a circular orbit with angular momentum

1 has an orbital magnetic moment which is proportional to 1. charge --e, then the current, or charge per second, passing a given point is the charge times the number of times per second the charge goes around. The number of revolutions per second is v/2rr, in this case, the magnetic moment /.L, pm = is: so the current is -ev/2rr. It is known t h a t a p l a n e c u r r e n t I enclosing area A has a magnetic moment /A. Therefore,

- -7rr 2*r

ev

2 := -

1 2

eyr

This can be expressed in terms of angular momentum I = mvr. In this case,

This equation holds as a vector equation in quantum mechanics:

e &l = - -- 1
2m momentum operator. Now when a magneiic field

(8.68)

w h e r e - e a n d m are the charge and mass of the electron, and 1 i s t h e a n g u l a r

B =

is present, there is an energy of interaction

between the field and the dipole: E mog

-pm.B

= -B(/.L~),

8.78 Splitting of Levels if the z axis is chosen in the direction of the field. 13ut (p,,,), i s r e l a t e d t o t h e z component of angular momentum: hence, in terms of 1, = -iha/ap,

237

ef? I-mag = 2rnLz

Further, in the hydrogen atom,

(8.70)

I,

i s q u a n t i z e d a n d h a s o n l y t h e v a l u e s fim,.

Therefore, the energy due to the magnetic field interacting with the magnetic moment can take on only the values: E ma* The c o n s t a n t e%/2m eh = - Bm, 2m

is called the Bohr

magnefon,

a n d i s d e n o t e d b y p; p = the

0 . 9 2 7 x 1 O-23

joule/weber/m2.

Now let us return to the SchGdinger e q u a t i o n , ,to s e e w h a t h a p p e n s t o

energy levels. The total energy of the electron will be comprised of kinetic energy, plus potential energy due to Coulomb interaction, plus potential energy due to magnetic interaction with the applied field. Hence, the SchrGdinger equation would be: E# =

U s i n g a w a v e f u n c t i o n #nxmP, which

V( [it +1)r ti + Enlog 1F/

gives the

ordinary

energy

levels

E,

of

hydrogen, it is seen that the net energy will just be:

E = E, + Emog
So the magnetic a energy is an adolitive can contribution, cause provided that the in

(8.73)
magnetic orbital

field is not so large that the wavefunctions are changed appreciably by the field. Actually, that large magnetic field itself radical changes the motion of the electron, so these considerations hoId only if 6 is small enough E,,s f o r a

Emag -GC E , .

Let us estimate the magnitude in electron volts of and

typical field of 8 == 1 . O weber/m

m,

= 1. This will be: x 1 O-3)( 1 . O ) x lo- i/eV 10m3 eV

ma9

(0.927
1.6

= 5 . 8

(8.74)

So this contribution is very small compared to the atomic level spacings, which are on the order of several electron volts.

.18 SPLITTING OF LEVELS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Let us consider what happens to an atomic energy level when the atom is plac:ed in a magnetic field. For example, consider an

n = 5, 4 = 2

level, as shown on

the left in Figure 8.14. In the absen,ce of a magnetic field, there are 2 4 + 1 = 5 degenerate states,, described by ma = 0, &l, &2. which all lie together and

238

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum

n=5

Figure 8.14.

Splitting of o 5d le ve l into 21 t 1 = 5 components in on externally

e
L---

=2

m =l P

mvp=O

mp=-I

mp= - 2

applied magnetic field. appear as a single level, as shown. B u t w h e n B is different from zero, this level will be replaced by a nlJmber proportional to of levels of energies, E, + Emog. Since E.,,,g i s m,, the number of these levels will be equal to the number of & = 1 level would

values of m, for a given $, 2 4 + 1. In this example with & = 2, the five levels are shown at the right of Figure 8.14. In a similor way, on be split into three levels. So if we had an energy level diagram looking likf: the left side of Figure 8.15, at zero field, it would look like the right side of the figure it=0

P=l

P=2 --/n=5---

/ / /
/ Transition for a single line I the spectrum.

=A -.---.------

mP -1 =:A - 0 - 1

Figure 8.15.

Energy Ieve

diagram showing the splittings of 4p

and 5d levels in an

applied magnetic field. w h e n t h e f i e l d i s t u r n e d o n . T h u s , i n p l a c e o f o transition yielding a photon with a single trequency, a number of different transitions are possible.

8.19 SELECTION RULES

It appears at first that in Figure 8.15 there are 5 x 3 or 15 possible transitions. However, not all transitions have the same probability. From the theory of transition probabilities, which will not be discussed in this book, it is found that

8.20

Normal

Zeemon

splitting

239

only transitions for which the chclnge A& in J, is + l , a n d t h e c h a n g e s Amp = 11,O i n m, have sufficiently high probability to be readily observed. This is related to the fact that the solutions of Maxwells classical electromagnetic equations for spherical light waves are eigenfunctions of the operator L2 w i t h p o s s i b l e q u a n t u m n u m b e r s j, = 1,2,3,. . . , b u t a s o l u t i o n f o r 4 = 0 i s i m possible. This means that the photon itself has a minimum angular momentum corresponding to the quantum nulnber appreciable probability for & = 1 . O n l y t h e 4 = 1 case occurs with Since the photon carries off one unit most ,iransitions.

of angular momentum, the angular momentum of

tlhe

atom must change by one

unit, in order for angular momentum to be conserved. Therefore, A 8 = + l ; a n d A m , = + 1,O for the atom. We shall not prove these rules here, but only state the so-called Selection rules: ztl

A& = Am, =

&l

or

(8.75)

T h u s , a t r a n s i t i o n f r o m m, = 2 t o m, = 5 = 2tom,

1 is probable, but a transition from

= 0, - 1 has negligible probability.

;.20 NORMAL ZEEMAN SPLITTING

The selection rules are satisfied for the change in j, in Figure 8.15, 4 = 2 to

& = 1 . T a b l e 8 . 5 s h o w s t h e v a l u e s o f m, for the various lower states with 4 == 1 for the allowed transitions corresponding to the various possible values of rn<, in the upper state with & = 2. Altogether, there olre nine transitions give rise to osnly three allowed rather transitions. than nine Furthermore, these nine 8.5

TABLE

Allowed Transitions for o 5d + 2,

4p

Transition.

Upper state &= value of mp

lower state 4 = 1 values of mp for ollowed i1 Jr0 1,0,-l O,- 1 - 1 transitions -

spectral

lines,

because

the

spacings

between

the

splittings

are

equal.

The

transi-

tions are indicated in Figure 8.16. If AEo is the energy difference between the levels before the field is turned on, then for the difference after the field is turned on is still:

Am,

= 0 transition, the energy

AE = AE,
For the

(8.76)

Am

= ~1 transitions, the energy difference with the field on is:

AE+ AE,, ~$9

(8.77)

2 4 0

Hydrogen

atom

and

angular

momentum

FT- ----I -i

-iequal

spacings

(Ai), I
i :

h-Am,= - 1 Figure 8.16. Allowed A mp=o

I
magnetic fields spin, and spin quantum it field, can

cr

amp=+1

transitions for 5 d - 4 p lines which ore split into components

by o magnetic field. Thus a line will be split into three lines; the magnitude of the splitting is proportional to the magnetic fielcl. This phenomenon is observed in some lines of calcium and mercury, and is called the normal Zeeman effect. Usually, however, various elements show splittings with different magnitudes, and also with more or fewer than the three lines predic:ted here. This is called the anomalous Zeeman eflecf, and is due to electron spin.

8.21 ELECTRON SPIN In explaining the anomalous Zeeman effect and other effects to be discussed later, it is necessary to consider the possibility that the electron can have an internal property. The electron is charged, and if it has internal angular momentum or intrinsic spin, dipole moment could

it

may also have an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment. This then interact with which are present, either of

externally applied fields Ior atomic fields, and contribute to the energy of the system. The observation of such energies would give evidence of the existencse internal angular momentum. Let orbital us call by this intrinsic angular where in a s momentum of is a denote number. the We corresponding would to the expect, energy. elf s, operator 5. The eigenvolues S2 s h o u l d b e hs(s + l), j u s t a s f o r t h e

angular

momentum, is

then, that the magnetic moment would be proportional to S, and that if this magnetic moment placed magnetic contribute If s, is the z component of the spin, then the number of different values terms, or that a level woul~d split into 2s + 1 levels in a magnetic field.

should be 2s + 1. This implies that there would also be 2s + 1 magnetic energy

8.22 SPIN-ORBIT INTERACTION Now so far as the electron in an atom is concerned, it is always in a type of internal magnetic field which leads to o splitting of energy levels, called fine

8.23 Half-idegrol s p i n s structure splitting. To understanld this, consider the Bohr model of the atom,

241

where the electron moves in an orbit through the electric field produced by the nucleus. If the electron has velocity v small compared to c, and moves in an electric field

E,

we know from electricity theory that in the instantaneous rest

frame of the electron there is a magnetic field of is an interaction energy magnetic field given by -p,,,

= -v x

E/c.

T h e n tllere p,,, and this

betweeln the electrons magnetic moment

*B.

If

is pointing radially outward, as is approxi-

mately the case in atoms, it is of the form

= rf (r),. and therefore,

zz [r x (,,@ = mc2

!cd nn2

(8.78)

Since p,,, is proportional to the spin S, the energy is proportional to Sal;

this is

called s p i n - o r b i t interaction. In place of one level, there will then ordinarily be 2s + 1 levels due to this splitting. In the J, = 0 states there is no such splitting. This is because with no orbital angular momentum there is no component of velocity perpendicular to

in the Bohr picture. Thus there would be no

in the

electrons rest frame with which to interact. So if the upper level is split into 2s + 1 levels and there are transtions to a lower Se = 0 l e v e l w h i c h i s n o t s p l i t , one would expect to see 2s + 1 spectral lines due to the splitting. In hydrogen, there is such a splitting; the magnitude of the splitting can be calculated theoretically and has been observed with special instruments. prism spectrometer. In the alkali metals which consist of an electron orbiting a core of other electrons bound tightly to the nuc:leus, the splittings are much larger. The observations show that the lines consist of very closely spaced pairs of lines. For exa m p l e , i n s o d i u m v a p o r t h e brighi yellow color comes from a pair of yellow lines at spin 5895.92 Angstroms number is
1 ST-

The

splittings are much too small to be observed with a simple diffraction grating or

and

5889.95

Angstroms.

The fact that there is a pair of

lines or a doublet shows that 2s + 1 should be equal to 2, and therefore the quantum

(8.79)

.23 H A L F - I N T E G R A L S P I N S
If the spin quantum number is s == % , then the magnitude of the square of the

angular momentum of the electron should be s(s +- 1)/t = VI h. In discussing orbital angular momentum, we found that the z component of angular momentum, was always integral. This resulted from the condition that the wavefunction be single-valued, so that it is the same for cp =: 0 a n d cp == 2 x . I f w e hlad said that the function becomes its negative w h e n y changes by ability density, which depends on the square of the wavefunction, 27r, t h e p r o b would still be

single valued. This would have led to half-integral quantum numbers. While this is not the case for orbital wavefunctions, half-integral spins do occur for intrinsic

242

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum

angular momenta of certalln their negatives upon rotation

particles, and the spin wavefunctions do change Iinto by 27r.

For a half-integral spin, the maximum magnitude of s, is still the total angular momentum quantum number, s. Also, neighboring spin states are separated in t h e z component of angular momentum by possible values of s, are --3/h, 15. Thus, for a spin 3/.A system, the - /2 ti, %li, yz/2ti. For the electron, with s = /2,

the possible values of s, are - /2 t, (spin down) and Mii (spin up). Particles have been observed with various integral and half-integral spins. The more fundamental particles such as electrons, protons, n e u t r o n s a n d m u o n s , h a v e i n t r i n s i c angular momenta corresponding to % ti. O t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t i c l e s s u c h a s photons and some mesons have angular momenta corresponding to 0 or ti.

8.24 STERN-GERLACH EXPEE!IMENT

An experiment was performed by 0. Stern and W. Gerlach in 1921, which

demonstrated directly that s = % for the electron. They passed a beam of silver atoms through a strong inhomogeneous magnetic field. Such a field exerts a force on a magnetic dipole which depends on the orientation of the dipole relative to the field. Silver contains 47 electrons, an odd number. Inside the atom the electrons tend to pair off :#o that their s = magnetic moments cancel in pairs, except for one left-over electron, with direction of the field % and a magnetic moment, p,,,. If the

is ?aken to define the z axis, the potential energy of the

electron in the magnetic field is: E mw

p,,,.B =

--p,,,;B,

(8.80)

The magnetic field is constructed so that B, v a r i e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f z ; t h u s t h e potential energy varies with z, and there will be a z component of force:

- dE,,, F=-= t- pm, 2.

aZ

(8.81)

on the electron and hence on the atom. Because the magnetic moment is proportional to 5, it can take on only 2s + 1 orientations, giving 2s + 1 possible distinct forces on the particles in the beam. This would split the beam into 2s + 1 beams. When the experiment was performed, the experimenters found the beam to be split into two. Hence again, 2s + 1 = 2, so that s = % .

8.25 SUMS OF ANGULAR MOMENTA

In general, when treating (angular momenta in quantum mechanics, there are the

two types, integral and half-integral. If a system consists of parts which hiave various angular momenta, such as several particles each of which has intrinsic and orbital angular momenta, the vector sum of the various angular momenta gives the total angular momentum.

This total is ordinarily denoted by J. Thus,

13.26

A n o m a l o u s Zeemon e f f e c t

243

f o r CI s i n g l e p a r t i c l e w i t h s p i n o p e r a t o r S a n d o r b i t a l a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m operator, 1,

J=L+S
functions of the total angular momentum operator squared, the operators yieldss:

(8.82)

C o m b i n a t i o n s o f s p i n a n d o r b i t a l w a v e f u n c t i o n s m a y b e f o u n d t h a t y i e l d eigen-

J2,

and of the z

component of the total angular momentum, J,. Thus,, acting on these functions

5 -

j(;

+ l)hZ

(8.83) (8.84)
m,

JZ

- m,h

Here j i s t h e t o t a l a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m q u a n t u m n u m b e r a n d

is the z corn-

p o n e n t q u a n t u m n u m b e r . T h e r e a r e 2; + 1 possible values of m,:

m, = -j,

--;

1,...,+1

(8.85)

The

j and m, may either be integral or half-integral, dlepending on the individual

angular momenta which combine to give the total.

26 ANOMALOUS ZEEMAN EFFECT

Let us now return to the discussion of the anomalou!j atomic electron in an external magrletic Zeeman effect, where an

field shows splittings different from those

based on orbital angular momentum alone. This anomalous effect arises primarily because the relationship between spin and magnetic moment is different from that for orbital angular momentum. In the orbital case [Equation (8.68)], (8.8t5) However, for the electron spin, it has been found that: p, z es m

(8.87) of two is predicted by a in 1933. the states of

These equations differ by a factor of two. This factolr relativistic wave equation which was discovered by sider the total angular momentum of an electron

Dilrac

When treating the splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field,we must con-

== 1 + S.Then

the electron are described by quantum numbers j and m,. If the relation between magnetic moment and angular momentum were the same for the spin and orbitlol parts, the splittings would be given in terms of m , , just as in the normal Zeeman case they are given in terms of m,. One would then always see the normal case. However, because of the difference in the magnetic rnoment relations, the magnetic moments of the resulting states of definite j and m, are somewhat complicated. This gives rise to various kinds of splitting of the spectral llines in a magnetic field. By carrying out the analysis in detail using these ideas, one may explain the anomalous Zeeman effect completely.

244

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum

The idea of angular momentum is important in quantum mechanics for the same reason it was important in Newtonian mechanics; it is conserved relative to a point if the potential energy does not lead t o a t o r q u e a b o u t t h a t p o i n t . T h e conservation of angular momentum has been observed in an enormous number of different experiments.

8.27 RIGID DIATOMIC

ROTATOR

In classical mechanics a rigid symmetric top rotating freely about an axis of symmetry through the center of mass has the kinetic energy L2/2/, where I is the moment of inertia abou? t h e r o t a t i o n a x i s , a n d

L2

is the square of the angular

m o m e n t u m v e c t o r . C e r t a i n q u a n t u m s y s t e m s h o v e o kinetic energy operator of the same form, where L is the angular momentum operator given in Equation (8.58). An example of such a system is a linear diatomic molecule such as ti12, N, or HCt, in which the atoms themselves are treated as point masses, separated by a fixed distance. If we imagine a coordinate system placed at the molecules center of mass, then the position of the line of centers connecting the two atoms may be completely specified by the angles 8 and p defining the direction of the line of centers. Equation (8.58) then gives the operator corresponding to the square of the total angular momentum. The moment of inertia is I = pr2, w h e r e p is the reduced mass of the molecule and tional cule, angle and would be needed be to specify

the fixed atomic separation distance. the the orientation angular of the moleand

If there were a third particle in the molecule not on the line of centers, an addicompletely to there would additional contributions momentum

to the energy. If we consider only linear diatomic molecules, the SchrGdinger stationary states will take the form: equation for the

Hence,

eigenstates

of L2

ore

also

energy

eigenstates.

We

have

already

seen

that

the possible eigenvalues of instead of 4. T h u s ,

L2 are of the form

A2$(& + 1); in the

case of the

rigid rotor it is customary to introduce the symbol J for the quantum number

L2$(0,q7) =

h21(J +

l)\L(O,cp)

(8.89)

w h e r e J is a nonnegative integer. The energies due to rotation of the diatomic molecule are then:

E
An energy level diagram for

= h2J(J
21 rotational

+ 1)
energy levels is given in Figure

(8.90) 8.17.

these

Transitions between these rotational states are governed by the selection rule

AJ

= 41, analogous to the selection rule on t for atomic transitions. Thus, in a

8.27 Rigid diofomic rofolor

245

Figure 8.17.

E n e r g y l e v e l diagram f o r t h e r i g i d r o t a t o r , El = t:J(J + 1)/2/. T h e

allowed transitions are governed by the selection rule LLJ = +l.

transition from a rotational state characterized state, a photon of trequency liu = u will Ibe E,+, - E,

by the quantum number J

+ 1,

down to the next lower level J, if the atomic electrons do not also change their emitted, with:

= ;[(J

+- l)(J

2) -

J(J +

l)]

y(J + 1 )

(8.91)

The resulting rotational spectrum will therefore consist of lines equally spacesd, separated in frequency by Au = Ii/27rl. Measurements on these spectra yield information on the moment of inertia and hence on the interatomic th!Js spacing.

To estimate the frequency region in which these lines will be seen, consider a nitrogen molecule N, with reduced moss 7 atomic mass units, spacing E 2 Angstroms. The wavelengths will be comiparable to and interatomic

-2x1 - = 27rcpr 1 h

(8.92)

or a few centimeters, in the microwave region. The energy for J = 0 is E = Fi// 2 2 x 10m4 eV, o r a b o u t diatomic molecules 10e4 times smaller than typical atomic electron not rigidly bound .together at a fixed separaenergies. Actually, are tion distance, but can vibrate slightly back and forth along their line of centers. This vibration is a quantum mechanical simple harmonic oscillation, and the vibrational energies are quantized as well. e n e r g i e s a r e E, = tiw(n + 1/2), In Chapter 7 it was seen that the w is proporwhere n is a positive integer and

tional to the square root of the effective spring constant. In most diatomic molecules, the interatomic spacings stay quite close to their equilibrium or aver-

246

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum

age values, which means the spring constant is rather large; usually, the spaIcings between vibrational levels are roughly 100 times the rotational level spacings, or around 0.01 eV; hence the molecular vibrational spectra lie in the far infrared. These vibrational and rotational energy levels give rise to band spectra, consisting of lines spaced so closely together that the spectrum appears to be practically continuous. These bands result from the molecules changing from one vibrational state to another, while at the same time mony different rotational transitions occur. Thus, near one vibrational line could be grouped many lines corresponding to many possible different initial and final rotational levels, ,which are relatively close togetlier in frequency.

SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN
The wavelengths of the clbserved the Balmer formula: n, = 1,2,3,. . . n2 where the Rydberg constant RH R,, = n, + l,n, + 2,.. lines in the spectrum of hydrogen are given by

has the experimental value: = 10,967,758.1 m--l

The spectrum of the hydrogen atom can be interpreted in terms of an energy level diagram where the discrete energies are:

-R,hc E, = I)

rl

n = 1,2,3,...

BOHR THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Bohr postulated that characterized thfe s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e s w i t h i n t h e h y d r o g e n a t o m c o u l d b e v a l u e m,h of the orbital angular momentum. This

b y a quaritized

can also be understood qualitatively by assuming that an integral number of wavelengths of the de Broglie electron waves must fit into a circular orbit. Thus, the tangential component of momentum is given by: m v r = m,h m, = 1,2,3,...

where r is the radius of the orbit and v is the speed. In addition, the centripetal force necessary to bind the electron in the circular orbit is that due to the

Summary

247

Coulomb

attraction

between

electron 171Y2 r

and

nucleus, e2 4xtOr2

or:

For hydrogen, the total kinetic plus potential energy of the electron is then: E=7

-R,hc rnv
=

where 1.09738 X 107m-

While this formula agrees well with the observed levels, it is conceptually incorrect, because the exact theory shows that the energy depends on the radial quantum number, n, and not at all on m,. When the motion of the nucleus of mass M is taken into account as well, the energy levels are given by:

-R,hc E=T mP
where

and where

m
1 + is called the reduced mass. m / M

SCHRijDlNGER
In terms of

EQUATION FOR HYDROGEN ATOM

operators, t h e Schrgdinger e q u a t i o n f o r t h e hydrocgen

momentum

atom of an infinite-mass nucleus is:

This

was

obtained

by

calculating

la2

in

spherical

polar

coordinates

in

Appendix

1.

The solution to the SchrGdinger 1c/ =

equation for the ground state is: e x p -. r 47rt,A1

const x

( )
-me2

2 4 8

Hydrogen atom and angular momentum In general, the solutions are of the form: Ic n&my = Jwmzm,.wmJP) (19) isa function only of 0, and am,(p)

where R,&(r) is a function only of r, @tmm is, a function only of cp.

The energies depend only on the principal quantum

number n a n d a r e g i v e n b y E, = - R p he/n.

ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The orbital angular momentum operator of spherical polar coordincltes 1 = r x

can be calculated in terms

when the momentum operator is known in terms of

those coordinates. The z component of orbital angular momentum is:

ond

the

wavefunctions,

with m,iS.

m, = -4 ,... 0 ,... 4 - I,$, are eigenfunctions of L, w i t h e i g e n v a l u e s The total angular momentum operator is given by:

A2 a$ h2 a'+ L2# = ---- asine-- - --_~ sin 0 f30 ( a0 1 sin B d(p2

and the wavefunctions @tm,(0)@,,,, eigenvalues (CP) are eigenfunctions of L2 with the possible Fr2&(& + l), w h e r e 4 = 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . n - 1 . T h u s t h e s t a t i o n a r y

states of the hydrogen atom, corresponding to the wovefunctions #.t,,, J r , 8 , p), are described by three quantum numbers. The principal quantum number n determines the energy. The orbital angular momenturn number 4 is a positive i n t e g e r In - 1, and the azimuthal quantum number m, -&Im,i+t is an integer such that:

NORMAL ZEEMAN EFFEiCT

An electron of orbital angular momentum 1 has a magnetic dipole moment:

and interacts with an external

magnetic field

along the z axis with the energies:

where the Bohr magneton

p is 1O-23 i/w/m2

p := 2 =

0 . 9 2 7

Problems

249

This additional energy causes a Isplitting selection rules A 4 = il, components.

of a level corresponding to some vsalue In the normal Zeeman effect, only

of 4 into 2 4 + 1 l e v e l s , a n d trlsnsitions between levels occur restricted by the

Am,

&l,O.

orbital angular rnomentum is important, and spectral lines are split into three

ELECTRON

SPIN

Electrons possess internal angular momentum, or spin, S, choracterized by a quantum numbers = % such that: slc/ = FA(s + l)$ = ih2jl

The intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron is given by:

The total angular momentum of an electron is then J = 1 + 5, and the electron states are described by quantum numbers j a n d m , , w h e r e i i s h a l f a n o d d integer. The eigenvalues of total angular momentunA2j(; + l)$ are:

J2$ =

The z component of total angular momentum has the eigenvalues:

J,# = hm,$. m, = *i, l zt ,... *j

energy levels giveen by:

RIGID

ROTATOR molecule has rotationcll

A diatomic

-ExQ+l), :!I

J=Ol2. s I,

..

where I is the moment of inertia of the molecule about the center

of mass.

1. Estimate the ratio of the gravitational attraction at a given distance between the electron and proton in hydrogen, to the Coulomb attraction. Answer: 4n-t,GmM/e2 E 4
x

1Oe4. pZ/2m - e2/4*t0r. A s p2 - (,.lp)2 - (ft/Lr)2,

2. The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is sume this is a one dimensional problem with

ApAr

I> A, and find the radius r rcor-

responding to the minimum possible energy, by talking

250

Hydrogen atom and ongulor momentum r - rlr, and minimizincl 4ncoli2/me2 the resulting expression for energy. Compare with the first = 5 . 2 8 x lo- m e t e r s . SchrGdinger

Bohr radius. Answer: 3. Show that the wavefunction $ so0 of Table 8.2 is a solution of the equation for the hydrogen atom, and find the corresponding energy. Answer: 4. of hydrogen. Answer: 5. 3647 Angstroms, 6563 Angstroms. a spectrum very similar Doubly ianized lithium has three protons in its nucleus and length of the spectral line arising from an n = Answer: 6. E, Calculate the shortest and longest possible wovelengths of lines in the Balmer series

to that of hydrogen. Calculate the energy of the lowest state in eV, and the wave2 to n = 1 transition in this ion. E = - 122.7 eV; X = 135 Angstroms.

Calculate the reduced mass of five times ionized carbon,: the mass of the neutral carbon atom is 12.000 amu = 19.929 x 10--27kg. CalcLllate the effective Rydberg constant for this system. The experimentally observed value is 10,973,228.6 rn~.

7. 8. 9.

Verify the correctness of ,*he expression for the x component of the angular momentum operator in Equation (8.22). Verify that the functions in Equation (8.23) are eigenfunctions of L, with the indicated eigenvalues. Find the wavelength of a photon emitted when the electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from then = 3 state to the n = 1 state. Answer: 1026 Angstroms.

10.

A photon is given off by hydrogen in the trahsition n == 3 to n = 1. The work function for silver is 4.73 eV. What is the maximum kinetic energy an electron can have if knocked out of silver b,/ this photon? Answer: 7.36 eV.

11.

For two particles of mosses m and M and positions r2 and r,, the SchrGdinger equation is:

Let r = r2 - rl and r< = (mr2

+ Mr,

)/(M + m), the

center

of mass position

vector. If k is a constant vector and V depends only an tlhe relative vector r, show ik .rc that a solution for 1c/ is oi the form $J = f (r)e , whence f(r) satisfies the equation:

+a+d
2 ,2

ay2

az2

E-

h2k2
2(M + m )

with the reduced mass, u = mM/(M this form? 12.

+ m). What is the physical interpretation of

The positron is a particle identical in mass, m, to the electron with charge equal and opposite to that of an e#ectron. The electron and posiiron can form a hydrogen-like combination called positronium. Using the result in the previous problem, find an expression for the energy levels of positronium. Answer: E = -Pi me4/(4at,,)2h2n2 Using B =

13.

The electric field an electron in a hydrogen atom sees is er/4xtor3.

-V x

E/c2 and the fact that the magnetic moment of an electron is p, = -e/m S,

Problems show that the spin-orbit coupling energy is (e2/47rtomZc2)S~L/r3. a factor of 2 too large, due to relativistic effects asrociated radius, show that the spin-orbit splitting is comparable to (Actually, this is

251

with the rotating rfest the hydrogen atom

frame of the electron). Using the orders of magnitulde: S - 6, 1 - ii, r - Bohr energy times a, w h e r e (Y = e2/4ac,hc Z l/137 is the fine structure constant.

Since the hydrogen atom energy is on the order of -- 10 eV, what is the order of magnitude of the spin-orbit or fine!-structure splitting? Answer: 1 Om3 eV. -E- Tr 14. The relativistic kinetic energy is r = d/p c + mOc - mcc. Far p c < < mc2 this is T E (Yz p2/m)(l - /4 p2/m2c2). The first term is of the order of the hydrogen times the atom energy when it is used for the kinetic energy part of the hydrogen atom SchrGdinger equation. Use this ta show that the next term is of order 01~ hydrogen atom energy, where N = e2/47rt0)lc spin-orbit coupling energy. 15. Write the SchrGdinger that two solutions are: equation for a free particle in spherical coordinates. Show z /,:$, is the fine structure constant.

From the results in the previous problem, thiris also ihe order of magnitude of the

+. = !sin WI
kr and

where k is a constant. What is the <energy

in terms of k?

16. For a particle in a spherical box of radius rO, what are the conditions on the ks in Go and $, of the previous problem? Which of the two solutions could give the wavefunction for a hemispherical box? Answer: sin (kr,) tan (kr,) = 0 or k = F for $.
r0

kr, for

4,;

#,

17. The operator, L,I S given in Equation (8.24). Assume that there exist eigenfunctions of the form $ =: c a, COS 8. Substitute into the eqLlation L2$ = h$. By using the

condition that the coefficient of a given power of cos 0 on the left s,ide of this equotion must equal that on the right, find a relationship between o,+~ and a,, Determine the values of X such that the series is actually a polynomial, i.e. that a, = 0 for some n. Assume that a0 = 1 and a, = 0, or a0 = 0 and o, = 1. Answer: 18. X=X2&( &+ 1 ) w i t h t = 1,2,3 ,.... Verify that the following are eigenfunctions of the operator, 12: $0 = 1; $, = cosH; +C2 = ; cos2 0 - ;; 5 $b3 = j cos3 8 - ; cos 8

The volume element in spherical coordinates is: rdr sin 0 dtId@. Find what constant each wavefunction $J~ must be multiplied by to make:
2x

* s 0 $isinBd8 = 1

dq7

252

Hydrogen otom and anguh momentum

19. Verify that the angular. functions in 4 s,, , $s:,, , $sz2 of Table 8.2 are eigenfunctions
of L2.

20.

An angular momentum eigenfunction for the rigiol rotator is given by sin 0 x (5 cos 8 - 1)e. What are the eignvolues of L2 and L,?

A n s w e r : 12ti2,fi. 21.
The three 4 = 0 waveiunctions for the hydrogen atom in Table 8.2 are: G ,oo = const. x e r/o ; $200 == const. x e
2

+ 3oo

= const. x e-r3a

2r i - - - + -l L27 a2 3a dp. Find by what

The volume element in spherical coordinates is r2dr sin 8 dfl constant each wavefunction must be multiplied so that:

4n s
o

c.

I$, 1 2r2dr

= 1 = const. x e-? with

22.

Find the expectation value of r for the ground state, rr/,,c y =

2

me2/47rtOh , of the hydrogen atom. Compare with the Bohr radius, a = meters.

0.53 X lo-

Answer: 23.
Find the expectation value of the potential energy, -e2/(4Ttor), ond the kinetic

energy,
I?

2m -4
Answer:
( V )

a2 2 a -,. ;-&+ la+ 1cos!A+ r2 a@ r2 sin 0 i)B dr2

2

1 r2 sin2 0

a2 ap2 1

for the state, $too = :const)e-

with y = me2/4xtoii2. Compare the two results. -27.2eV.

24.

-t!(J)

Calculate the frequency shifts in set- for a line exhibiting the normal Zeemon effect when the applied magnetic field is 1.72 w/m2.

Answer: 25.

2 . 4 x 102/sec.

Calculate the maximum component of the spin magnetic moment of the electron along the direction of an applied magnetic field.

Answer: 26.

0 . 9 2 7 x lO-23

joule/(weber/m). S2, and J, where

Show that for wavefunctions that are eigenfunctions of J, L2,

J=L+S,

(1-J)
27.

= i [j(j + 1) + t (, t + 1) - s(s + l)]ii2

Suppose two particles of orbital ongular momentum quantum numbers 4 , = 2 and 4 2 = 3 combine to form a single system. Then the toial angular momentum quantum number can hove the ,vaIues value, j = 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 with a maximum and a minimum just as if we added two vectors vectorially of lengths 2 and 3. Show that the

total number of possible states when the particles are specified by the combination of Cm,, a n d h,m,, is the same as when specified by i and m,.

28

The experimentally observed frequency spacing between two successive rotational lines observed in the spectrum of the HCI molecule is 61.3502 x 10 see-. Using

/rob/ems

253

this information, calculate the distance between the hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom which make up the diatomic molecule. Answer: 1.803 Angstroms.

9 Pauli exclusion principle and the periodic table

We have seen how the hydrogen atom, and hydrogen-like atoms, may be pictured cated the as very small, positively many state charged electrons. are a nuclei In the surrounded hydrogen volts. by clouds the in of negative cloud electricity due to the elesztron. atoms containing changes its In fact, a similar picture is valid for more compliatom charge

is around an Angstrom in diameter and the energy differences involved when electron few electron Similarly, many-electron atoms, from experimental studies of spectra, chemical reactions, formation of crystals, etc., it can be ccncluded that the charge clouds are of the order of a few Angstroms in size, and that energy changes are also of the order of a few electron volts. For example, when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom combine to form NaCI, NaCl When the total energy given up per molecule formed is 4.24 eV a n d t h e atoms are lbrought close together, the electronic charge clouds will distance is 2.36 Angstroms. two

begin to overlap, and ii is to be expected that the features of the interaction between atoms will be largely determined by the structure of the electronic cloud, or in other words, by the states of the electrons in the atoms. Some atoms tend to give up an electron and form positive ions, such as the alkali metals sodium, potassium, rubidium, ceGum. S o m e a t o m s t e n d t o a t t r a c t a n e x t r a e l e c t r o n a n d form negative ions, such as the halogens, fluorine and iodine. Others are chemically nearly inert, such as helium and neon. chemical similar, In behavior the we would not expect must the but important diiTerences exist Because of the great variety of states of all atoms to be by them. hydrogen atom problem electronic among of the

studying

mathematical

solution

means of SchrGdingers electron can be labeled emitted by hydrogen

equation, it has been seen how the various states of the by a set of quantum numbers. The spectrum of light then be understood by saying that the electron makes can

a transition from one state to another, emitting a photon in order to conserve energy. Although in more complicated atoms the elnergy levels do not have the by the same numerical values ias in hydrogen, still the states may be labeled

same set, or a very similar set, of quantum numbers as are used for hydrogen. 254

In addition energy

IO

the fact that other nuclei have larger charges than does the proton interactions shift the around somewhat.

in hydrogen, the complications due to electron-eleectron levels

From a study of the spectrum of an atom, it is possible to determine the various energy levels and their quantum rumbers. It is observed experimentally that in the spectra of atoms having two or more electrons, certain lines are missing. For example, in lithium there are no tiransitions from n = 2 states to n = 1 states. In p/e. in explaining the same these and related This phenomena, remarkably Pauli simple proposed principle the can exclusion also be princiused to Loosely stated, this principle says that no two electrons in an atom can exist quantum state.

e x p l a i n t h e !structure of the periodic table of the elements and the chemical behavior of the atoms of each elemerlt. used I.1 in describing atomic energy Let us begin by reviewing the nomenclature levels.

DESIGNATION

OF

ATOMIC

STATES

In solving the SchrGdinger

equation for the isolated hydrogen atom, it was found b y t h e q u a n t u m n u m b e r s : n , 4, a n d mm,

t h a t t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n s w e r e labeled

and spin quantum numbers. The energies were degenerate and depended only on the principal quantum number, n. While in the previous chapter mg with subscript was us,ed to avoid confusion with the symbol m for mass, no such confusion is should occur in this chapter. Therefore, we will from here on use m for the azimuthal quantum number, as is usual in physics. The second quantum number ?, called the orbital angular momentum quantum number. It can have the possible

v a l u e s 4 = 0, 1, 2,. . . . (n .- 1 ) . T h u s f o r a g i v e n v a l u e o f n , t h e r e a r e n valLles of 4. I f a s t a t e i s d e s c r i b e d b y a v a l u e +=I2 4(-t + 1 ) . T h e v a r i o u s 8 states are also denoted by letters . ljtates f o r w h i c h 4 = 0 o r e also referred1 to as s states; 4 = I a r e p states. I n v a r i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e s e letters may be either capital or small. The designation is given in Table 9.1. TABLE 9.1 Alphabetic designations of states for different 4 for the orbital angular momentum q u a n t u m n u m b e r , t h e n t h e s q u a r e o f t h e o r b i t a l a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m i s 1 =

orbital angular momentum quantum numbers 4. 4 value 0 1 alphabetical clesignation

9

2 3 4
The rest in alahabetical order.

P f g

An .$ = 5 s t a t e w o u l d b e a n h s t a t e . A l l s s t a t e s h a v e z e r o o r b i t a l a n g u l a r momentum, and the wavefunctions depend only on r. So the probability density / #noo / 2 has spherical symmetry. If n = 3, the states s, p, d are possible corresponding to the & v a l u e s , 0, 1, 2. States are sornetimes designated by writ-

256

Pauli exclusion principle ing an integer and then a letter: 3p, Is, 2p, etc. The integer refers to the value of n and the letter refers to the value of 4. T h u s a .4p s t a t e h a s n = 4 , 4 = 1. If n = 5, the possible states are 5s, 5p, 5d, 5f, 59. In the hydrogen atom, all these n = 5 states are approximately degenerate and have the same energy.

9.2 NUMBER OF STATES

The azimuthal quantum

IN

AN

n m

SHELL
can have positive or negative integral values

number

or zero. Since mR is the L component of orbital angular momentum, the maximum magnitude of m is equal to 4. Thus, m can vary in integral steps from a minimum v a l u e o f - 4 to a m a x i m u m v a l u e o f 4. T h i s g i v e s 21: + 1 v a l u e s o f m f o r a given 4. Thus, for example, for a 5p state there are three possible m values, and for a 3d state there are five. If there are 2& -t 1 values of m for a given 4, and n v a l u e s o f 4 ( 4 = 0, 1,. . . n - 1 ) f o r a g i v e n n , t h e n f o r a g i v e n n t h e t o t a l number N, of states of the electron in a hydrogen atom is equal to:

n-l

(9.1) The arithmetic series formula gives us:

(9.2) s o t h e n u m b e r N, i n t e r m s o f n i s N, = 2[n(n - 1)/2] + n = n. T h i s m e a n s that in hydrogen the energy degeneracy is n2. Ther,e n2 states are different because the dependence of #. e,,, on (r, 0, a) changes as 4 a n d m change, i.e. as the angular momentum changes. The specification of electronic states in terms of n, 4. and m is not quite complete, because in addition to these quantum numbers the electron has internal quantum numbers, i.e. spin angular momentum numbers, with values a n d m, = m,h. &1/2. s = % The number s i s t h e t o t a l s p i n a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m q u a n t u m

number; and the z component of spin angular momentum has eigenvalues of Thus, including the effect of spin, to completely specify the state of an electron we need five quantum numbers, n, 4, m, s, m,. However, for an electron, s i s a l w a y s e q u a l t o % So if we keep this fact in mind, we only need to use the four quantum numbers n, 4, m and m,. Since for a given n, 4 and m, there are two possible values of mr, the degeneracy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is actually not n, b u t 2n2. Also, in addition to the spatial coordinate r describing position of an electron, there is another coordinate describing spin, so in general an electronic wavefunction will be a function of the form where S is a spin coordinate. $,d,,,,(r, 5)

9.3 INDISTINGUISHABIUTI

OF PARTICLES

The above considerations are valid when we have one electron in a state in a hydrogen-like atom. If we have a many-electron atom, then the energy levels will

9 . 3 /ndistinguishabi/ity in general be shifted, so that they may depend on 4 as well as n. This is because the outer electron wavefunctions penetrate the cloud of inner electrons to different extents depending on 4, leading to different average potential energies.

257

Also, since total angular momentum (1 + S) is quantized, it may be more useful in some cases to label states by total angular momentum quantum numbers j, m,, rather than 4 and m. We shall not need to do this here, however. Consider man atom, such as helium, which has two electrons. The wavefunction $ will then depend on two sets of variables: r l , S1 for one electron and r2, S2 for

t h e o t h e r . S o t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n c o u l d b e w r i t t e n #(r, , S1 ; r2, S,), w h e r e t h e labels before the semicolon refer I O the values of the coordinates of electron 1 and the labels after the semicolon refer to values of tile coordinates of electron 2. Suppose the coordinates of the electrons S2; rl, S,). because are interchanged; that is, the SZ. electron 2 is given coordinates II, S1, pothetical exchange of and electron 1 is given coordinates r2, it has been found The resLlltare

ing wavefunction will be rC/(r,,

It is of importance to consider this hythat electrons

electrons,

indistinguishable from each other. In classical mechanics it was assumed that all particles-even identical particles--could be given labels to distinguish one from another. If dp,2 = 1 $(rl, SI; r2,S2) / dVldV2 dxldyldzl (9.3) and electron 2 in In quantum mechanical systems of identical iparticles, this is not possible.

is the probability of finding electron 1 in dV, = dVz = dxzdy2dz2,

then since the particles are indistinguishable, this must

be the same as the probability of finding electron 2 in dV1 and electron 1 in dV2; which electron we call 1 and which we call 2 should make no difference. But the probability of finding electron El in dV1 and electron 1 in dVZ is: dml = / $(r2, SZ; lndistinguishability of rl,S1)( 2dVzdVl,or:
/~(~I,SI;~~,S:~)/~

r l , 51) 1 2dVdVl. that the two probabilities in

(9.4) Equa-

particles

requires

t i o n s (9.3)and ( 9 . 4 ) b e e q u a l . T h u s , / il/(rl, S1; r2, 52) 1dV1dVZ = / $(r2, S2;

/rl/(r2,S2;r1~S1)1~

(95)

When the magnitudes of two numbers are equal, tlhe numbers themselves must be equal, except possibly for a phase factor, e, since 1 e 1 = 1 . T h u s , t h e most general1 conclusion which can be drawn from equation (9.5) lis that:

#(r2,S2irlrS1)
where e t* .
IS

= e$(r1, factor.

SI ; r2, S2)

(9.6)

some

unknown

phase

The phase factor @ is actually a constant, independent of coordinates. While a completely rigorous demonstration of this fact is rather difficult, the constancy of + can be seen to be quite reasonable, by considering1 the expectation value of a quantity form: $(r,, S,; r2, Sz)dV,dV, such as the x component of momentum; this involves an integral of the

(9.7)

258

Pcdi exclusion principle

which must remain unchanged if the particles ore interchanged:

(Px)

J~*(r2,S2:r1,S1)e-*

f/ & + ! -$ ( 1 e#(r2, S;!; rl, 51 )dVdV,

(9.8) operator

Hence the operator e -* ( plXop P1

+ PQe+*

must

be

equivalent

to

the

+pz
IOP xoP

. More generally, for any differential operator O,, representing a

physical

quantity, e -O,,e = O,, (9.9)

which can be true for oil differential operators only if @ is a constant. After exchanging two particles, the new wavefunction is equal to the old, multiplied by e. If we carry out a second exchange of the same two particles, the some thing will happen, :,o in addition to Equation (9.6), we hove: (9.10)

+(r1,51;r2,52)

= e$(r2,52;r1,S1)

S u b s t i t u t i n g E q u a t i o n ( 9 . 1 0 ) i n t o E q u a t i o n (9.6),

w e c o n c l u d e t h a t $(r2,

S2;

rl, S,) = ezi$(r2, S 2; r,, 5, ), and therefore e* == 1. If ezi* = 1, then there

are two possibilities for the phase factor e. They are e = + l o r - 1 . T h u s we have two possibilities upon exchanging identical particles: (9.11)

$(r2, S2;rl,S1)

= (+l)#(r1,S1;r;N,S2)

Exchanging two particle!; has the effect of either leoving the wavefunction unchanged
#(r2, SZ;

or
rl,

changing
SI) =

it

into

its
SI;

negative.
r2,

Wavefunctions S1; r2, S?)

which

hove

the

property

+#(rl,

S,)

ore said to be symmetric under particle so that the minus sign under exchange. Both the + l arises w h e n The minus sign bosons.

e x c h a n g e . W h e n rC/(rz, Sp; rI, S,) = -#(r,,

a p p l i e s , t h e w o v e f u n c t i o n s o r e s a i d t o b e antisymmetric of these possibilities ore found in nature. Experimentally, dealing with identical particles of integral spin, called

arises when exchanging particles of half-integral spin, called fermions. Since an electron has spin % a n d i t i s a fermion, upon interchanging two electrons the wovefunction will be mul.iplied by - 1.

9.4 PAUL1

EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

Suppose we ask whether two electrons con hove equal r and S, that is, con we have r,, 51 = r2, SZ = r, S? Since the wovefunctions describing electrons ore antisymmetric, we start with a wavefunction

#(r, S; r, S), then after exchanging

that the probabil-

two electrons, we find $(r, 5; r, S) = -#(r, 5; r, 5). It tallows

ity of finding two electrons at the same place with the same spin must be zero. S u p p o s e w e a s s u m e d that t w o e l e c t r o n s c o n e a c h b e d e s c r i b e d b y q u a n t u m numbers ntmm,, w i t h nl 4 lrnlm,l for electron 1 and rt282rn2rnr2 for electron 2;

and

s u p p o s e w e t r i e d t o w r i t e a n o v e r a l l w a v e f u n c t i o n a s a p r o d u c t o f single-

9.4 Pooli exclusion princip.le

259

particle

hydrogen-like

wavefunctions: =
~,,~,m,m,,(r1rS~)1C/2~2m2m,2(r2rS2)

+(rl,S,;r2,S2)

(9.12)

W e w o u l d fin,d that this simple product function is no,t antisymmetric, and hence does not satis,fy the condition of indistinguishability of particles, Equation (9.5). We can, however, construct a wavefunction describing a state of the same energy by taking a linear combination:

$f(rlS);

11252) = L [tin,~,,m,m,, (r1, SI )#n2t2m2ms2(r2r SZ) VT

U p o n intercholnge easily So seen a to be linear

of the

coordinater8 of

r,, S, a n d r2, S2, t h e a b o v e f u n c t i o n i s product wavefunctions with oppositce

antisymmetric. single-particle

combination

signs for the two terms gives us a correctly antisymmetrized overall wavefunction. The factor l/2/? is for correct normalization. The first term could be interseconcl term could be interpreted by saying that preted by saying that electron 1 is in state nl $,m ,m,, and electron 2 is in s t a t e n2 x2mzms2, w h i l e t h e electron 2 is in state n, 4 1 m, rn,, ancl e l e c t r o n 1 i s i n s t a t e n2 x2m2m,2. T h u s , because of the indistinguishability of electrons and the related fact that the wavefunction must be antisymmetric, the two electrons that both are

lboth

partially

in

the

states

nl tlmlm,, and n2 &mc,2.

Suppose

states

were

identical,

however:

n, = n2, 4, = 42, ml = mz a n d m,, = rns2. T h e n , f r o m a n i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e a n t i s y m m e t r i c w a v e f u n c t i o n i n E q u a t i o n (9.13), it is immediately seen that $ = 0 -an impossibility. Although we have been discussing the situation for electrons in an atom, a similar situation holds no matter what system is being considered. Thus, for two electrons in a one dimensional box, the individual single-particle wavefunctions are described by values of a r e *(x) b y tin,,,, k, = nr/L, a n d a p a r t f r o m s p i n t h e wavefunction,s = VC&/T sin (nr/L)x. W i t h s p i n , t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n s w o u l d b e denotecl

functions !bnlrn,, and iC/,2m,2,

( x , S ) . T h e n , i f t w o n o n i n t e r a c t i n g p a r t i c l e s w e r e i n t h e b o x w i t h wave,. one c:ould w r i t e t h e a n t i s y m m e t r i c w a v e f u n c t i o n a s :

ti(x,S,; ;<2S2)

= 5 [!&, (.x1 I

s, M2m,2(X2

!i2) I Sl )I
(9.14)

- +nlm,l
find:
$(xl,sl;x2,s2)

(X2, S2:M2m$2(X1

Then in this case also, if the two states are the same: 111 = 2, m,, = rn,>, we

0 in the same single-particle

(9.15) state.

Thus,

it

is

impossible

for

the

two

electrons

to

be

This leads to the statement of the Pauli

exclusion principle for states in which the

electron wave function is approximately an antisymmetric linear combination of

260

Pouli exc/us;on products vanishing, must be of the

principle single-particle two wavefunctions. must be in No two electrons quantum in an atom This can means exist nonthat

in the same quantum state. In other words, if the wavefunction is to be electrons different states.

in an atom at least one of the quantum numbers n, 4, m, m, for the two electrons different.

9.5 EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE AND ATOMIC ELECTRON STATES

The above discussion of the exclusion principle applies to any two electrons in a

system no matter how many there are, except that wheln there are more than two electrons, the overall wpavefunction d e p e n d s o n m o r e v a r i a b l e s . I n a n a t o m , where the four quantum numbers, n, 4, m, m, are used to describe the electron s t a t e s , t h e n e v e r y s i n g l e - p a r t i c l e w a v e f u n c t i o n w i l l h a v e a s e t ntmm, which is different from that of every other single-particle wave function. Since there is a tendency for isolated systems in nature to seek the lowest possible energy state, we would expect that thss electrons in an atom woulld example, the single eleciron arrange themselves so that the overall atomic energy will be a minimum. Thus, in a hydrogen atom, for would ordinarily be found in a state of n = 1. This is the case unless the atom is put in contact with matter, such as in a gas discharge, where the electron can be excited to higher states. We shall discuss here only atoms as normally found in nature-in their ground state, or state of lowest energy. For hydrogen, since the ground state (also called n o r m a l state) is a state of n = 1, the orbital angular momentum quantum rnumber quantum number m must both equal zero. However, to a 4 and the magnetic very good approxima-

tion, the energy does not depend on the spin, which means that the energy does not depend on the quantum number m,. The quantum number m, has the possible v a l u e s &% ; so in hydrogen there are actuully ergy, labeled two possible states of lowest enby n = 1, 4 = 0, m = 0, m, = + /2 and n = 1, 4 = 0, m = 0, orrow p o i n t i n g d o w n : 1 . The ground state of hydrogen

m, = - % . We shall represent states of m, = + $4 b y a n a r r o w p o i n t i n g u p : f , a n d m, = - % b y a n could be represented in an energy level diagram, Figure 9.1, in two ways correP=O
9=1 Y=O

P=l

m = - 1 0 +1 =2-P --_

m=-I 0 +I =2------

n=l t-

,,=It

Diagram inclicating the lower levels of the electron in CI hydrogen atom. Figure 9.1. Presence of on orrow up cmr an arrow down, represents on electron occupying that state w i t h m, = +% or m, = -% , respectively. sponding to the two spin orientations. In these diagrams, the presence of the arrow indicates which level the electron occupies. consider helium, which has two electrons. If we assume that the hydrogen

NOW

9.5
quantum numbers can be used approximately, the state of

Atomic electron states

261

lowest

energy

would

b e t h a t s t a t e f o r w h i c h b o t h e l e c t r o n s h a d n = 1. Thlen 8 = 0, ,m = 0 ; a n d t o satisfy the exclusion principle, if one electron has m, := +-l/z (spin up), the other e l e c t r o n m u s t h a v e m, = - % (spin down). This state is illustrated in the energly level diagram of Figure 9.2. Having two electrons in the n = 1 state, with s p i n

!7=0

Z2

--

n=, -++
Figure 9.2. Illustration at helium ground state. af

up and spin down, completely exhausts all the possibilities for different sets q u a n t u m numlbers closed.

w i t h n = 1 . W e t h e n s a y t h a t thme n = 1 shell is filled, or

In lithium, which has three electrons, the lowest energy state is one in which the n = 1 shell is filled and the third electron goes into a state of next lowest energy, which is an n = 2 state. Since helium has two electrons in a closed n = 1 shell, and lithium has one more electron outside a closed shell, we would expect the chemical properties of lithium io be quite different from those of helium. Because the n = 2 electron is less tightly bound than n = 1 electrons, it takes less energy to remove the n = 2 electron than the n = 1 electron. So it should be relatively easy to add enough energy to the Li atom to remove the electron in the n = 2 state. The remaining atom would then be an ion with a net positive charge. In chemistry, it is known that Li forms positive ions and tends to give up one electron in chemical reactions; it has a valence of + 1. After one electron is removed from Li, the ground state of the remaining ion has two electrons in the n = 1 state. This is similar to helium. Since the n = 1 electrons are very tightly bound, it should be much more dific:ult to remove an electron in He, and in fact helium is one of the gases which are known as inert glases. Likewise, it is difficult to remove another electron from the Li ion. The possible energy level diagrams for lithium, which has three electrons, are shown in Figure 9.3, with the third P=O

n=2 -+

n=,

-++
Figure 9.3.

++.-

Lithium ground state.

262

Pavli

exclusion principle not matter whether the third electron is drawn 7 or magnetic interactions. In such an approximation,

electron in a 2s state. It (does 1 since here we are

neglecting

2s states with spin up or spin down are degenerate. In the next most complicated atom, beryllium, there are four electrons. The 2p levels lie slightly above the 2s levels, so the ground state has two electrons in 1s states, two in 2s states, and none in 2p states. The energy level diagram for beryllium in the ground state is shown in Figure 9.4.

*=2-r-t-I/

--

n=lr+ Figure 9.4. Beryllium ground state.

9.6 ELECTRON CONFIGUIRATIONS

The electronic configuration as follows: of atoms in their ground state is sometimes indicated

symbolically 1~~2s.

hydrogen:

1s; h e l i u m : 1s; l i t h i u m : 1~~2s;

beryllium:

Thus a sequence of symbols of the form

ntN is written, where the first

symbol n is an integer clenoting

the value of the principal quantum number, the

second symbol 4 is CI letter representing the value of orbital angular momentum q u a n t u m n u m b e r 4, ard the third symbol is a superscript equal to the number of electrons in the n = 2, {= 0 nt state. Thus, in beryllium, 1.5 m e a n s t h a t i n t h e 1s s t a t e there are two electrons. The symbol 2s state. means that there are two electrons in the

The next element is boron, with five electrons. In the ground state of this atom, there will be two electrons in the 1s states, two in the 2s states, and one left over which has to go into the next higher energy state, which is a 2p ground state of the entire atom would be represented by 2p is a state of orbital clngular state. Thus, the The state

ls22s22p.

momentum quantum number 4 = 1, so the mag-

n e t i c q u a n t u m n u m b e r m c a n h a v e t h e t h r e e v a l u e s 311 or 0. For each of these v a l u e s o f m , there are two different possible m, v a l u e s . S o t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f different 2p states is six. An atom in which the 2p state is completely filled would be an atom having a total configurations in nature. be represented by the symbols: ls22s22p6. closed, the and closed shells tend to be This woluld

of ten electrons. For an atom with 10 electrons, the n = 2 shell is completely exceptionally stable Just as the atom with n = 1 shell closed (helium) is an inert gas, so the atom with n = 2 shell closed (neon) is chemically inert. with The atom with nine electrons, flourine, has the configuration ls22s22p5,

only five electrons in the 2p subshell. If one electron were added to a flourine

9 . 7 /fled gases

263

atom, the result would be an ion with a negative charge, should accept one electron and have u valence of - :I.

and the extra electron

could go intlo the 2p state to form a closed shell. So flourine in chemical reactions The atom with 11 electrons, sodium, is chemically very similar to lithium; it has a v a l e n c e o f + l a n d g i v e s u p onIs electron in chemical reactions. According to the exclusion principle, the first 10 of these 11 electrons go into the lowest energy states with two in the Is, two in the 2s and six in the 2p level. The eleventh elfectron goes into the 3s level; so the electronic configuration of sodium could be w r i t t e n a s ls22s22p63s. In the energy level diagram of Figure 9.5 the sodium s 4

n=l
figurations, one

---I-+
Figure 9.5. expect

-to form positive ions.

Sodium atom in its lowest state.

atom in its lowest state is represented. Sodium has one extra electron outside a closed n = 3 shell. Since closed shells tend to form exceptionally stable comnwould sodium

.7 I N E R T G A S E S
The next level after the 3s level which fills up with electrons as we go higher in the periodic table is the 3p level. It takes six electrons to fill the 3p level by itself, and two electrons to fill the 3s level. So for an atom with the configuration ls22s22p63s23p6, subshell there are eighteen electrons. The element argon has 18 electrons, and is an inert gas. So in tfiis case, an inert gas is formed when the 3p is filled, before any of the ten 3d states is filled. It is found experimentally that every tirne a p level is completely filled up, an inert gas is formed. The reason this occurs is that the nd levels lie so much higher in energy in many-electron atoms. In general, because of the (complicated electron-electron repulsive forces, the positions of the energy levels are very difficult to calculate, but their sequence

264

Pauli exclusion principle can be determined from experiment. Using the fact that higher closed p levels give rise to inert gases, and the experimental fact that the general order in which the electron subshells are filled up is given in Table 9.2, we can predict the numbers of electrons in the inert gases: Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon

2 electrons
10 electrons 18 electrons 36 54 86 electrons electrons electrons

(ls2) ( ls22s22p6) ( ls22s22p63s23p6) ( ls22s22p63s23p64s23d04p6) ( ls22s22p3s23p64s23d04p65s24d05p6) ( ls22s22p63s23p64s23d4p65s24d5p6 6s24f45d06p6)

In a closed 1s shell, there are two electrons whose spins point in opposite directions. The total angular momentum (1 + S) of th is closed shell is equal to zero. of the type we have been Also, the contribution to the total magnetic moment of the electrons in a closed 1s shell will be zero. Silrlilarly, in any closed subshell considering, the total nLlmber of electrons is even and there are just as many subshell should be zero. Also, 4 occurring, the orbital

electrons with spin up as with spin down; so the contribution to total intrinsic magnetic moment from electrons in any closed since all positive and negative m states are filled for eac:h gases should be zero.

magnetic moments cancel. So the electronic magnetic moments of all the intert

TABLE 9.2 1s \ L

2A 2 p i,

This diagram provides an easy way of remembering the order in which the levels fill. The resulting order is: Is, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s. 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 6d

9 . 9 Alkali metals

265

P.8 H A L O G E N S
Let us next consider the group of elements which need one more electron in otder to fill up a p subshell; these have one fewer electron than the inert gases. Since the inert gases have 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86 electrons, the elements with one fewer electron are those with 9, 17, 35, 53 and 85 electrons. These elements are called halogens. They are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine. Hydrogen, which has one less electron than helium, is also sometimes classed as a halogen. Since the halogens, in order to complete their subshells, need one electron, they t e n d t o f o r m i o n s o f n e g a t i v e c h a r g e a n d h a v e a v a l e n c e o f - 1 in chemical reactions.

.9

ALKALI METALS
Consider those elements which have one extra electron, outside a closed p subshell. These elements are called alkali metals. Hydrogen, which just has one elec19, 37, 55, 87. The corresponding tron, is also usually classed OS on ~alkuli. Apart from hydrogen, the alkalis have the following numbers of electrons: 3, 11, names of the alkali metals are: lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and francium. These elements tend to have valence -t outside the c:losed subshell has a relatively low 1 since the extra electron energy and is easi#ly biniding

removed. Also, the electrons in lo,wer subshells tencl to screen out the nuclear charge, so that the spectra of the alkali metals are very similar to that of hydrogen. Figures 9.6 and 9.7 are the energy level diagrams for outermost electrons of lithium and sodium, which illustrate their similarity ,to that of hydrogen.

Figure

9.6. -.

Energy levels of lithium

Figure

9.7.

Energy levels of sodium.

2 6 6

Pauli

exclusion

principle

9.10 PERIODIC TABLE OF EILEMENTS

In Table 9.3 the periodic table of the elements is shown,. with elements of similar chemical properties arranged in columns. The alkali metals are put in the first column, the inert gases irl the last column; number of electrons (atomic number) increases to the right. In the second column are the mietals beryllium, magnesium, The elements calcium, strontium, barium and radium. These elements have two electrons outside a closed p subshell. They should usually have a valence of +2. trons to form a closed shell, leading to a valance of --2. states are beginning to fill up, after the 4s states. The o x y g e n a n d s u l p h u r OCCUI in the third column from the right and need two elecIt is seen from Table 9.3 corresponding ten elements that, starting with scandium, which has an atomic number Z = 21, the ten 3d are called transition to some nonzero elerrlents; their chemical properties are largely determined gives rise

by their two outer 4s electrons, but the inner incomplete 3 d subshell

magnetic moments of the atoms. Thus, many of the transition

elements have interesting magnetic properties. Iron, one of the most magnetizable of all substances, lies near the middle of the transition group at Z = 26. In this group, elements 24 (Cr) and 29 (Cu) have only olne 4s electron. In the heavier atoms, particularly in the rare earth group Z = 57 to Z = 70, the order in which electrons go into the various states is somewhat irregular. The actual order in which the states are filled up is given in detail in Table 9.4; numbers starred by there are not known precisely. and so In all these these elements elements the are outermost chemically elecvery trons are 6s electrons. The chemical behavior of these elements is largely determined similar. Since it is total angular momentum rather than orbital or spin angular momentum quantum 1, for a which is conserved in atomic systems, the energy states of the electrons should, strictly speaking, be labeled single electron, either j = 4 by values of the total angular momentum + % or j = 4 % when ,8 is greater the outermost electrons,

number j. Since the spin S can be either parallel to 1 or antiparallel to

than zero. For alkali metals in the ground state where 4 = 0 , t h e t o t a l a n g u l a r momentum quantum number is j = 4 + % = % . states are usually denoted by subscripts: separated in the slightly in energy due to the spin previous chapter. When the Four the first excited state of j = /, or j = % . These which was discussed parallel sodium which is a 3P state, there are two possibilities: spin-orbit and

3f:,,2 a n d 3P1,2. These two states are interaction angular orbital momenta are

a s i n t h e 3f3,2 state, the spin-orbit interaction is positive. In the other case, it is n e g a t i v e ; h e n c e t h e 3fX,2 state lies slightly above the 3P1,2 state in energy. The 3fsj2 -+ 3.s1,2 a n d 3fI12 + 3SI12 transitions thus give rise to two closely spaced yellow lines. When more than two electrons are present, the rules for adding angular momenta become quite complicated. The possible values of the total angular momentum quantum number may be obtained by considering all the possible w a y s i n w h i c h s p i n % and orbital angular momentum 4 c a n b e a d d e d o r s u b tracted from each other to give integral or odd half-integral j. For example, if

TABLE
I Ii 3 4

9.3

Periodic System of the Elements

He
5 6 7 8 9

Li
::

Be
;2

B
13 Al 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 20 29 30 31

C
14

N
15

0
16

10 F Ne
18

17

Na 19

Mg 20

Si
32

P
33

S
34

Cl
35

Ar
36

K Ca
37 38

SC Ti
39 40

V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr
55 Cs 87 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 60 69 70

Y
71

zr
72

Nb MO
73 74

Te Ru R h
75 76 77

Pd Ag fd
70 79 80

in
01

Sn Sb ie
82 03 84

i
85

Xe
86

Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy
88 09 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

Ho Er Tm Yb Lu I-If
99

Ta W Re OS Ir

Pt Au Hg TI

Pb Bi PO At Em u, 0

1 0 0 101 1 0 2 1 0 3 1 0 4 1 0 5 1 0 6

Fr Ra AC Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cl Es Fm Md No

268

Pauli exclusion principle

TABLE 9.4 Element .~ 1. H 2. H e .-__ 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Li Be B C N

Electron Configurations oi the Elements -

IS

Subshell 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

9. F 10. N e .-__ 11. N a 12. M g 13. A l 14. S i 15. P 16. S 17. C l 18. A r 19. K 20. Ca 21. S C 22. Ti 23. V 24. C r 25. M n 26. Fe 27. C o 28. N i 29. C u 30. Z n 31. G a 32. G e 33. A s 34. S e 35. B r 36. K r -~37. R b 38. Sr 39. Y 40. Zr 41. N b 42. M O 43. Tc 44. R u 45. R h 46. Pd .~

a. 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

rleon config-

rrationelectrons

10

1 2 3 4 5 6
0

4rgon Configrration- 18 electrons

0 1 2 3 5 5 6 7 8 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 0 0

(rypton Configuration16 electrons

1 2 4 5 5 7 8 10

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 0

9.70 Periodic fable TABLE 9.4 (Continued) 4s 4p 4d 4f -___ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1* 2 3* 4* 6 7 7 a* 9* 10* 11* 13 14 5s 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5p 5d 6s 6p

269

.Element 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. al. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta w Re OS Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi
PO

6d

.-

Palladium configuration~46 electrons

.__

1 2 3 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 -

0 0

1 1 1: 1; 1 0 0 1 1; 1 1 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

1 2 2 2* 2* 2* 2* 2 2 2 2* 2* 2* 2* 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 -

Shells 1 S to 5P filled--68 electrons

At Em Fr Ra AC Th Pa U
starred cxre uncertain.)

-__

1 2 2* 2* 2* 2 -

*(Numbers

270

Pauli exclusion principle for two n = 1 electrons, 4, = 42 = 0, the total spin S = 5, + 52 can be

a d d e d t o g i v e t w o p o s s i b l e v a l u e s ; t h e s e a r e $7 = values will occur. It is j = 13. a j = 0 state.

I(% + % )fi =

h a n d jh =

(% - % )h = 0. However, because of the exclusion principle, only one of these Thus, the ground state of the helium atom should be

9.11 X RAYS
When we studied the quantum nature of light in Chapter 5, the continuous x-ray spectrum was discussed. This spectrum is produced by the deceleration of high energy electrons. The frequency distribution depends on the probability distribution of electron decelerations and on the probability where distribution of frequencies for a given charged particle deceleration. The maximum x-ray frequency obtained is given by the Duane-Hunt law: u,,, = E/h, E is the electron kinetic energy. In addition to this continuous spectrum, there are often sharp peaks at certain energies. In this section we will discuss the discrete part of the spectrum. Discreteness of photon energies ordinarily means that a particle makes a transition from one discrete energy level to another, giving off a photon. The obvious levels to consider here are the lower levels of the bound electrons in the atoms. These are shown in the energy level diagram of Figure 9.8. The

1 I l,,-d

l-l -h- KU K,j

Figure ,shells. upper levels do not differ by enough energy to give the observed x-ray energies. Ordinarily, photons corresponding to electrons going from one electron shell to another are not observed in many-electron atoms because the lower shells are already filled; and because of the exclusion principle, other electrons cannot go i n t o t h e m . H o w e v e r , i f hiclh-energy electrons are shot into a metal, such transiout of the inner shells tions do occur because the electrons knock other elec:trons

9.8.

Series of x-ray lines result from transitions to unoccupied states in the inner

so that outer shell electrons can make transitions to the unoccupied holes. The innermost shell with n = 1 is called the K s h e l l ; t h e n e x t w i t h n = 2 is called the L shell; then the M, N, 0,. . . shells follow. There are two electrons in a closed K :shell corresponding to n := 1, $= 0, and eight in a closed 1 shell with n = 2,

9.7 7 x mys 4 = 0, or 1. If a

271

K electron is knocked out by the electron beam, electrons

i n s h e l l s L, ,M, N , . c o n m a k e t r a n s i t i o n s t o t h e h o l e l e f t b e h i n d . l i k e w i s e , M, N, 0,. shells have electrons which could make transitions downward to a hole in the 1. shell. Thus, a series of xray lines is observed when a K electron is to transitions from knocked out. These are called K,, I$, K, . . . , corresponding

t h e I , M , N, shells down to the K shell. Similarly, an L electron knocked out g i v e s I , , Lg, . . . lines, etc. The energies of the x rays can be estimated by (assuming that the electrons in the various shells have energies given by an equation similar to that for hydrogen, Equation (8.47). However, if Ze is the charge of the nucleus, the effective nuclear charge acting on on electron is less than Ze because of screening due to the presence of negative charge in the same and inner shells. The precise amount of screening is diffcult to estimatle; practically all of the electrons in shells inside a given shell are effective in screening out a portion of the nuclear charge. Also, some portion of the electrons in a given shell are effective in screening out the nuclear charge for other electrons in the same shell. The following simple model works well for the calculation of K, series wavelengths: For an L electron with one electron knocked out of the K shell, the remaining t h e K shell screens out one of the protons. Hence, an estimate of would be: electron in its energy

EL

= 167

- 112me4/2 x(4?rcO-i5)z 2=

(9.16)

The energy, after falling to the K shell, is very roughly:

= 1 (jr

l12me4/2
x 12

(4xt,h)=

(9.17) be-

These estimates of inner shell cause the nuclear potential

electl,on energies are fsairly good for large Z,

is largle

compared to that of electrons in the inner

shells. The energy of the K, x-ray line is then approximately: E = El - EK ( = Z - l)=me/2 1 - ( l2 1 _ 2= ) (9.18)

(47WJtr)=

The Lyman alpha line in the transition, has a wavelength of

hyclrogen X, =

spectrum,<which

arises from a similar

1216 angstroms. The wavelength of the

K, line in terms of i! and X, should then be:

AK,, = L!..cFor example, for Molybdenum,

(Z - 1)2 The

(9.19)

2:

42.

K, w a v e l e n g t h o f M o l y b d e n u m

s h o u l d t h e n b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.7;! a n g s t r o m s . T h e o b s e r v e d w a v e l e n g t h i s 0 . 7 1 angstroms. In 1913 Moseley was the first to recognize lines depended on Z in a simple fashion. from experimental data that x-ray H e founld t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n X = h,, a n d y a r e c o n s t a n t s law. Moseley found

X,/(Z - y)! a g r e e d w i t h e x p e r i m e n t v e r y w e l l , w h e r e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t Xc = 1276 anegstroms,

depending on what line is observed. This is called Moseleys

a n d y = 1.13 for K, lines.

272

Pauli exclusion principle It is found experimentally that the K, line actually consists of two closely spaced lines rather than one, due to energy splitting in the I shell. There are several causes of energy splitting in the I shell. One is due to the fact that the S e l e c t r o n s i n t h e L shell have larger wave functions near the nucleus, as compared to the wave function for the P electrons. Thus, due to Coulomb forces, the S electrons will be more ,+ightly b o u n d . T h i s g i v e s a n e n e r g y s p l i t t i n g b e t w e e n S and P s u b s h e l l s . A l s o , t h e s i x P e l e c t r o n s i n t h e L sl-lell T h i s i s d u e t o r e l a t i v i s t i c aeffects are split into two levels. and spin-orbit splitting. The spin can be up or

d o w n , g i v i n g i = /2 a n d j = /2 s t a t e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t e n e r g i e s d u e t o t h e s e effects. Only two closely spaced lines are seen rather than three, because the s e l e c t i o n r u l e A& = &l prevents transitions from the S states in the the K shell, which has only S states. The three L shell levels #can absorption at frequencies where be seen in experiments when x rays are absorbed in the energy is just sufficient to knock an electron materials. A continuous K-ray spectrum, when absorbed, has sudden jumps in I shell to

E n e r g y i n MeV Figure 9.9. Mass absorption coefficient for lead showing K, L and M absorption edges.

in a particular shell state, out of the atom. Three such absorption edges are seen for the I s h e l l . O n e woL#ld behavior is seen in Figur: be seen for the K shell and five for the M shell. This 9.9 in lead.

Summary .12 ORTHO- AND PARAHYDROGEN

The nuclei of hydrogen are protons which, like electrons, also are found to have spin % , and are indistinguishable particles. Hence, when a hydrogen molecule is formed, we have the intrinsic spin angular momentum of the nuclei, which must b e a d d e d t o t h e a n g u l a r momentea of the rest of the system to give the totol If we assume the two electrons go into their ground state in the molecule, with opposite spin and zero orbital angular momentum, then the total angular momentum of the molecule is due to the protons. Consider the angular momenta of the nuclear spins by themselves. The total angular momentum j of the two IIUclear spins can be either j = % + Vz = 1 or j,, == % 95 = 0. The j = 1 case occurs if the spins are parallel, and i. parallel. Ifir, = 0 occurs if the spins are antim, can have the three

273

= 1, the nuclear magnetic quantum nulnber

v a l u e s & 1,O. There is only one j0 = 0 state. The total number of different spin states is four. Ordinarily, the hydrogen molecule is formed in a chemical reactlon in which nuclear spins do not play any significant role. Hence, these four states all o c c u r w i t h e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t y . T h e n t h e s t a t e s in = 1 should occur three times as often as the in = 0 s t a t e s i n n a t u r e T h e in = 1 state is called orthohydrogen, a n d the j = 0 state is called parahydrogen. It is found that orthohydrogen is three times as plentiful in nature as parahydrogen, as predicted. In the case of the in = 1 s t a t e s , t h e s p i n s a r e p a r a l l e l , a n d t h e s p i n p a r t o f t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s symmetric under proton exchange. Thus the space part of the wavefunction must b e antisymmletric. Likewise for parahydrogen, the spin is antisymmetric and the

space part symmetric. This leads to the fact that the rotational quantum numbers, due to end-over-end tumbling of the molecule, must be even for parahydrogen and odd for orthohydrogen. Because of the different possible rotational states, q u i t e differelnt specific heats are observed at low ternperature for the two kinds orbital angular momentum quantum is 1, while it is 0 for polrahydrogen,, parahydrogen of hydrogen molecule. Since the I o w e s t number for Iorthohydrogen h a s a l o w e r ipossible temperature!s, results.

kinetic energy of rotation, and thus a lower energy ground

state. When hydrogen molecules clre f o r m e d o n a p l a t i n u m c a t a l y s t a t v e r y l o w they form at the lowest energy, and almost pure parahydrogen

EXCHANGE
When two

OF

IDENTICAL
particles are

PARTICLES
exchanged, no measurement can tell the differ-

identical

ence. Thus, the magnitude of the wavefunction must be unchanged and the warefunction can at most be multiplied by a phase factor, e*. Another exchange of t h e s a m e t w o partmlcles returns to the original state, so e2* = 1 or e = :t 1. F o r e@ = - 1 , w e s a y t h a t t h e wlavefunction is antisymmetric under exchange

274

~auli exclusion principle of two particles; experimentally, this is found to be true for half-integral spin particles, fermions. For integral spin particles, bosons, metric under exchange with e* = + 1. the wave function is sym-

PAW EXCLUSION PRIINCIPLE

If the Schrodinger equaiion is satisfied by a prodlJct of single-particle wavewave-

functions, an antisymmetric wavefunction under exchange can be generated by starting with such a product. If particles are exchanged in this product c h a n g e , e v e n t u a l l y a l l po,;sible cle products are obtainecl permutations of partilcles function two at a time, and the function is multiplied by minus one at each examong the single partiwith a + or - sign in front of the function. The antiPauli exclusion principle: No state.

symmetric function is the sum of these. This sum is zero if any two of the single particle functions are the same. This results in the two identical fermions can exist in the same single-particle

ATOMIC

ELECTRON

CONFIGURATIONS

T h e h y d r o g e n q u a n t u m riumbers n , 4, m a n d m, c a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y b e u s e d t o describe electronic states in atoms. In the absence of magnetic fields, these states are closely degenerate in m and m,. F o r a g i v e n &, there are 24 + 1 values of m , a n d m, h a s t w o p o s s i b l e v a l u e s . T h e r e a r e n v a l u e s o f 8 for a given n. This leads to 2nZ states for a given n. The electronic energies for atoms other than h y d r o g e n d e p e n d a p p r e c i a b l y o n n a n d 4 . Thus energy shells are specified by XN, w h e r e N gives the number of electrons in a shell. By the Pauli exclusion principle, the maximum number of electrons in a shell is equal to the number of states in the shell. The electrons go to the lowest energy configuration, so that in the ground state, the lower energy inner shells become filled, generally leaving only the last few electrons in unfilled shells. When the rnumber of electrons completely fills the P states in the lowest energy shells,. an inert gas results. These gases are very inactive chemically. If there are one or two electrons outside a closed shell, such as in sodium or calcium, these electrons are easily lost, and the atom has a valence of 1 lor 2. If a shell is filled except for 1 or 2 electrons, such as in fluorine or oxygen, the atom acquires these electrons readily and has a v a l e n c e o f - 1 or -2.

X RAYS
In addition to the continuous spectrum of x rays due to accelerated electrons, there are ordinarily sharp x-ray lines. Such a line results when an electron is knocked out of a low-lyitlg shell in the atom and another electron falls into the resulting empty state, erritting a photon in the process. The inner shells are denoted by K, I, labeled

M, . ,

corresponding to n = 1, ;!, 3,. . . . X-ray spectra are

by the shell into which the electron falls. The x-ray energy may be esti-

Problems mated by using the fact that E = the _ stlell energies are approximately hydrogen-like:

2 7 5

1 (Z - p)me4
2 (47rtJi)n

w i t h Z t h e n u m b e r o f p r o t o n i n t h 8: n u c l e u s a n d p the total number of electrons in shells of smaller n. Differences in these energies give approximately the observed x-ray energies.

ORTHO-

AND

PARAHYDROGEN
occurs in the hydro-

An example where the exclusion principle affects a m,olecule

gen molecule H2, where the two protons are fermions. If the spins are parallel, s = 1 a n d III, = - - 1 , 0 , + 1 with the spin function symmetric, and thus the rest o f t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s a n t i s y m m e t r i c , u n d e r exchange. For the opposite symmetries hold. Because rotational states this leads to different possible rotational states for the two s = 0, kincls m, = 0, a17d symmetries, of hydrogen, have definite

and thus to different energies and specific heats.

1. Suppose that three noninteracting identical electrons

sliding OII a circular wire of radius w i t h t h e Pauli e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e ?

of

spin

and mass (energy

were

o. W h a t i s t h e l o w e s t p o s s i b l e

consistent

Answer:

&,/ma a single particle are: 4. = 2/vsin (nrx/L).

2. The particle-in-al-box wavefunctions for If two noninterocting spinless

bosons (integral spin)

were

placed in the box, in states

nl a n d nz, w h a t w o u l d t h e overclll

s y m m e t r i c w a v e f u n c t i o n b e ? I f a t h i r d partide

w e r e p l a c e d i n the b o x i n s t a t e 3, w h a t w o u l d t h e w o v e f u n c t i o n b e ?

Answer:

ic =; +p

(Xl )$,2(x2)

+ 1c.1 (X2)Icd(X, )I;

+ +I (x3)$.2 (x~).#~~(xI

) + three more terms] Iproblem, show that the wave-

3. Using the two-particle wavefunction of the previous

f u n c t i o n (does n o t v a n i s h i f t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e i n t h e s a m e s t a t e , s o t h a t b o t h p a r t i c l e s c a n h a v e t h e s a m e q u a n t u m n u m b e r s . I f nl = 1 , n2 = 3 , c a l c u l a t e t h e expectati(Jn v a l u e o f ithe e n e r g y o f t h e s y s t e m .

Answer:

E = E, + E3.
i 1 12, 1 , I 2, w h e r e t h e orrows i n d i c a t e m, a n d t h e s u b s c r i p t i n d i c a t e s t h e

4. The four possible combinations of spin wave functions for two electrons are:
-112,

T211,

p a r t i c l e . S h o w t h a t t h e s y m m e t r i c (and o n t i s y m m e t r i c f u n c t i o n s u n d e r e x c h a n g e a r e :

276

Paul; e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e

What are the total antisymmetrized 5. spin

z components functions? pwtons, s, + t

of

angular

momentum

for

these

symmetrized

and

For two electrons or (S, Now + s2y S: 1, = = s: (/? +

t h e s q u a r e o f t h e t o t a l s p i n a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m i s : 5 = 25, .S2, , = , w h e r e S1, 1, = %)I = 51. Sz = T 1, .Sl& t where 1, s,,], Sly.&,. + is defined = S1zS2r. in the

)(Yz

l)iiT

previous problem. Likewise, it can be shown that it is so that S,, T 1 = % A 1 1, S,, 1, /~tiT,,s,~T,

possible ivz$l,,

t o c h o o s e S,, and S1, -i%hT,,

w h e r e iz = - 1 . Similclr

e q u a t i o n s h o l d f o r 52. S h o w t h a t t h e s y m m e t r i c s t a t e s o f t h e

p r e v i o u s p r o b l e m c o r r e s p o n d t o s = 1 o r S2 = (l)( I + l)h, a n d t h e ontisymmetric s t a t e c o r r e s p o n d s hydrogen. 6. Imagine two electrons attached to the ends of ment of inertia I about the center of spins end-over-end are quantum number, Spwial tizJ (J + 1)/21, mass. where J a rigid rod, the system having a moCIS i t is the rotational angular momentum tcl s = 0 . T h i s f a c t was u s e d i n di,scussing o r t h o - a n d para-

The kinetic energies of this system

exchange of the two electrons is equivalent to inversion of

the system through the center of moss. Using the fact that the spatial wavefunctions 1,5, a r e c h a n g e d b y D f a c t o r ( - 1 ) u p o n i n v e r s i o n , s h o w t h a t i f t h e s p i n s a r e p a r a l l e l J must be odd. 7. Using the electronic configuration of aluminum (Z = A/203? 13), how would you explain the

a.
9.

formation of the aluminum oxide molecule,

Discuss why the valence of carbon can be either +4 Suppose the electron were spinless. What would

or

- 4. ground state configuration of

the

carbon be? What would the C spectrum be like? Why?

Answer:

lS*,

hydrogen-like. ILnes c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s e t o f a l l o w e d t r a n s i t i o n s w i t h t h e s a m e 4 and differing n, which spectral

10.

If a series of spectral

final state, but with initial states all of the some

series of the Li and Na spectra have the same short-wavelength series limit?

11. 12. 13.

I f b y s o m e p r o c e s s , one 1s e l e c t r o n i s k n o c k e d o u t o f t h e s o d i u m a t o m , d i s c u s s , u s i n g t h e Pauli e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e , t h e v a r i o u s t r a n s i t i o n s w h i c h c o u l d o c c u r a f t e r w a r d s . S h o w t h a t t h e t o t a l a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m o f CI c l o s e d p subshell i s z e r o . A certain atom of valence state. Name the element. +3 in the ground state has its outer electron in the 4p

Answer:

Gallium. ot t h e t h r e e o u t e r m o s t e l e c t r o n s o f alumi-

14.

Write down the quantum numbers for each

n u m i n i t s g r o u n d s t a t e , w h i c h i s a s t a t e o f s =* % ( Z = 1 3 ) W h a t q u a n t u m n u m b e r s n,t and m, w o u l d y o u e x p e c t f o r t h e l o w e s t - l y i n g e x c i t e d - s t a t e o f a l u m i n u m , n e g l e c t -

ing magnetic interactions?

Answer:

(1) (2) (3)

n n n

= = =

3, 3, 3,

4 8 X4 n

= = = =

0, 0, 1, 4,

m, m, m, 4

= = = =

t-%
--Yz :F-/2. 0, and j

; ;

Excited

state,

% of the transuranic elements,

15. 16.

What z =

should

be

the

chemical

properties

valences

9 1 to102? D helium atom s singly ionized and an electron is subsequently captured, it

When

m a y h a v e e i t h e r t h e same There is on

or opposite spin

~1s t h e e l e c t r o n t h a t s t a y e d o n t h e a t o m .

o slightly different electron-electron interaction for the electrons, depending their of the spins are parallel parts of or antiparallel. Thia is because of the the different exclusion

whether

symmetries

spctial

the

wavefunctions

resulting

from

principle. Assuming that when the captured electron goes from one state ta another

Problems
_ Continuum 3s :- -- 3p
-c

277

- 3d

Ls - -

--

IP

IS --

there is negligible probability thctt its spin flips, whoIt

differences in the spectra of

helium atoms with different captured electron spins would you expect? 17. Write the electronic configuration for rubidium (Z = 37) in terms of an energy level diagram with arrows. 18. Carbon has six electrons. Show that the electronic configuration of its ground state is ls22s22p2. 19. What are the possible total angular momentum quantum numbers i of the 3p states of sodium? Answer: 20. $,fi. From the result of Problem 18, show that the possible values of the total spin s of the ground state of carbon are 0, 1 and the possible values of total orbital quantum number 8 are 2, 1, 0. Thus, show that if the exclusion principle is ignored tar these angular momenta, the total angular momentum quantum number j can be given the value 3 in one way, 2 in three ways, 1 in four ways, and 0 in two ways. 21. For two electrons, the s = 1 states are symmetric under particle exchange, and the s = 0 state is antisymmetric. Also, if they are both in p states, the 4 = 2, 0 stotes are symmetric and the 4 = 1 states are antisymmetric. Use these facts to show that some of the ways of getting js for carbon in the previous problem are not possible because of the exclusion principle. In particular, show that the only possible states ore s = 1; 4 = 1, j = 0, 1, 2 (or s = 0; 4 = 2, 0; j = 2, 0. The actual ground s t a t e o f c a r b o n i s s = 1 , $= 1,; = 0 . 22. In nitrogen, with three outer electrons in p states, it is found experimentally that the ground state corresponds to a total spin quantum number of s = 3/~, angular momentum quantum number of j = /,. and total With three p electrons, the to.taI

angular momentum quantum number could be 4 = 3, 2, 1 or 0. Show, using the exclusion principle, that 4 = 0 is the only possibility here. (Saying that j - s = 0 is not sufficient.)

23.

If iC~,m.m,

(i) represents the single-particle function for the i t h particle with 4 = 1, 1,and m, = +l/2 , multiply three such functions together to form 12 equation for the three outer electrons of

m = -l,Oor

approximate solution of the Schrijdinger changed to form the antisymmetrk Answer: $[$ 1.1,1/2(~)ic1,0.1/2

nitrogen in the previous problem. Add and subtract similar functions with is interfunction.
(2) 1cl.~1,1/2

(3)

-~~~~~1/2~~~~1~~~1/2~~~~1~~1~1/2~3)~,.~,,,2~~~~,,~,~~~:~(1)

+ three other terms].

278

Pauli e x c l u s i o n p r i n c i p l e

24.

F r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f P r o b l e m s 4,5 a n d 6 , s h o w t h a t t h e e n e r g y d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e lowest two rotational states of parahydrogen is /s t h e eplergy difference for the two

l o w e s t r o t a t i o n a l states, o f o r t h o h y d r o g e n . W h i c h h a s t h e g r e a t e s t s p e c i f i c h e a t a t l o w temperatures?

25.

From

the

information

given

in

Problems

and

24

and

in

this

chapter,

what

is

the

fraction of parahydrogen at equilibrium when the temperature is very low, and when it is very high?

A n s w e r : 1 , /4 26. 27. 28.

Show that the wavelength of the is approximately 1.220 X 10-/Z K, l i n e front CI h e a v y e l e m e n t o f a t o m i c n u m b e r Z meters.

F i n d t h e e n e r g y i n eV of o Answer:

Kg

x-ray photon given off by a lead atom.

79,600 eV.
line is approxithis for iron x lo-Z/A, where A is the atomic weight. Evaluate

S h o w t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n a l c h a n g e i n m a s s o f a n a t o m e m i t t i n g o K, mately 1.09 and uranium.

29.

Find the minimum enertgy l i n e ; ( b ) t h e 1, l i n e .

of electrons in a beam hitting tungsten to give (a) the

K,j

Answer: 30. 31. Answer:

7 2 , 5 0 0 eV; 1 8 , 1 0 0 eV. Kp
x-ray emission line?

How many closely spaced lines should be observed in the

2. Ko
x-ray line for Molybdenum with Z = 42. The ob-

Estimate the wavelength of the served value is 0.63 angstroms.

Answer: 32.

0 . 6 1 Angstt,oms. target must have 25.8 x lo3 volts applied to it before eV o f

A n x - r o y t u b e w i t h a s lver t h e K, x - r a y l i n e s o f the

sil>/er a r e o b s e r v e d . C a l c u l a t e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e e n e r g y i n

absorption edge of silver, and explain qualitatively why it is different from the of the

energy

K,

line

as

calculated

from

Moseleys

law. ,the o u t e r m o s t e l e c t r o n f r o m lines exhibit an anomalous levels and

33.

T h e b r i g h t y e l l o w color

in sodium is due to transitions of 251,2 state. There,

3P3,2

and 3P1,2

states down to the

Z e e m a n e f f e c t , b e c a u s e t h e e n e r g y s p l i t t i n g s o f t h e 3P3,2, 3P1,2 a n d 3S1,2 o r e d i f f e r e n t i n CI m a g n e t i c f i e l d . H o w m a n y l e v e l s d o e s e a c h o f t h e 3S,,,

3P3p,
be

3P,p
in

levels split in o magnetic field? Using the selection rules, how many lines will

be seen in place of the o f t h e 3P,,2 + 3S1,2?

3P3p

3Plp

line?

How

many

lines

will

seen

place

Answer:

4,2,2,6,4.

0 classical statistical mechanicls

Many of the physical systems which we study are large enough to contain enormous numbers of particles. For example, a container of 22.4 liters of helium at 0C and at atmospheric pressure is known to contain 6.023 x 10z3 atoms. This gas, in addition to exerting pressure and storing energy, may also conduct heat from one point to another, may resist shearing motions (like molasses), may sustain1 may as show helium. sound waves, and in general may exhibit a variety of interesting similar The effects. atomic masses, sizes of atoms, interaction forces and other phenomena. Other many-particle systems such as solids, liquids and plasmas Quite a bit is known about the microscopic properties of atoms in a gas such properties are known to a reasonable accuracy. The object of statistical mechanics is to use information about individual particles in constructing a theory which explains all the observed properties of a large system containing a great number of particles. to Newtonian mechanics, to describe the motion of a particle, 1O23 particles, Accordinfg

one must solve the equation F = ma, where F is the total force on a particle due to its interactions with all other particles. In a system of t he re would1 be 1O23 such equations, and the solution of such a system of equa-

tions would be a practical impossibility. Furthermore, even if the solutions were known, they would not be very useful, since the properties of a system which can be observed macroscopically are usually very few in number-say on the order of 10 or 20. One would then need to know how to reduce the information contained in these 1O23 solutions to about 20 numbers which could then be compared with experiment. Statistical mechanics supplies the rules for treating many-particle systems in terms of a very few variables. It (accomplishes this by describing the system not in terms of definite positions and velocities of all the particles, but in terms of probabilities. In this chapter we will assume that the particle motions are governed by Newtonian mechanics. In the following chapter the effects of quantum mechanics will be discussed.

279

280

Classical statistical

mechanics

10.1 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION IN ENERGY FOR SYSTEMS IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUh~

One of the most importont parameters used to describe large systems is temperoture. This concept is basecl on the observed existence of states of a system called thermal equilibrium states. If two systems at different temperatures are placed in contact and left alone, they will eventually come into thermal equilibrium with each other. Their temperatures will then be equal. Two systems each in thermal equilibrium The with a third of system, will be in is thermal equilibrium by with each other. of heat attainment thermal equilibrium accomplished the exchange

energy through the systems contacting walls. Even after thermal equilibrium is established, these systems;, as long as they are in contact, could still continue exchanging energy. Then the amount given up by a system is balanced on the average by an equal amount received. At a particular instant, however, one system might have more energy than at some other instant. Thus, for a system in thermal equilibrium at a definite temperature, the energy does not have a definite value. If we place a large number of identical systems all in contact and allow them to come into thermal equilibrium with each other (see Figure lO.l), then these

Figure

10.1.

Identical systems in thermal contact.

systems will have various energies which can be described by a probability distribution or density P(E). It is usually assumed that this is the same as the distribution of energies of one particular system if observed repeatedly at different times. Although ths energy is not definite, it is possible to find a simple expression for the probclbility P(E) that a particular system will be in o state of energy assumption

E.
that

To find the mathematical form of this function P(E), we use the the systems are all in thermal equilibrium, at equal temperatures. are isolated, so they

Except for their thermal contact with each other, the *systems

can not do work on each other, have chemical reactions with each other or interact in any other way. We will assume that the total momentum and angular momentum of each system is zero, and that the volume and number of particles in each system remain fixed. The only independent macroscopic quantity that can

IO.2 The Boltrmonn distribution

be transferred from system to system is heat energy, and hence the energy may fluctuate in time in a particular system. Thus we expect the probability that a system is found in a particular possible state, for a given volume and number of particles, will depend on the energy of the state of the system and also on the quantity which the systems have in common, the temperature.

281

3.2

THE

BOLTZMANN

DISTRIBUTION

Let us assume that systems 1 and 2 are identical in all respects so we can be sure that the probability functions are identical for the two systems when they halve the same temperature T. We then define P(E,)-which also depends on Tto be the probability that system I is in a particular state with energy El, a n d similarly, P(E,) is the probability of occurrence of a particular state with energy Ez in system 2. In terms of these probabilities, we is in a particular state of energy by Equation (2.1). Now, if we wish, we can think of systems 1 and 2 as a single, combined system. The probability that the combined system is in the given state of energy E = E, + Ez s h o u l d , b y t h e s a m e r e a s o n i n g a s t h a t u s e d a b o v e , b e a f u n c t i o n only of the energy E a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T. T h u s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y s h o u l d b e a function of the form for any El and any EZ, P(E, $- ET). T h e r e f o r e , i n t e r m s o f P(,E,) and olsk: W h a t i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y that, at the same time system I is in a particular state of energy E 2? T h e n e t p r o b a b i l i t y m u s t b e

El, s y s t e m 2
P(E,) P(E2),

P(E,),

P(E, $- E,) = P(E,) P(E2)

(10.1)

Here P is not necessarily the same function of energy as P, because the combinted system is not identical with the individual systems 1 and 2. What this tells us is that the function P(E) is a function of El Equation (10.1) equatiton m u s t b e s u c h t h a t t h e p r o d u c t P(E,) determine the dependence of

P(E2)

+ E2.
is sufficient to completely

P and

P on the energy variable E. It was obtained by assuming that the occurrence of the possible states of a system in thermal equilibrium with many other systems w a s d e s c r i b e d b y a p r o b a b i l i t y f(E) depending on the energy E and the temperature. The probability of finding the combined system in a particular state of energy E,, the is individual an + EZ, with subsystern 1 in its particular state of energy El, a n d probabilities for these states. subsystem 2 in its particular state of energy E2, must be equal to the product of The only function which satisfies an equation of exponential: P(E) where P(0) iis t h e v a l u e o f verify that PI[E) =: P(0)emBE (10.2)

tlhe

form of Equation (10.1)

f(E) w h e n E = 0 , a n d p i s a c o n s t a n t . O n e m a y

= P (0) e -BE is a solution to Equation (10. l), provided that:

fJ(E,

+ 1F2) := P(())2e-8(ElE2)

(10.3)

282

C/assica/

statisfico/ mechanics
@ are constants independent of E but possibly dependent volume and number of particles in the system. Since equally we valid the for Newtonian to and interact quantum with the systems. container

The quantities P(0) and

on the common temperatclre, systems with satisfy, this result is

nothing has been said up to this point about the mechanics the particles in the If we consider an ideal gas in which the individual particles do not interact each other, but where allow particles walls, then we can consider each particle as a system which is, on the average, in thermal equilibrium with the walls. The probability that a particle is in a particular state of energy E is then P(E) = P(O)e-@. Thus, the mathematical form of the energy distribution function is determined. However, we do not yet k n o w t h e c o n s t a n t s P ( 0 ) a n d p. These will be found in subsequent sections, by considering the ideal gas, a system which should already be familiar to the reader. In following sections we shall discuss in more detail what is meant by a particular state of a particle, and show how

P(E)

is used.

10.3 PROOF THAT P(E) IS OF EXPONENTIAL FORM

We shall now give a proof that only an exponential function can satisfy Equation (10.1). This equation must be valid for all values of El a n d E2. I n p a r t i c u l a r , if E, = 0 a n d E2 = E , w e o b t a i n f o r a n y

E:
(10.4)

P(E) = P(E)P(O)
Substitution of

E,

+-

Ez

back into Equation (10.4) allows us to rewrite

Equation (10.1) entirely in terms of P, by eliminating

P.

The result is: (10.5)

P(E, + E,) P(0) = P(E,) P(Q.

Equation (10.5) is valid for any ferential equation for small. Then we get:

P(E).

Put

El E,

a n d E2, =

and may be used to obtain a dif-

and

E2

dE,

where

dE

is infinitesimally

P(E + dE) = &) P(E)P(dE)

Subtracting

P(E)

from both sides of this equation, and dividing by

dE,

one finds:

P(E + dE) - P(E)

or

(10.7)

P(E) dP(E = 0) dW) __ = dE P(0) dE

Then, dividing both sides of the equation by

(10.8)

P(E), we get:
(10.9)

dP(E)/dE P ( E

dP(E = O)/dE ) pm -

10.4 Phase space

T h e lefthand constant -/3 s i d e o f t h i s e q u a t i o n i s e v a l u a t e d olt a n y E , t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e E = 0, and is therefore a constant. Calling the

283

is evaluated for the value

for convenience, we have: dP(E)/dE --=--p WE:)

where

p i s a p o s i t i v e c o n s t a n t IIndependent

of E . This equation can be im-

mediately integrated from E = 0 to E t o o b t a i n : I n f ( E ) - I n P(O) = -BE (10.11)

Here, In P(0) is the constant of integration. Solving for P(E), we f i n d : P(E) = P(0) e-BE (10.12)

T h u s , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y P(E) is an exponential function of energy. Had we chosen the opposite sign for the constant 13, the probability would not be normalizable.

3.4 PHASE SPACE

The Boltzmann f a c t o r eeBE gives the relative probability of finding a system, E . The factor p

which is in thermal equilibrium, in a given state having energy ticularly interested in applying this result to a thermlodynamic

depends in some way on the temperature, which we must determine. We are parsystem containing a great many particles, such as a bottle of gas. The problem is to find some convenient way of specifying the state of such a complicated system. To illustrate how this may be done, imagine a simple model of a gas in which the gas particles are represented by marbles of mass m which can roll in a long groove. The x axis is along the groove and the marbles all stay in the groove, so only the xi c o o r d i n a t e , a n d n o t y; or zi coordinates, must be given in order to specify the ith marbles position. To completely determine the state of one of the marbles using classical mechanics, one must at the same time give the momentum pi, = mxi of the marble as well as its position, along the groove. Then, at the same time, we can represent the state of the marble by plotting (xi,pix) on a graph as in Figure 10.2. Of course, as time progresses, the point representing the state of the ith particle will move and trace out some trajectory, which may have sharp kinks and bends in it due to collisions, as in Figure 10.3. If we have a large number of marbles in the groove, then we call represent the state of eclch marble by a different point on the p. versus x graph, as in Figure 10.4. As time progresses, each point will move in some trajectory om the p, x graph. If we halve an extremely large number of marbles, then there will be an extremely dense cloud of points in p.,x space, as in Figure 10.5. As, time progresses, the cloud m a y s h i f t a r o u n d , a n d f l u c t u a t e irl density. If the position k n o w n . H o w e v e r , i f t h e r e a r e a s m a n y a s 10z3 of each point in the as is for cloud is known, then, of course, the state of the (entire system of marbles is particles in the system, common in thermodynamic systems, then there will be so many points that

284

Classical stafistica/ mechanic:;

Point represmting 9 I I I I

state of

one particle at initial instant

Figure 10.2. Phase space far a particle confined to move in the x direction.

Figure 10.3. time passes.

Motion

of the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

point of one particle in phase space as

Figure 10.4.

The representative points of

Figure

10.5.

cloud

of

representative

any number of particles car be plotted in the same phase space.

points in phase space, for a system consisting of a large number of particles.

many purposes, only the average density of the cloud would be needed. This method of representing the state of a system turns out to be very useful, and can easily be applied to a more realistic gas of particles which move not only in the x, but in the x, y and z dimensions. Let us consider a container of volume V, holding a gas of N particles. We shall assume that each particle has a mass m. In order to completely specify the state or condition of this gas, one would have to specify the position r and momentum p of every pclrticle at some initial instant. A very convenient way to represent such information is to introduce a six dimensional space called phase space. This six dimensional space has three axes representing the spatial coordinates the r = (x,y,z) of of a particle, and three axes representing the momentum are then of one a single point in phase space, representing the state p = (pX, py,pz) coordinates of the particle. The six numbers, (x, y, z,pX,py,pz)

particle. Although it is difficult to visualize a space of six dimensions, one may think of all these coordinate axes as being orthogonal (at right angles) to each other. One may then plot the position r and momentum p of a second particle on the same coordinate axes, giving a second point in phase space representing

70.5 Phase space

distribution

285

the coordinates (r, p) of the second particle, and so on for all N particles. Then a system of N particles would correspond to a cloud of N points in six dimensional phase space phase which space. represent two particles = 2; with positions 1, pr., and momenta, given by: In Figure 10.6 are two of the six axes in phase space. Consider the points of

x, = 3, y, and

= 4, 2,

Pxl =

= 1, p., = 0; pz=o

x2=o,y2= l,z2= 1 2 ;

with lengths in meters, and momenta in kilogram-meters per second. These points are plotted as an example, in the part of phase spacle shown in Figure 10.6.

y(m)
6 5 4

@II 1

vv- p,
Figure 10.6. Exomple of representative points plotted oilong

1 t2 3 r

(Kg-m/s4

two axes in phose space.

If a particle moves with constant velocity v, the point in phase space representing it moves in a straight line, because r varies linearly with time, while p remains constant. For a particle moving in a circle in the xy plane with constant speed, the path of its representative point in the x,p. plane would be elliptical in shape.

1.5 PHASE SPACE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS

If we plot the N representative points of a macroscopic system of gas particles in phase space, as is illustrated in Figure 10.7, there will be so many of these points that they will be distributed almost continuously throughout phase spal:e. T h e n w e c a n d e f i n e a c o n t i n u o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n f ( r , p , t) equal to the density of points in phase space. That is, f (r, p, t) is the number of points per unit volume of phase space at the position (r, p) = (x, y, z, p., pr, pZ) at the time t. In a three dimensional space (x, y,z), the infinitesimal volume element is dxdydz. By analogy, in a six dimensional space (x,y,z,pX,pv,pZ) w i t h orthog-

286

Classical statistical mechanics

Figure

10.7.

macroscopic system of N particles is represented by a cloud of N points

in six dimensional phase space; the axes are assumed to be mutually orthogonal.

onal

Cartesian

coordinates, t h e v o l u m e e l e m e n t c a n b e a s s u m e d t o b e and the density of points in in the volume dxdydz *

dxdydzdp, dp, dp, So if the element of volume is dxdydzdp,dp,dp,, dp,dp,dp, is iust: dN = f (r, p, t) dxdydzdp,dp,dp, (10.13) phase space is f(r, p, t), then the number of points, cfN,

Thus, f (r, p, t) is a distribution function in phase space, whose normalization is:

JdN

+[:

dx[:

dolt dzl:

dpxll 41r~~

hf(r,p,tJ

= N (10.14)

-the total number of particles. In writing such expressions, we regard the six variables x, y, z, pX, py,pz all as independent variables. This is because of the way the states of the particles are being represented on orthogonal axes in phase space. Although it is true that if x were known as a function of time, depend on x, in phase space p. could ble c a l c u l a t e d a n d s o w o u l d the positions and momenta are represented at one

instant. A particle at x at some instant could have any value of p. at that same i n s t a n t ; b o t h x a n d p. must be given at the same instant in order to specify the particles state. JdN which has been broken down in Equation (10.14) into a six-fold looks complicated; however, the idea is to integrate over The integral multiple integral

t h e v a r i a b l e dN. In all cases which we shall consider,, the multiple integral is just a product of six single, independent integrals, which are performed in the ordinary way.

10.6 Maxwell-Boltzmonn

distribution

287

T h e q u a n t i t y l / N f (r, p, t) could be interpreted as a probability distribution function, since f[x its normalization would be unity. Thus, for example, the quantity

= 6

m, y = 0, z = 0, p. = 0, pr = 2 kg-m/set, pZ = 3 kg-m/set, t = 1 set] dxdydzdp,dp,dp,

is the probability of finding a particle in the element of volume dxdydzdp,dp,dp, surrounding the point whose x coordinate is 6 m, y coordinate is 0, pr is 2 kg m/set, etc., at the time t = 1 sec. We shall henceforth assume that a knowledge of the continuous distribution function system. f, or of the probability density f/N, specifies the state of the macroscopic coordinate

MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN

DISTRIBUTION

Imagine the cloud of points in phase space for a system in equilibrium. The density of the cloud of points should look the same 1 second or 10 seconds later on, so the density should not be changing significantly in time. Thus, if t h e s y s t e m i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m , w e c o u l d e x p e c t f t o b e a c o n s t a n t i n time. Mathematically, this could be expres.sed by:

af at=

(10.15)

We shall henceforth consider only the equilibrium situation; then f (r, p ,

t)

does

n o t d e p e n d o n t i m e , a n d w e c a n aenote it more simply by f (r, p). T h u s , a s a whole, the cloud of points in phase space does not move. This does not mean that every point in phase space stays fixed, but only that on the whole, the number of points dN in any given volume element remain the same. For example, consider some volume element of phase space, denoted by:

d
If some of the particles in

fl = dxdydzdp,dp,dp,

(10.16)

dQ

have their velocities suddenly changed by collisions from collisions

or other effects, so that their representative points go somewhere else in phase space, then on the average just as many points will come into dQ and other effects in other regions of phase space. We conclude that although individual points may move about, an equilibrium situation is represented by a cloud finding of points the in phase space whose density, on the the average, region remains constant * in time, and that the quantity l/N point representing a dpXdp,dp, in phase space.

(r, p) dxdydzdp,dp,dp, particle inside

is the probability of

dQ

dxdydz

In addition to r and p, the function

f/N

could depend on the temperature.

However, in Equation (10.2) it was seen that the probolbility of finding a particle in a particular state of energy E was a function of energy and temperature, P ( E ) = P(O)e- pE. H e n c e f / N a n d P ( E ) must be closely related. The quantity

288

Classico/ stofistico/ mecharics l / N f ( r , p)dQ is the probability of finding a particle in a range of states On the other hand, f(E) is the probability of finding

dQ = dxdydzdp,dp,d/,,.

the particle in one particular state. Therefore, we need to know how many states there are in the phase space region dQ. There is no way to calculate this number of states using classical mechanics; there

iis, however, no reason to

centered at (O,O,O,O,O,O)

think there are more or fewer states inside a volume dG

than for a dQ centered at any other point; hence the question is answered by introducing the following postulate: The possible states are uniformly distributed in phase space. Thus, the number of states in the phase space region is taken to be pdO, w h e r e p is8 some constant called the density of states. Then the number of states in the volume element dQ is just equal to pdQ, and P(E)pdR is the probability of finfding a particle in dL?. This is precisely the same quantity as l/N fdfl; so, in term!; of P(E),

i f(r,p) = pP(E)
and in terms of p and E,

(10.17)

Maxwell-Boltzmann constants independent important factor distribution (10.18)

We

have

thus

obtained

the

general

solution

for

the

distribution

function

f (r, p) at equilibrium. The combination of factors NP(O) p is just a normalization constant which can be determined for any particular physical system. We shall see how this is done for the ideal gas in Section 10.8. The most important dependence on the energy is in the exponent. This distribution is called the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution, and is the basic result of this chapter. In deriving this, we have made use of the so-called fundamental postulate of stafistical mechanics, which states that the possible states of a particle are uniformly distributed in phase space with a density of states p, which is a constant; this constant cannot be calculated using Newtonian mechanics, but can be determined using wave mechanics. (In Chapter 11 this will be shown to be p =: l/h3, w h e r e h i s Plancks constant.)

10.7 EVALUATION OF ,k?

In Equation (10.18), the constants p and P(O)p gas, namely that if there are no internal are unknown. To evaluate p we within the particles of the gas,

shall make use of a result found in discussions of the kinetic theory of the ideal energies the average energy per particle is equal to: ( E ) = ; kaJ (10.19)

10.7 Evaluation of Ij
Here, k, is Boltzmanns constant, 1.38 x 10mz3 joules/degree Kelvin, and T is

289

the absolute, or Kelvin temperature (centigrade temperature plus 273.2 K). The procedure is simply to calculate the average value of E, (E), using the distribtltion function we have just derived in Equation (10.18). Equating this to we will then determine the constant @. For a distribution function /,

k,T,

which depends only on one variable x, we saw in jfd.r,

Chapter 2 that the expectation value of some quantity g (x) is (g) = [gfdx/

where the integral goes over the entire range of values of the variable. In our case, the distribution function depends on r and p, and the integral will go over the entire range of values of r and p, that is, over the entirety of six dimensional phase space. For example, we woulid distribution function itself, over all of indicate the integral of f (r, p), which is the phase space by:

ffdQ = JSSSf (r, PI dxWzh4+p,

We shall only consider cases in which such multiple integrals break up into products of six or fewer one dimensional integrals. It will then only be necessary to find the values of single integrals, and multiply them together to get the result. To evaluate the expectation value of E, we shall take the case in which the kinetic energy of one particle is E = % mv2, and there is no potential energy. Then, since p = mv and thus

= % p/m, the expectation value of

is: (lOA21)

(6 =

NW) Pm(p212m)

ev (- $ Pp/m) dxWzdp,dp,dp, -

NW) P -&/8? ev (-- I2 Pplm) d=WzdpKdp,dpz There is no x, y or z dependence in either numerator or denominator, so if \I is the volume of the container, the x-y-z integrals give: j;TSdxdydz Substituting this result into the expression for = v

(E)

i n E q u a t i o n (10.21), denominator.

it is easily

seen that V cancels out between numerator and1

Furthermsore,

NP(0) p cancels, since it appears as a factor in both numerator and denominaltor. This always happens when expectation values of single-particle properties are being calculated; hence, if we are only interested in calculating expectation values, we do not need to know the values of N, P(0) and p. Thus, after canceling such common factors, (E) reduces to an expression inpZ: volving only integrals over p., pY and

cEj = ffi % p2/m exp (- % Bp2,1m) h+,+z ___flew (- % &/ml ~~w%dpz

(10.22)

Let us first evaluate the denominator. To separate this denominator into single integrals, we note that e x p (S!!$!) e x p (*)

.three

exp (-t*)

= exp (d!$!!G)

(1~0.23)

290

Classical

statistical

mecharsics

Then the use of integral:, given in Table 10.1 leads to the result: lx= e x p (zyf) dp,dp,dp,

= 1; .xP(IF)

dp,

. Jy exp

(+q

dp, j-; er:p (+?qd,,

[J:

::p

(&!!!c)

d I= [v@?i#i]3

(10.24)

We shall refer to this result several times later.

TABLE

10.1

Some

Definite

Integrals

m J0
m s 0

e -Ox dx = !w

xe -Ox dx = 1 2a x 3 e -ax dx = -1 2a2 x s e --Ox2 dx = 1 a3

m s m s 0
0

m J
0

x4 e --Ox2 dx = ; m 6 --.xQ dx = 3
1 6

Xe

77
J 2

s0

We next need to evaluate the numerator. The integral we need is:

N u m e r a t o r = 2/-m /J[

exp (+) p2 ~p,dp,dp,

(10.25)

Again substitute

pz

= pz + p; + p: in the two places in this equation. & /sJ exp [--~PI:P~ + p; +

Numerator =

pzi]

(10.26)

x (P: +

P: +

~:)dp.+y+z

Then we have the sum of three integrals to evaluate, with integrands proportional, respectively, to taking the integral with

pt,

p: and pz

times the exponential. Since the three to pz as representative, we have:

integrals are identical except for labeling of axes, they will be equal. Hence, integrand proportional

Numerator,

- 11 pf exp (*p:) +,dp,dp, 2,

(10.27)

JO.8 Evaluation of NP(0) p

Upon separation of this threefold integral into the product of three single

291

integrals, the pv a n d p. integrals are the same as the py a n d p. integrals in the denominator, and may be performed using Table 10.1. The integral then reduces to: N u m e r a t o r = ?!?!?

The remaining integral over p., from Table 10.1, gives a factor % &(2m//Q3 so the numerator is: N u m e r a t o r = 4 (27rm)32 Taking the ratio of the results for numerator pm5 and denominator (10.23) obtained in

Equations (10.24) and (10.29),

we find that

i:E) = ;p
For the ideal gas, however, (E) i!s g i v e n b y E q u a t i o n ( 1 0 . 1 9 ) a s ( E ) = and therefore,

(10.30)

3kBT/:2,

P=&
B Thus, gas, by 6 is calculating determined. the This average result is energy per particle should using be a important and remembered.

(10.31) Maxwell-Boltzmann

distribution function, and requiring the result to be the same as for an ideal

.8 EVALUATION OF NP(0) p
For completeness, we will find gas system. This constant varies

NP(O)p,
from one

the normalization constant for the ideal system to another, and probably should

not be memorized for any one system. The constant may be found if the number of particles N in the volume V is lknown; that is, the integral of

fdO

over all

phase space must equal N. For the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function, describing a gas of free particles, the normalization for a system with N particles in a volume V is:

N =
E q u a t i o n ( 1 0 . 2 4 ) w i t h @ = l/ksT leads to:

dxdydzdp,dp,dp,

(10.341)

NP(O)p = i (2rmk,T))32 Therefore, at equilibrium for an ideal monatomic gas,

(10.33:)

f (r, p) = i

(2z-mk,T)-32

exp

(10.34)

292

C/ctssico/ sfafistico/ mechanics

As mentioned previour,ly,

t h e f a c t o r e -OE i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i s c a l l e d The most important feature of and almost always

the Boltzmann factor. In this factor, p = l/ksT. in front of the exponenticll Thus, in Equation

t h e f u n c t i o n f ( r , p ) i s ttat i t i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o &@E. T h e c o n s t a n t s NP(O)p are for purposes of normoliz~otion, cancel out in calculating <expectation values. (10.34), we have completely determined the distribution function f (r, p) for an ideal monatomic gas of particles in thermal equilibrium with the container walls. Here each particle is considered to be a system with e n e r g y E = Yz p2/m.

10.9 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANlN POTENTIAL ENERGY

DISTRIBUTION INCLUDING

Now consider a slightly more complicated situation, in which there may be some potential energy presen.t. Suppose, as in Figure 10.8, that the box containing In the lower region, region I, there is no potential the gas consists of two re,gions.

J
Figure energy. energy, but in the upper region, of equal volume, there is o constant potential energy V0 > 0. There is a tendency for particles to seek the condition of lowest potential energy, so it i:, natural to ask whether all or most of the particles of the system are in the portion of the box of zero potential energy. If the particles in th e b ox a r e in thermal equilibrium at temperature /3 = l/kBT. S i n c e f ( r , p) dxdydzdp,dp,dp, volume element dxdydzdp,dp,dp,, element dxdydzdp,dp,dp, in region I is: (10.35) 7, the value of /3 i s s t i l l is the number of particles in the 10.8. Particles in CI container which has two distinct regions of different potential

the total number of particles in the volume

N, = SsssJs NP(0) p exp (2s) dxdydzdp,dp,dp, where the integrals over x, y and z go only over Iregion

I. The distribution

function in region II depends on the energy E = V, .t Yz p/m. T h e r e f o r e , t h e

70.70 Gas number of particles in this region is: NP(0) p e x p [-B (& + VO)] Idxdydzdp,dp,dp, (10.36)

293

where the integrals of dxdydz go only over region II. The ratio N2/N1 m a y b e e a s i l y e v a l u a t e d , s i n c e V,, i s a c o n s t a n t . T h e v o l u m e s /3p2/m) dp,dp,dp, Therefore, (10.37) -S, , with are the are taken to be equal, and the integrals of exp (- YZ

same for both regions; so these cancel in the ratio N2/N1.

iv2

iu, =

e -0o

Thus, the ratio of the numbers N2/N1 is just the Boltzmann factor, e

the energy difference Vo between the two regions appearing in the exponent.

p/e

A t T = 3 0 0 K ( w i t h k, = 1 . 3 8 r:-10-23

joules/K), i f V. = 10m6 joule, w h a t

is the ratio of the number of particles in the region of higher potential energy to the number in the region of lower potential energy? ion N2,N, = e-O, =
e-Vo/kBT

e-o~)/(.38x~~~23x300)

f? -2.4~104

31 10-4, a n e x there is negligible

tremely small number. Hence most of the particles will1 be in the lower potential energy region. If there are on the order of 10z3 plorticles, probability that even one of them is in the higher potential energy region. I n g e n e r a l , i f @I$ >> 1 , o r Vo > > k,T, m o s t o f t h e p a r t i c l e s w o u l d b e i n the lower part of the box. When keT becomes large enough that k,T and V. are comparable, there would be enough thermal energy available so that collisions could knock an appreciable fraction of particles up into region II. This would occur at a temperature given approximately by:

o r , i f V. = 1 Oe6 j o u l e , T = Vo/k,l E 7 x 1016 K . R o o m t e m p e r a t u r e , abolJt 293 K, corresponds to an energy of ks ,/,, in some molecular spectra and other

= 4 . 0 4 x lo- systems.

i = 0.0252 eV, or abolJt

of an electron volt. Energy differences of this order of magnitude occur atomic

IO GAS IN A GRAVITATIONAL FlfiLD

Consider next a column of air at temperature 300 K. This is nearly an ideal gas. If the density at sea level is nc, of phase space is proportional to particles per m3, what would be the density of particles in a given volume element factor times the volume element Boltzmann at height h above sea level? The n(Jmber the

of phase space. If we are interested only in number of particles in a given volume of ordinary space regardless of momentum, we sum over the momentum part of phase space. Therefore, we take the ratio of dxdydzJdp,dp,dp,e-5E for two equal volumes dxdydz, separated by a height h. The potential energy of

Cfassicofsfafisticofmechon~cs

a particle of mass m at height

h is

m g h , and therefore the ratio of number

of particles in a unit volume at height h, to the number at sea level, is:

~4wGvh -= -~ exp I-P[(fi p/m) -t m&II -~

n(h) n (0)

e-8mgh

( 1 0 . 3 8 )

~r+y+,+z exp [-B(fi p/m)l

10mz6 k g , a t w h a t

example

If the mass of CI molecule of air, on the average, is m := 5 x T = 300 K throughout the column?

height does the density of the column reduce to half its sea level value for

s&tion

n(h)/n(O) for h,

% =

e mmh . Taking natural logarithms of both sides and solving

,, = ks! In 2 = (1.38 x 10-23)(300) (o.693) m,g (5 x lo-z6)(9.8)

= 5.86 x or 5.86 kilometers. lo3 meters

10.11 DISCRETE ENERGIES

In quantum mechanics it has been shown that in many cases energies are quantized; that is, they take on only discrete values,, rather than continuous values such as the classical kinetic energy E = denote these energies by E, /:l mv2 does. There are some systems whose particles can, in effect, have only two possible energies; let us a n d E, w i t h E, > E-. A n e x a m p l e o f s u c h a system is a set of proton spins placed in a magnetic field. The number N, of such systems in the energy state E, is proportional to the Boltzmann factor. If C is the normalizotion constant, then: N, = Ce-ZE* (10.39)

and the number N- in the energy state E is: N_ T h u s , N+/N- = e-@(Ei-. ). in that state is given = CemBE(10.40)

If there are a large number of possible discrete energies E,, then the distribution function f (E,) which gives the number of particlles by the Boltzmann factor: f ( E , ) = CeeilEt (10.41)

where C is some proportionality constant. The normalization constant C would be determined by requiring that the system had a (certain given total number of particles and summing over all states i: c f(E,) = Cx,eeUEn = N (10.42)

7 10.72

Magnitude of momentum

295

when N is the total number of particles. Averages of energy, computed by the formula:

(E),

could be

2 DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF MOMENTUM

In some applications it is necessary to know the number F(p) dp of particles

with momenta of magnitude p in the range dp, regardless of position or of the direction of momentum. The number of particles with momenta in the range +,+,+z, dp,dp,dp, space regardless of position,. may be obtained by integrating f (r, p) . over all positions. We shall denote by f(p) the resulting momentum function: f ( P ) = .mdxdydzf (r,
P)

distribution

(10.44)

Then, since the volume V = j dxdydz and f (r, p) is independent of r for an ideal gas, we obtain from Equation (10.3.4): f ( p ) = N(27rrr1ksT)-~~exp We may now easily rewrite the distribution function in terms of the magnitude o f m o m e n t u m , p = e, b ecause spherically symmetric in momentum here the distribution function f(p) depends space. only on p and not on the direction of p. The distribution of particles is therefore To obtain the number of particles of momenta in the range of magnitudes dp, we may then consider a thin spherical shell, of radius p and hence of area 47rp2, in momentum space. If the thickness of the shell is dp, then the volume Alternatively, the volume and the differential volume contained between in momentum space enclosed by the shell is 4Kp2dp. of a sphere of radius p is 47rp3/3,

two spheres of radii p and p + dp will be just the differential: = 47rp2dp

Thus,

using

this

radial

coordinate

in

momentum

space,

the

volume

element (10.47)

becomes: 4w+,+z - 4v2+

We then want to look for a function F(p) such that F(p)

dp is the total number

of particles with momenta of magnitude p in the range dp. Thus, we would set: f(p) +x+,+z -+ f (PI 4v2+ = F(p) dp (10.48)

This defines a new distribution function as a function only of the variable p. Solving to find F(p) as a function of p, we get: F ( p ) = 4aN(2rmksT)-32p2 exp

296

Classical

stotistka/

mechanics

The most probable value of p is the value for which F(p) using the condition dF(p)/dp

is a maximum. Upon

= 0 to determine the maximum, we get:

13 = (2p - EC).,, (-yf))

I.e., the most probable value of p is v= = 1.41.4.is v = p/m, the most probable speed is V?k,T/m. T h e uveroge that -i;l F(p)dp = N. From this we find the average value is: Since the speed

value of p can be computed using F(p) and Table 10.1, noting

(p)

= i lX pF(p)dp

= 4*(2xmk,TJm2

-cX

p3 e x p (-$j d p

zz

__

1.595 vi& J
of momentum

(10.51)
can never

Here the limits range from 0 to s, since

the

magnitude

b e n e g a t i v e . C o m p a r i s o n o f ( p ) with the most probable value of p is interesting; this is a case in which the most probable value and the expectation value ore almost the same but slightly different, both still being positive, On the other harfd, calculation of both the lnost p r o b a b l e v a l u e a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f o n e component of momentum such as p . , w o u l d s h o w t h a t b o t h a r e z e r o ; t h i s w i l l be discussed below. Figure 10.9 is a graph of F(p) as a function of p.

Figure

10.9.

Distribution function F(p) for the magnitude of the momentum.

10.13 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE MAXWELL DISTRIBUTION

Figure 10.10 shows the results of two runs of an experiment by R. C. Miller and P. in Kusch, Equation performed in 1955 to check the validity of the distribution F(p), derived (10.49). In this experiment, either potassium or thallium was obtained

IO. 13 Experimental verificati~on

297

F i g u r e 10.10. Experimental verifktion of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The experimental points were for a gas of hot thallium atoms. The dotted line is the theoretical result obtained from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, Equation (10.18). were multiplied by a factor, so that the maximum is at 20. Both curves

in gaseous form by heating the metals to high temperatures in a vacuum oven. A v e r y n a r r o w s l i t i n t h e o v e n ,&lowed a t o m s t o e s c a p e i n t o a n evacualed chamber outside the oven. Presumably, the momenta of the particles in this beam would have the distribution given by F(p). To measure the distribution, it was necessary to be able to select atoms out of the bleam having speeds within a very narrow range. To do this, the experimenters inserted a cylinder with its axis parallel to the beam, so that the beam hit the cylinder just inside its rim and was blocked. A straight slot cut in the edge of the cylinder parallel to its axis would then let the beam get through. However, suppose the cylinder were rotating at a constant angular speed. Then, for an atom of a given speed to get through, ,the slot should not be straight but helical. For a given angular speed and helical slct, only particles in a narrow range of speed could get through. By cutting such a slot in the cylinder and rotating the cylinder at different angular speeds, it was possible to select particles of the desired speed out of the beam. The experimenters The then measured the number of particles per second that wI:re slightly transmitted through the slot, versu:; particular experimental the speed of the particles. introduced several factors that

setup

modified the form of the theoretical distribution which was finally compared with the experimental results. If f is the distribution function for velocities, then the number of particles of speed v hitting an area oriented normal to the direction of v, in one second, is vf. Thus, in this experiment,, the number of particles of

298

Classical statistical mechanics

speed v hitting the end of the slot nearest the oven, per second, should be orooortional to: ( 10.52)

since

= mv. Also, if v0

is the speed that is just right for particles to get through

the slot for a given angular speed of the cylinder, then the probability that particles with speeds between v and v + form A(v/v,), where A(~r/vr,) is a

dv

will get through will be of the density depending on the slot

probability

w i d t h , a n d i s s h a r p l y preaked a b o u t t h e v a l u e v = vO. T h e n t h e n u m b e r o f particles per second that get through the slot is proportional to:

Since A is very sharply peaked about v = vO, we can replace v with v0 everywhere in the integrand, except within A. Then, letting dv = vod(v/v,,), an approximate value for the integral: we have

vi-p ($) 1= A (;) d (;;)

(10.54)

The integral is some constant independent of v,,. The experimenters normalized both their experimental results and the theoretical curve, so that the maximum was equal to 20. The theoretical result is then: Intensity at detector = 36.9 (2) exp (2) (10.55)

The maximum occurs at v,,/2 a = 1. In figure 10.10, the theoretical curve is indicated by the solid curve. The experimental results were for thallium vapor. Run 99 was at 870 K and run 97 was at 944 K. The measured peak velocity of the curves agreed with 2 dk,l/ m, within the experimental error of about 1%. Similar results were obtained with potassium vapor at quite different temperatures. One corn conclude thot to within the experimental error, the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution agrees with experiment.

10.14 DISTRIBUTION OF ONE COMPONENT OF MOMENTUM

The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution can be expressed in several other useful ways. For example, let
IJS

calculate the total number of particles with x comThe required number

ponents of momentum in the range dp,, regardless of their values of pY a n d p.. This means we must integrate over all dp, and d,p,. of particles is denoted by

(pX) dp,, and is given by

dpzfh-4

= f(px)+.x

(10.56)

7 0.74 One component of momentum

299

and so

(10.57)

We may separate the integrals irito two single integrals, which are multiplit?d together. Performing these integrals over py and p. using Table 10.1, we get: (10.58)

f (p.) = N(2,trmks J)- e x p

In this case, because f (p,) is an even function of pX., t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e v a l u e of pX would will be zero, as will the expectation value, (pa we have found that similarly, (Px) = (P) = (PZ) pZ = 0 (10.59) If we had performed a similar calculation to obtoin f (p,) and f (pZ),

Also, the most probable values oi pr a n d (PX) = (PY) = (PZ) = 0, (P) :> 0

would be zero. Thus, although p is intrinsically positive.

because

Previously, we noted that when F is a function only of the magnitude of p, it is useful to use the momentum space volume element in spherical coordinates, 47rpdp. likewise, because the Boltzmann factor, emEgT, d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e in terms of the corresponding infinitesimal energy energy and temperature, it is often useful to write the differential volume in momentum space, dp,dpydp,, change

dE.

For the free particles we have been discussing,

ET&
element in the spherical coordinates of momentum space in terms of

(10.60)

Since for a free particle E is then a function only of p, we can express the volume energy. Now we noted before that the volume of a sphere of radius p is 47rp3/3, a n d t h u s for the volume of a thin spherical shell: = 47;rpdp

We wish to express pdp in terms of the corresponding energy E, and energy increment dE. From Equation (10.60), p2 Then differentiation of both = 2mE or p = &GE (10.612)

sides

yields: dp = (10.63)

Thus, dp,dp,dp, - 4apdp = 47r t/i;% dE (10.64)

300

Classical sfofisfical mechanics

We may now define an energy distribution function g(E) by equating numbers of particles in the range aE in the two alternative expressions: 4a d3E e-Or dE e g ( E ) dE ( 1 O.t55)

f ( p ) dp,dp,dp,

4 N(2amkBT)-

or for the distribution function in energy, gAF) =: const. X &emdE

=: [N2r(rkgT)-3/2]
I t h a s a m a x i m u m a t ag/aE g El

x GemBE

(10~56) 10.) 1.

A graph of the dependence of g(E) on energy E is given in Figure

= 0 , o r a t E = ksT/2. N o t e t h a t t h e g r a p h i s

E k,T Figure 10.1 1. Graph of the energy distribution function, g(E) proportional to vze-@. F(p) was tangent to the hori-

tangent to the vertical axis at small E, whereas z o n t a l a x i s a t small p. From equation (10.19), different from this. The total probability that E + dE i s p(E)dE Itisp(E)dE
example

the average energy per particle

is /z keT, whereas the most probable value of energy, % ksT, is considerably o particle is in the energy range between I s 0

E and

= g(E)dE/N o r , a l t e r n a t e l y , ~@~v$dE/

emPE&dE.

= 2X(l/.lrk,T)32,-~dE. expression <giving the probability of a particles having energy

What

is

on

b e t w e e n 0 a n d l//3 = ksT?
kBT soluiion s kBT I

p(E)dE

e -SE v% dE

The integral in the numerator cannot be written in terms of a closed farm involving s i m p l e functiorls. I t m a y b e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f e r r o r f u n c t i o n s which may be found in tables. The numerical result is 0.843.

10.15 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATORS

The energy dependence of the distribution function in phase space, f = (cons t a n t ) x e-BE, was derived for the case of many systems in thermal equilibrium which were weakly interacting with possible heat flow between them. The internal

1 0 . I5 S i m p l e harmonic

osci//ofors

301

structures of the systems were irrevelant. If we have any set of a large number of identical systems, and the energy of a system takes on the values E, then the number of systems in the set with energy E is proportional to eetiE. These systems might be macroscopic. Thus, in a cubic mile of air, we might assume the systems to be volumes containing a gallon of air each. Provided the assumption of weak interaction holds, other systems such as liquids can also be treated in the some way. Suppose we had a box containing a large number of particles, each of which has a mass m and is bound to on equilibrium position by a spring-like farce with spring constant about a their
K.

At high temperatures, such a picture might be used to where atoms oscillate in three dimensions in the crystal lattice. We shall assume the positions

represent the behavior of a soli~d, equilibrium

particles to be only very weakly interacting. The energy of a particle is that of three dimensional harmonic oscillator:

&

(Pi

p;

pf)

K(x

yz +

z)

or

Here x, y and z are the displacements of the particle in the x, y, z directions from its equilibrium position. The number of particles of this energy is then proportional to

e x p

[-/3(& + y)]

(10.68)

The number of particles whose positions x, y and z are in the range dxdydz and whose momenta pX, pr, p. are in the range dp,dp,dpZ is then proportional to:

exp

10 (2 +

$)] dxdydzdp,dp,dp,

(10.69)

We shall use this distribution function to calculate the average energy, (E). The formula, written completely out, for + this average is

(Q = fsssss(

/zmp

1/2Kr2)e -BE dxdydzdp,dp,dp, -

(10.:70)

JZ!L!Ue - SE dxdydzdp,dp,dp, with all integration limits from - x to + 3~. There are, altogether, six separate terms in the numerator of this expression. However, there are only two type!,integrals involving pt, pz, or pt and integrals involving x2, y2 or zz as factors, in the integrand multiplying the exponential. All three of the integrals of a given type are equal, by symmetry. Furthermore, any of the six-fold integrals reduce to a product of six single integrals, so the integrations are straightforward with the use of Table 10.1. Let us calculate this average term by term. First, in the calculation of (ps/2m), all factors in numerator and denominator cancel except

302

C/ossica/

stotisticol mechanics

those involving p. in the integrands, so

(10.71)

Similarly, by symmetry, (10.72)

so the average kinetic energy is ;k,J (10.73)

For the average of the potential energy, by symmetry, it is clear that in this case also, (10.74) so

; (Kx2)
Now to calculate a typical term such as (Kx), in numerator and denominator cancel except those

(10.75)

using the fact that all factors involving x, we find that

Thus

(Vz Kr) = /, ksJ, so the total average energy per particle is (10.77)

Note that for every quadratic term in the energy, either of the form % pf/m or % This E =

Kz2,
result

we find a contribution to the average energy per particle of is referred to as the theorem of equipartition of energy.

52 kd If,

7.
for

example, the oscillators were restricted to move in only one dimension so that % pf/m + % Kx2, one would immediately expect that

(E) = ; ksJ + ; k,J = k,J

F o r t h e three-dimensiorlal (E) =

(10.78)

oscillator, the average energy per particle is then

3ksJ

and the specific heat per particle is 3ks. We would expect this

specific heat per particle in solids where the particles oscillate about their equilibrium positions. The specific heat per mole, in terms of the gas constant R = N,k,, would be equal to 3R = 5.96 calories/mole-degree K. This behavior law. is observed in solids at high temperatures where it is called the Dulong-Petif

JO. 16

Detailed

balor~ce

303

At low temperatures, quantum effects come into play which greatly reduce the specific heat. In Table 10.2 the specific heat and molar specific heat at room temperature is given for several colnmon metals. Note that, although the specific heats are quite different, the molar specific heats are close to 3R. TABLE 10.2
Molar Specific Heats

of Some Metals Molar in Specific Heat

Specific Heat in Metal cnlories/gram -degree K

calories/mole degree K 3R = 5.96 K

cal/mole-degree Aluminum Calcium Copper Gold Iron lead Potassium Silver Tin Zinc 0.21

0.16 0.092 0.03 1

0.11

0.03 1
0.18

0.056 0.054 0.093

5.8 6.4 5.9 6.2 6.0 6.3 7.2 6.0 6.5

6.1

16

DETAILED

BALANCE

When a system of noninteracting particles is in thermal equilibrium, the averalae density of the cloud of representative points in phase space remains in time. Therefore, if we consider some fixed infinitesimal region da constolnt in pholse

space, there will be just as many points entering this region as there are particles leaving it on the average. It is necessary to keep in mind that these statements refer only to time averages, for at any one instant there may very well be mclre or fewer points in d0 t h a n t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r . However, if a state of the system were to develop in such OI w a y t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s i n

do

was

consistently greater or less than the time-averaged or equilibrium number, the system would no longer be in a thermal equilibrium state.

dOI and dfiz, with volumes dOI = d&, i n p h a s e s p a c e . I f a t e q u i l i b r i u m t h e a v e r a g e r a t e a t w h i c h p o i n t s i n dL?, are changing to d0, i s e q u a l t o t h e a v e r a g e rate a t w h i c h p o i n t s i n df& are changing to dO ,, anid i f t h i s e q u a l i t y o f ra+es
Now suppose we consider any two fixed regions, of equal magnitudes, is maintained for all such pairs of regions in phase space, then the average number of points in each region would remain constant. This would be a suficientbut not a necessary-condition that thermal equilibrium would be maintained. More detailed calculation of these transition rates using quantum mechanics shows in fact tha the rates of transitions between in phase space are equal. We shall therefore make the reasonable assumption that this is the case; the assumption may be stated as follows: any two such equal regions

304

C/assico/ sfofisfico/

mechanics

The rote of transitions between a n y t w o e q u a l v o l u m e e l e m e n t s i n p h a s e space are equal at thermal equilibrium. of detailed balance. It does not mean dl2, equals the rate from dl2, to some dl2, t o dl2,, a n d back f r o m to This statement is called the principle that the rate of transition from d62, o t h e r e l e m e n t dQk,

but only that the rates from

dQ, to dl2,, are equal. This is illustrated in Figure 10.12.

Possibly unequal rates

Equal

rates

Figure 10.12

The principle of detailed balance asserts that between any pair of regions on the overage, by on equal

in phase space with volumes of equal magnitude, the number of particles per unit time making transitions from the first to the second is balanced, number making transitions bock from the second to the first per unit time. Now let us consider a classical ideal g a s i n w h i c h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n particles may be neglected, but in which the particles may interact with the container walls at temperature T. We define P,~+ one particle in d0, makes a transition to dQZ, is the probability per unit to be the probability that per unit time. Similarly, P; .,

time for a single particle to make a transition from per unit time is .*. Likewise,

da2 t o dQ2,. I f t h e r e a r e , o n t h e a v e r a g e , dTi, p a r t i c l e s i n dl?,, t h e n ithe number of particles which change to dQ2, if dn2 i s t h e a v e r a g e at dfi,p, number of particles in da 2, t h e a v e r a g e t r a n s i t i o n r a t e

t o dR, i s dn2p2-+,. The equation expressing the principle of detailed balance equilibrium may therefore be written: dii,p,+ If the energies of particles in of the Boltzmann factor!,. = dn2p2 ., (1 0.:79)

dR, a n d dl2, a r e E, a n d E2, r e s p e c t i v e l y , is simply equal to the ratio

for a gas at temperature T, then the ratio dii,/dfi, taken to be equal in magnitude, dii,
dn,

_ --- = e
e
-dE, - e-,E>

Therefore, because the volumes df2, a n d dl2, were

(10.80)

10.17 Time reversibrlity Therefore, from Equation (10.79), bilities is:

P2 - 1 PI-+2
-=--=

305

the ratio of the single-particle transition proba-

Cl%

exp

Cfii,

i ---1
w2
El)

k,T

(10.81)

This important result for the ratio of transition probabilities is generally valid at thermal equilibrium not only for the particles of a classical ideal gas, but also for electrons, photons and other particles having quantum properties. We shall use Equation (10.81) to derive the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein distribution functions in the following chapter.

.17

TIME

REVERSIBILITY

The equations of classical mechanics possess an invariance property known as fime reversibility. For example, in Newtons equation of motion

F = ma =

m d2r/dt2,

if the sign of the time t is reversed, the equation of motion is

u n c h a n g e d . T h e v e l o c i t y , v = dr/dt, reverses direction when the sign of if is changed. Thus, classically, if t were reversed in sign, all motions would simply reverse exactly, and the particles would retrace their previous paths. Since magnetic forces are proportional to v x

B,

all magnetic fields would have to be

reversed in direction under this time reversal in order to have the particles retrace their paths. This would in fact occur, since the currents and spins which are the sources of magnetic fields would all reverse direction. Another way to state this property of time reversibility is that, for any solution of the equations of motion, another solution exists in which all particles have exactly the opposite velocities, so that they all execute the reverse motions. Likewise in quantum mechanics, the change of probability density with time would exactly reverse if the sign of the time were reversed, and there exists a motion of the system in which all velocities would correspondingly be reversed. While time cannot be reversed in the laboratory, one can obtain the equivalent result by simply reversing all velocities and hence all magnetic fields. Many experiments have shown that for the usual forces, this principle of time reversibility is valid. On the other hand, macroscopic systems in general show a type of behavior which is irreversible. For example, a rock dropped into a still pool of water will cause a splash, a succession of circular outgoing waves and turbulence in the water as the rock sinks to the bottom; and after some time a slight increlgse in the temperature, or heat content, of the water will occur. Although the timereversed motion-in which a rock at the bottom of a still pool is thrown up into somebodys hand by turbulence and ingoing waves with a resultant cooling of the water-is a possible solution of the equations of motion, it is never observed because of the overwhelmingly small probability of its occurrence. Situations of thermal equilibrium are, however, situations of relatively high probability. We may illustrate this by consiedering a container of an ideal gas containing

306

Clossicol

statistical

mechanic!,

N := 1O23

particles. At thermal equilibrium, the particles are randomly distribsituati(>n half of the box than

uted in position throughout the box. An example of o nonequilibrium might be one in which more particles were in the lefthand

rn the righthand half. We can easily calculate the probability of any distributitsn of particles between the two halves of the box using the analogy that the probability of finding one particle in, say, the left half is the same particles in the left half of the box is therefore given by the
OS

t h e probcrbillty probability

of occurrence of a head in one flip of a fair coin. The probability of finding n binomial distribution, Equation (2.13). and is p,(n) If N = 10Z3, w e c a n certginly = N! n!(N - II)! 1 p approximation for PN(n) g i v e n

use the

gaussian

in Equation (2.53):

P&) =

Now we can ask, for example, what is the relative probability of finding a macroscopically 0.5001 x 1O23 significant excess of, say, 0.01% of the particles, or n = particles, n the left half of the box? The ratio of this probability

to that of finding half of the particles on each side is p,,~3(0.5001 4$3(0.5 x x 1023) 1023) = e x p [ - ( 0 . 0 0 0 1 x 10z3)/(N/2)] exp I-

(0) 2/(N/?~l
x 1023) = e x p ( - 2 x 1 0 : )

= exp (-2

X lOme

Such an excess would therefore never be observed. A corollary of this is that if an initial state were artificially created in which there was an excess of particles on one side, such as by injecting particles through a hole in the container w,~Il, then after a short time, due to collisions with the walls, the particles positions would become randomized, and all positions woLlld become equally probable. The systems apparently irreversible behavior thus consists of an evolution from a nonequilibrium state, of low a priori probability, to a state of thermal equilibrium, which is of much higher a priori probability.

SIX DIMENSIONAL PHASE SPACE

Phase space is a six dimensional space whose coordinates are x, y, z, be represented by a poitlt pX, pv,

a n d pI. The position and momentum of a single particle at a given instant may in phase space. A large number of particles, each

Summary

307

represented by a point in phase space, gives rise to a cloud of such points, whose density may be approximated by a continuous distribution function f volume element to

(r, p, t).

The number of particles whose representative points are to be found within the

d0

= dxdydzdp,dp,dp,

is equal to f

(r, p,

1) dxdydzdp,dp,dp,.

This results from the assumption that the number of states in d0 is proportional

dl2.

MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIIBUTION
For a system of weakly interactiilg particles, or for a number of systems in thermal contact, the distribution f(Jnction at equilibrium is proportional to e-Of, w h e r e E is the energy of a particular system and fl = l/k,7 w i t h k, t h e Bolltzmann constant and T the absolute temperature. For N particles, each of mass m a n d e n e r g y E = % my, In a b o x o f v o l u m e V , thse normalized expression for

f (r, p) is
f(r,p) = f(p) =
J(&-3zexp

(*)

DISCRETE ENERGIES
If the particles of a system can have only the discrete energies E,, E2,. proportional to e +Ej. The average of any function of energy, computed by the formula: . . E,, . . is then

then at equilibrium the probability of finding a particle with the energy Ei is x(E),

MOMENTUM AND ENERGY A!; INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

If the magnitude of the momentum is considered to be an independent variable,

then for an ideal gas the number of particles whose momenta are in the range dp is F(p) dp, where F(p) is proportional to p* exp (-% Pp*/m). If the energy E is considered as independent, then the number of particles whose energies are b e t w e e n E a n d E + dE is g(E) dE, where g(E) is proportional to V% embE.

EQUIPARTITION
For a system terms in in

OF ENERGY
equilibrium any of whose single-particle energies the are a sum of M per

quadratic

the

phase-space

coordinates,

average

energy

particle is

% Mk,J. k,T

Thus, associated with each quadratic term is an average

energy of %

per particle.

308

C l a s s i c a l statisfical m e c h a n i c ;

DETAILED

BALANCE

At equilibrium, the number of particles per unit time making transitions from a r e g i o n dill region to a region d$, is equal to the number making transitions from to region dQ,, provided

df12

df2, = dQ2.

1. Consider the air inside a closed automobile as it travels at a velocity U. The air is at rest relative to the automobile. What is the velocity distribution relative to an observer on the ground? (Neglect gravity.) Answer: The Boltzmann factor is exp [- mE[x].

2. If the automobile in Problem 1 had an acceleration a, ond the gravitational force mg acted, what would be the form of the distribution function f (r, p, f)? Answer: The Boltzmann factor is

exp [2([kyTmur2]
3.

exp [-fn(a - g).&-.

Consider a beach of approximately 1 km2 area, covered with grains of sand, whose moss is approximately 1O-.4 of 15 grains/mm2. Asjuming gm and whose top layer covers the beach at a demity the temperature is 27C, how many grains of sand

on the beach could you expect to see at any one time at a height of 1 mm or more above the level of the tseach, Answer: K(x4 assuming the grains are in thermal equilibrium? grains, or effectively none. Approximately exp (-2.4 x 10)

4. A particle in a system of weakly interacting particles has energy E = % mv2 + + y4 + z4), w h e r e K is a positive constant. For what temperature will
OS

the average potential energy be 1 % times Answer: 167C.

great as at 2OC? To solve this you

do not need to know explicitly what the integrals equal. 5. N smoke particles, each of mass m, are floating in air inside a closed vertical tube of length 1 and cross sectional area A. Assuming that ot equilibrium the particles at the bottom are far apart compared to their size, find the number of particles per unit volume at height h from the bottom, for gravitational potential energy mgh and temperature T. Find the average height of the particles.
Answer:

Nw ~
AksT

-mgh/kBT ks 1 --!--. - (1 -. e-mgl/ktir) mg

1 -__ emghhT _ 1

6. N charged smoke particles, each of mass m, are floating in air of temperature T, inside a conducting coaxial cylinder of inner radius a, outer radius b, and length L. The inner cylir,der is ctlarged so that the particles have potential energy C In (r/a), where C is o constani and r is the distance from the cylindrical axis. Assuming that at equilibrium all the particles are far apart compared to their size, find the number of particles per volume at distance r from the axis.

Problems

309

Answer: 7.

Ify=C&J,

n=N---..-----2~1 b-y+ ._ &y+

2-Y

~ ~-Y

Show that for a Boltzmann distribution,

(-d/d/3jem1Ef (E) dE) J-e -liE f(E) dE

e v a l u a t e d a t p = bJ B

8. From the result of Problem 7, find the average kinetic energy of a particle in an ideal gas. A n s w e r : /, kbJ. 9. A quantum mechanical one dimensional oscillator has discrete rather than tontinuous energies, E, = ( n + %?)h w, where w = t/K/m, tr is a constant and n = 0 , 1,2,. From the result of problem 7, show that for a system of weakly interacting oscillators the average energy per oscillator is

Usethefactthatifa < 10.

l,~,_ca

l/(1 - o)ondusea = ehwBT,

From the result of Problem 9, fincl the heat capacity of a system of N one dimensional harmonic oscillators as a function of J. P l o t t h i s v e r s u s J u p t o J = 47iiwlkB. Also plot the specific heat of a one dimensional classical oscillator on the same graph. (The three dimensional oscillator was discussed in the text.) Answer: d (0 - = (I=r2c02k~J2)

ev OI~lkn J)
-

dJ
possible energies, *pB,

(exp()iw/ksJ)

1) in a magnetic field B has

IWO

11. In addition to its kinetic energy, a free electron

depending on whether the intrinsic angular momentum, or

spin, of the electron is in the same or the opposite direction of B. Here p is the magnetic moment of the electron, a constant. For an electron weakly interacting with the rest of the system, fincl what the probability is for an electron spin to be pointing in the direction oi the magnetic field. Find the average magnetic interaction energy. Answer: e#Vkr,(eiWT + e-~Wrl; -p8(ed/k~ ._ e-~Wr,,(erWr + e--~Wl.

12. Suppose a particle in a system had only two possible energies, E = 0 and E = t > 0. If the system is in equilibrium at temperature J, what is the average energy per particle? Answer:

( E ) = te-@/(l

+ tC@). for positive px f o r a n i d e a l

13. Make a sketch of the distribution function f (px) gas, where f (px)

dp, is the probability that a particle is between px and px + dp,.

14. Find the root mean square deviation of the energy of a particle of an ideal gas from the average energy at temperature J. Find the ratio of this root mean square deviation to the average energy of the particle. Answer:

fikBJ, v% = 0 . 8 1 6 .

15. Find the root mean square deviation of v from its average for a particle of an ideal gas at temperature J if the gas particles have mass m.

310

C/ossicol stotisticol mechanics Answer: d/(3 - 8/:r) ksl/m. At what temperature would the average kinetic energy

16. At what temperature would the average speed of atoms in an ideal gas be 1.X times as great as at 2OC? Answer: 17. Answer: 386C, lC16C. be 1% times as great a!, at 2OC? Calculate the average value of l/v in an ideal gas at temperature 7. xf%yaJ.. is 16 times that of Hz. In a mixture of H2 and Csz,

18. The molecular weight of O2 Answer: Vi.

what is the ratio of rms speeds of 02 and Hz? 19. Find the root mean square deviation of v, ideal gas at temperoturbe Answer: XAmFl. from its average for a particle of an

J if the gas particles have mass m.

20. In the diagram regions 1, 2 and 3 are three semiconducting solid rods of the same cross sectional area separated by thin insulating films, so that there are changes in electric potential between the two sides of each of the films. Thus, conducting

Battery

electrons

are

in

regions

of

three

different

potential

energies
x

in

the three

semiVs =

conductors. If the poter~tiol changes at the films are 0.02 volts and 0.01 volts, the potential energies are approximately VI = 0, V2 = 3.2 10e2 joules, 4.8 x 10e2 joules. Assuming the electrons act as an ideal gas, find the ratio of the numbers of conducting electrons in regions 2 and 3 to those in region 1 for &2 = .t,, 43 = 2 4, 3t 20C. Answer:
b(pgq

0.46; 0.63. p;), it might be useful to express differential volume in cylindric:al p--7 px + or. Here pxY is the perpen-

21. If the energy as a function of momentum of a particle depended on ap: + coordinates in momentum space, p. and pxY =

dicular distance from the p. axis. Show that this voLme element is 27r pxydp,,dp,. An energy depending on momentum this way occurs in some semiconducting solids. 22. We saw that if energy depends on momentum magnitude only, it is useful to Llse 4apdp as the volume element in momentum space, and that nonrelativistically in terms of energy, E = p2/2m, this becomes 2a
c-3

2m L ,- dE. Using the relativistic E

relationship between momentum and energy, show that this element of volume in momentum space becomes 4a \/E2 - mEc4-E dE/c3. Also show that in terms of lkn e t i c e n e r g y , T = E - mcc?,thisis 4rV?(2TtTj(mcc2t T)dT/c3. becomes 27r d 2Ge3 t?dTfor T << mgc2. This

Problems

311

23.

A n u c l e u s c o n d e c a y , g i v i n g o f f CI h i g h e n e r g y e l e c t r o n , o f r e s t mc~ss and IJ n e u t r i n o o f z e r o r e s t m a s s . I n m o n y cc~ses,

rno w i t h e n e r g y E

the probability of decay depends

only on the magnitudes of the particle momenta so the results of the previous problem can be used. Show that if the sum of the neutrino and electron energies is a constant, Eo, s o t h a t t h e n e u t r i n o e n e r g y i s EO - E , a n d i f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e a c h p a r t i c l e having a given energy is proportional to volume in phase space, the probability that an electron has an energy between E(E,, - E)dE. The fact that many E and E + dE i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o experimental electron decay Z/FFp follow

distributions

t h i s e q u a t i o n e x t r e m e l y w e l l l e a d s t o p r o o f t h a t t h e n e u t r i n o , w h i c h i s v e r y difficult t o detect, is given off with the electron. 2 4 . C o n s i d e r a b o x c o n t a i n i n g CI g a s , i n w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y o f a particle =: Vex/L, where varies

from one end of the box to another according to V

1 is the length 5/4 1 <

of the box. What fraction of the particles are in the half of the box for which

x < ?hL?

25.

For

CI

system of three

dimensioncl

classical harmonic oscillators,

~1s

discussed

in

the

text, find the root the oscillators.

mean

square deviation of the energy from the average for one of

Answer:
26. Particles of

&?kBT. mass 6 . 2 x 10-l grl are s u s p e n d e d i n l i q u i d a t 2 7 C . W h a t s h o u l d b e

t h e i r r m s s p e e d ? ( U s e equiportition)

Answer:
27.

1 . 4 cm/set.

C o l l o i d a l p a r t i c l e s i n s o l u t i o n are b u o y e d u p b y t h e l i q u i d i n w h i c h t h e y a r e s u s p e n d e d by a force equal to the weight of the liquid they displace. Show that the number of particles per unit volume in the liauid varies with height as

exp

+%P [

P)Sh

w h e r e No i s A v o g a d r o s n u m b e r , no i s t h e n u m b e r p e r Iunit v o l u m e a t h = 0 , V i s t h e v o l u m e o f a p a r t i c l e , p i s t h e l i q u i d d e n s i t y , a n d colloidal particles. p is the mass per unit volume of the

11 quantum statistical mechanics

A number of the results obtained in Chapter 10 concerning classical statistical mechanics of a system of particles are still valid when quantum mechanics, ratlrler than classical mechanics, is used to describe the particles. For example, the Boltzmann factor, emBE, was found by considering a number of systems in thermal e q u i l i b r i u m , a n d b y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y ot a systems being in a given state is a function only of the energy of the state and the common temperature. These same assumptions can still be made for large quantum systems. In the classical discussion, /3 w a s f o u n d t o b e l/kBT b y e v a l u a t i n g t h e e n e r g y f o r a classical ideal gas and comparing with the kinetic theory result. This can still be done if it is assumed that the quantum system to be investigated is in equilibrium with at least one classical ideal gas system. Once classical ideal gas. Thus, ,even is proportional to e
-E/kg1

/3 i s e v a l u a t e d , i t d o e s Inot

matter whether or not the actual system is really in thermal equilibrium with a for a large quantum system in thermal equilibrium E with other systems, the probability that the system is in a state of total energy .

How, then, does quantum mechanics change statistical mechanics? There are two main effects of quantum mechanics. First, there are often discrete energy states in quantum mechanics so that, in addition to an integral over phase space for continuous states, there may also be a summation over discrete states in fiending average values of quantities. Second, the indistinguishability of particles in quantum mechanics can affect the statistics greatly, especially when we look at the energy distribution of one of the single particles in a system of identical particles. Here the partic:le itself cannot be treated as an independent system, as was done in the classical case. For a system of identical fermions, this effect can be treated as a consequence of the exclusion principle: no two identical fermions in a system can be described by the same set of quantum numbers. For a system of identical bosons, the effect is quite different; there is, instead, a slight tendency for the particles to collect in states described by the same quantum numbers.

312

1 I .2 D e t a i l e d b a l a n c e

313

I.1 EFFECTS OF EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE ON STATISTICS OF PARTICLES

In the classical case of a system of identical particles, it was assumed that even identical particles were distinguishable, and that the overall state of a system could be specified by giving the example, by specifying the porticles particles the wavefunction specifying single-particle state of each particle-for representative point in phase space. Howof the exclusion principle, for identical overall state is such that each particle the

e v e r , a s h a s b e e n s e e n i n t h e disc(Jssion

a p p e a r s e q u a l l y i n a l l t h e occupiesd single-particle states. Hence, the state of a system of identical particles may blz specified by giving the number of particles in each single-particle state but not which particles are in each state. This follows because in interchanging particles, the magnitude of the square of the wavefunction does not change; otherwise, the particles would be clistinguishable. titles of Then when two spin, bosons, are or particles the of integral spin, are interpsmrsign. changed, the wavefunction itself remains unchanged. When two fermions, half-odd-integral interchanged, wavefunction changes

Thus for half-odd-integral spin, there are either no particles or at most one p13rtitle in any given single-particle state, while for integral spin particles, any number of particles from zero to infinity may occupy a given single-particle state. In the case of a system of fermions, since the number of particles in a singlIeparticle state is limited to 0 or 1, the single-particle distribution in energy will differ from the classical Maxwell-B~~ltzmonn distribution.

I .2 DETAILED BALANCE AND FERMI-DIRAC PARTICLES

We may use the principle of detailed balance to find this distribution. Consider t h e t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n s t a t e s 1 a n d 2 i n a fermion system. In order for thermal equilibrium to be maintained, the average transition rate from 1 to 2 must be the same as the average transition rate from 2 to 1, by the principle of detailed balance. Here the term transition rate means the number of particles making transitions per second. The exclusion principle strongly affects these transitlIon rates; for example, if we begin with one particle in state 1 and one particle in state 2, it is impossible for the particle in state 1 to make a transition to state 2: if it were not, there would then bl: t w o p a r t i c l e s i n s t a t e 2 , w h i c h i s a v i o l a t i o n of only the exclusion before principle. the Transitions the between initial two is single-particle occupied by states one can ocI:ur and when, transition, state particle

the final state is empty. Actually, the number of particles in a given state may fluctuate considerably in time, because of the large variety of possible transitions b e t w e e n t h a t s t a t e a n d a l l o t h e r Istates. Hence, there will exist some probability that a state is occupied. Because the maximum number of fermions in o state is unity, like the maximum possible probability, the probability that a state is occupied will be identical to the time-averaged number of particles in the state. Thus, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t s t a t e 1 i s occlJpied will be the same as ri,, w h e r e t h e b a r

3 14

Quantum

stotisfical

mechanics

denotes the time average of the number of particles n, in state 1. The probability that state 2 is occupied will be the same as ii,, the time average of the number of particles n, in state 2. The probability that state 2 is unoccupied will therefore be 1 - ti?. Let p, -? b e t h e t r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t y p e r u n i t t i m e t h a t , g i v e n e x a c t l y o n e particle in state 1 and zero particles in state 2, a transition from state 1 to 2 will occur. Similarly, let P2-, be the transition probability for a transition frlsm 2 to 1 per unit time, given state 2 is occupied and state 1 is unoccupied. We may now use the rules for combining probabilities given in Equation (2.2) to obtain the transition rate. The probability of occurrence of a transition from state 1 to state 2 must be equal to the product of the probabilities that state 1 is occupied, that state 2 is unoccupied, and that a tronsition occurs; or the transition rate must be ,5,(1 - k)Pl *2

Similarly, the number of particles per second making transitions from state 2 to state 1 must be n2(1 - n,)Pz -1

O n t h e a v e r a g e , f o r t h e :,ystem t o r e m a i n i n t h e r m a l e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e a b o v e t w o transition rates must be equal, by the principle of detailed balance. The matoematical equality can be expressed as follows: n,(l From Equation (10.81), G)p,-2 = &(l ., to - fil)P2 -1 (11.1)

the ratio of

p2

p,

.2 in the classical case is (11.2)

w h e r e E, a n d Ez are single-particle energies. The ratio of the transition probabilities

ple2

and

pz+,

in the quantum case should be the same as in the

classical case, since they are defined for conditions in which only one particle is present in the initial state. Thus the effects of particle exchange are unimportant and Equation (1 I .2) is still valid. Therefore, combining Equations (1 1 .l) and (1 1.2) and rearranging, we obtain
.nl ---E,IkBr e n2 f2/kgl T-e

1 - ii,

1 - ii, o combination of functions depend-

On the left side of the above equation is

ing only on state 1, and on the right is a combination depending only on state 2. Therefore, both sides of Equation (1 1.3) must be equal to a c o n s t a n t , i n d e pendent of the state, and hence independent of the energy of the state:

----e 1 -r,

n,

El/LB1

= C o n s t . = ---e 1 - ii(E)

ii(E)

E/kg7

I I .3 Fermi enej-gy

15

1.3 FERMI ENERGY AND FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION

It is convenient to write the constant the constant in Equation (1 1.4) is: in this equation, which must be a positive

n u m b e r , b y i n t r o d u c i n g a q u a n t i t y c a l l e d t h e F e r m i energy, EF. In terms of I!~,

(1 5)
This equation constitutes a definition of the constant, E,, w h i c h , i n g e n e r a l , i s a function of temperature. Substitutillg the constant n(E), into Equation (1 1.4) and solving for the time-averaged occupation number we find:

This distribution function is called the F e r m i - D i r a c d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e a d d i t i v e 1 i n the denominator is what distinguishes it from the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution for single particles was valid in the classical case, there because may be with no noninteracting forces is of particles, the each particle could be treated as a single system. For particles where the exclusion principle applies, even though interaction, valid for particles affect each other statistically and single particles cannot be treated as single systems. Thus the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution not fermion systems. The form of the Fermi-Dirac distribution depends critically on the magnitude of the exponential function, e-EFkBT appearing in the denominator. This function

is independent of the energy of the state and plays the role of a normalization constant. Hence, if the total number of fermions in the system is N, then at a given temperature the Fermi energy will be determined by the condition that (11.7) where the summation is taken over all distinct single-particle states the index i. (El labeled by

k,T
Figure 11.1. E = -lOkBT. Graph of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function in the degenerate case, Graph of the Fermi-Dirac distribution function in the nondegenerate case,

Figure 11.2. E =

+lOOksJ.

3 16

Quantum stotisticol Under some

mechanics

conditions,

the

Fermi-Dirac

distributibn

closely

resembles

ihe

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. For example, in Figure 11 .l i s p l o t t e d t h e a v e r age occupation number Ii(E) for the case E F = -IOk8T. T h e f u n c t i o n i s s u b stantially just a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, since the exponential in the denominator is much greater than unity. On the other hand, if EF = + lOOk, function has a completely different character; the Fermi-Dirac 7, t h e ,for distribution

this case is plotted in Figure 11.2. Here all the states are filled up to an energy a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o ,EF, and all the states of greater energies are almost empty.

11.4 ONE DIMENSIONAL DENSITY OF STATES FOR PERIODIC BOUNDARY CONDITIO~NS

In the case graphed in Figure 11 .l, w i t h t h e F e r m i e n e r g y n e g a t i v e a n d EF << -k,T, we say that the statistics are nondegenerofe; this case resembles the distribution. In the case of positive Fermi energy with as in Figure 11.2, we say the statistics are degenerate. Which of in a given system depends on the number of particles, Maxwell-Boltzmann E, > > kBT,

these cases actually appl&

the number of possible states per unit energy interval, and on the temperature. In classical statistical mechanics, the number of possible states could not be calculated; information alDout.the distribution of states was obtained by postulating that the states were uniformly distributed in phase space. Using quant(Jm mechanics, we can calculate of possible states must be. To derive the number of states per unit energy interval, which is called the density of states, we consider first a problem closely related to the problem oii a particle in a one dimensional box. There, the possible wavelengths were limited by the condition that an integral number of half-wavelengths must fit into the box. We consider instead the one dimensional free particle wavefunction, written in the form: 1+5 = e x p [i(kx - w t ) ] (1 1.8) from fundamental principles what the distribution

w h e r e t h e w a v e n u m b e r ir, related to momentum by k = p/h, a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y is related to energy by w = Efi. We then impose the artificial periodic boundary condition that 1c(x + L) = #(x) (11.9)

w h e r e L is some extremely large, but arbitrary length. We will eventually allow L to approach infinity, so that the particular boundary condition imposed is of no importance; that is, for q system of many particles the boundary conditions should affect the system only in the neighborhood of the boundary and should have negligible effect in the interior of the system. The wavefunctions $ correspond to single-particle ,;tates in which the momentum of the particle is completely known and the position is unknown. Thus, if we use free-particle mo-

J J .4 One dimensional density

mentum eigenfunctions to describl5 longer makes sense to talk of uncertainty The principle. condition, exp Equation (11.9), gives us (1 1.10) tion of the particles momentum cmd boundary the single-particle states of the system, it no sense, for specificaposition at the same time would violate the

3 17

phase space in the ckassical

i[k(x + I ) - cot] =

e x p i(kx - wt)

This condition then means that exp ikl = 1 In general, e = boundary condition (11.11)

1 o n l y i f 0 = 27rn, w h e r e n i s a n y i n t e g e r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e limits the possible wavenumbers to the set of values: (11.12)

k+
number of wavelengths must fit into the large length I. Since p = Ak, the possible values of p are given by: 27Th PTTnTh" iand the corresponding particle positions must be completely

w h e r e n = 0 , + l , +2, &3,. . . T h i s i s t h e s a m e a s s a y i n g t h a t a n integral

(11.13) undetermined.

Therefore, instead of a phase space consisting of one axis for x and one for p, we can specify all the possible sirlgle-particle s t a t e s b y d r a w i n g o n l y o n e a x i s , the p axis, and labeling the discrete set of points given by Equation (1 1.13) with its corresponding set of quantum numbers n, as in Figure 11.3. These states Iare

Discrete states for o free particle with periodic boundory conditions tore Figure 1 1.3. uniformly distributed along the momentum axis. Positions along the x axis ore undetermined. uniformly distributed in momentum space along the p axis in this case. As the length I approaches infinity, the possible states become more and more dens,ely packed in momentum space, but still form a discrete set. N o w c o n s i d e r , f o r s o m e e x t r e m e l y l a r g e I , a p h y s i c a l r e g i o n a l o n g ,this momentum axis of length Ap. In this region as we see from Equation (1 1 .13),

318

Quantum

sfotisticol

mechanics

there will be a number of momentum states An given by:

h Ap = i An

(1 1.14)

The number of states per unit momentum interval is thus AnlAp = L/h. Note that the density of states in momentum space, AnlAp, is proportional to L, the length of the periodicity region; this is consistent with the classical idea that states are uniformly distributed in x - p s p a c e . W e c a n d i v i d e o u t t h e f a c t o r of L a n d s p e a k a b o u t t h e n u m b e r o f s t a t e s p e r u n i t m o m e n t u m i n t e r v a l p e r u n i f length, condition which will be l/h. In the limit as L approaches infinity, the boundary becomes irrelevant, so that this result is completely general.

11.5 DENSITY OF STATES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

We may generalize this result for the one dimensional motion of a particle, to the case of three dimensiclnal motion, by considering the free-particle momentum eigenfunction:

$(x,y,z,f) = exp [i(k, x + k, y + k, z - cot)]

directions, such &qX,YJ,f) Then all three that: = #(x + of

(11.15)

We assume that periodic boundary conditions are imposed in the x, y and z

Ly,z,f) =
the

$(x,y +

kt) = hence

$(x,y,z of the

+ L,f) momentum, are

components Thus,

wavevector,

and

quantized

similarly.

pC

trtx

n,

= 0, il, *2,. . .

pr =

my

ny

0 , z&l, zlC2,...

pr The giving possible all three states

Fnz a

n,

= 0 , array

+l, rt2,... of or, points in three all dimensional quantum

form of

cubical the

momentum space, (pX,p,,pz). components

One single-particle state may be specified by momentum equivalently, three

numbers, nx, n,,, n,. T h e clistance in momentum space, parallel to any one of the axes from one state to the next, is h/L. Hence, we can imagine momentum space to be filled up with cubes of side

h/l,

and there will effectively be one possible

momentum state per cube, or a volume of sides Ap.,

(h/L)3

per state.

To put this another way, consider a volume element in momentum space of

Ap,,,

and Ap,!.

The number of states in this volume element is

I I .6 Comparison which is the momentum space volume divided by the volume per state. The quantity L3 in this result could be replaced by V, the volume of the fundament~~l periodicity region. Since the numbser of states is proportional to V, then as I approaches infinity and thus V approaches infinity, the number of states in the volume element np, unif l/e /Ipv Ap, will increase without limit. We can then divicle out the factor V and speak of the density of states in momentum space per volume. This density of states will be l/h3.

319

For a macroscopic system of electrons at room temperature, with dimensions 1 cm on a side, the spacing betweltn energy levels corresponding to a change of 1 in one of the quantum numbers nx, nr, n, is

~~ = A pZ = h Lb, + 1) -- n,2] 2m I 0 0
2m h2n E-2 ml2 if

n, 3 1

At room temperature, the electrons will, on the average, have at least the enetgy k,T v .02 eV e pz/2m = h2n~/2mL2 - E. Then

1om2 =- x 1o-34 6.6 106

42 x 9

1O-3

(0.02

1.6 x

10~19)

The ratio of the energy spacing to the energy is then approximation placed by to pass to the limit in which over the

A/!/E

l/n, - 10m6. Thus

the energy states are packed so close together that it should be a very good increments are

Ap.,

Apr,
by

are re-

differentials

and

summations

states

replaced

integrations.

Although for a real physical system, periodic boundary conditions may not apply, as long as the volume V of the system is sufficiently large the particular boundary conditions should not appreciably affect the density of states; therefore, to a very good approximation, the number of states in a momentum space volume element dp, dp, dp, should be given by

An, An,

An, = ; dpx dp, dpz

The density of states in momentum space is V/h3.

.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE C:LASSlCAL AND QUANTUM DENSITIES OF STATES

In classical statistical mechanics, it 1,s assumed that the number of states in the phase space volume element dl2 = d x d y d z d p , dp,dp. is pdQ, w h e r e p is th,e

320

Quonfum

stotistico/ mechmics

unknown density of states in phase space. To compare this to the quantum mechanical result, Equation (11.18), we must integrate over all positions: (11.19)

; +x dp, dpz =

d/j- dxdydz)

dpx dp, dp, = V P dp, dp, dpz

Hence, the density of states in phase space must be

I t i s a t o n c e c l e a r w h y ill classical theory the density of states could not be determined; energy quantization was unknown and Plcrncks constant was effectively zero.

11.7 EFFECT OF SPIN ON THE DENSITY OF STATES

One further point must be mentioned in connection with the state density in Equation (1 1.20), which refers to the density of momentum states only. If, in addition, the particle described by the momentum eigenfunction in Equation (1 1.15) has an intrinsic spin, with a total spin quantum number s, then there will be 2s + 1 spin states for each momentum state. The total number of single-particle states in the momentum space volume (2s + 1) An, An,

dp, dp, dp,

will then be dp,

An, = i2 l3 )

dp, dp,

One exception to this rule occurs for particles of zero rest mass. Study of the relativistic quantum theory of such particles shows that no matter what the total angular momentum quantum number is, only two spin orientations are possible. The component of angular momentum in the direction of the particles momentum can be only +sFr, corresponding either to spin parallel to p or spin antiparallel to

p.

An erample of this appears in the case of photons, or light

quanta, which are known to be bosons with spin quantum number s = 1. Electromagnetic theory shows that light waves are transverse, and have two possible states of circular polarization. A left circularly polarized light wave has a z component of angular momentum +Fr, a r i g h t c i r c u l a r l y p o l a r i z e d l i g h t w a v e h a s a z component of angular momentum -h. Thus, for particles of zero rest mass, the total number of single-particle states in the momentum space volume element dp, dp, dp, will be ZAn, A n , A n , = $ d p , d p , Sdp,r

11.8 NUMBER OF STATES PER UNIT ENERGY INTERVAL

It is frequently useful to know the number of states in the energy interval dE.

When the energy E depends only on the magnitude of momentum, as it does for

I I .9 Free-particle Fermi eners~y free particles, this number may be obtained by considering the states in a spherical shell of radius p and thickness do, in momentum space. This was done in classical statistical mechanics [see Equation (10.64):1, where it was shown that the spherical shell corresponds to an increment of energy dE dp,dp,dp, The same expression holds in - 4;rp2dp quantum = 2?r(2m)3/2 given by (11.23) if the energy

321

&dE as well,

statistical

mechanics

momentum relation is E = p2/2m. The number of states between E and E + dE numbers in a volume V is then: for free particles of spin quantum

(2s

+ l)An, An,

An, = (2s +

1)2xV

(1 1.24)

This is an important result, which will be used a number of times. The quantity m u l t i p l y i n g dE, ( 2 s + energy. It is the number 1)2aV(2m//~2)32~ of single-particle .I S called the density of states in per unit energy interval. states

.9 FREE-PARTICLE FERMI ENERGY--NONDEGENERATE CASE

The density of states derived above may now be used to find the Fermi energy Er for various cases in which the particles can be treated as free particles. As a first example, consider a gas consisting of He3, t h e i s o t o p e o f h e l i u m w i t h a nucleus containing two protons anol a neutron. This isotope has spin /2 , and thus it obeys the exclusion principle. The numerical value of the quantity 2s + 1 is 2. It is known experimentally that ordinary gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures are described very well by Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Let us then a s s u m e t h a t He3 gas is nondegenerate under such conditions, so that E,/k,T -EF/kgT must be negative, with e >> 1, and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, Equation (1 1.6), may be approximated by:

n(E) = e x p

We will check to see if this is a consllstent

-(E - 1 E,) [
ksT assumption.

(11.25)

To determine the normalization constant, dp, dp, dp, is 2V dp, dp,

eEfk8r, we will follow a procedure

similar to that used in the classical case. The number of states in the range dp,/h3. For this nondegenerate case, the number of particles N must be

N = JiJ$ ev[ e(EitFJ] dp, dp, dp,

is E = p2/2m. After substituting this into Equation (1 1.26),

(1 1.26)

In terms of momentum, the energy for a free particle of energy E a n d m a s s m one may perform

322

Quantum statistical

mechanics

the is

integration

by

using

the

definite

integral

m
e-*!dx = dr/a. The result (1 1.27)

-ly

Therefore, e

EF/kBT

(1 1.28)

To check the self-consistency of this result, i.e. to see whether standard temperature and m pressure, = 3 x using (1.67 the x following 1O-27 kg) values:

e~EFkgT X> 1

as assumed, we may evaluate the righthand side of Equation (1 1.28) for He3 at

1 = 273K ks = 1 . 3 8 x 1Om3 h = 6.63 x j/K (11.29)

lo-s4 i-set

The particle density may be obtained from the fact that at standard temperature and pressure, one mole of a gas has a volume of A v o g a d r o s n u m b e r N0 == 6.023 x e EF/kgr =: 6.02 2 x x 1O23 .0224 :< 6.28 x 0.0224m3 and contains 10z3 molecules. The result is 5.01 x lo- x 1.38 lo=) x 1Om23 x 273 -

(6.63 x

=: 3 x 10-6 This is much less than unity, so that in the Fermi-Dirac distribution,

(11.30)

ti ={exp[s.]+

l>

(11.31)

the exponential is always much greater than unity, justifying the approximation of nondegeneracy. Othelr atomic and molecular gases of half-odd-integral spin at standard temperature and pressure would give similar results, and thus would obey essentially Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. It should be noted that the result in Equation (1 1.28:1 i s w e l l - d e f i n e d f o r a system of a given density, even when the volume V approaches infinity; for N/V is just the density of particles, and then both N and V approach infinity in a constant ratio. In order for the gas to be degenerate, eEFkBr should be at least comparable to unity. This occurs at such a low temperature that all atomic and molecular gases except helium are solidified, and even helium is liquified. The effect of degenerate Fermi-Dirac statistics of atoms on properties of solids is negligible, so the only substance in which degenerate statistics of atoms can be studied is liquid He3. We can estimate the temperature at which effects due to degenerate

J I. 10 Free electrons in

metals

323

statistics might begin to show up experimentally in He3, b y u s i n g t h e f a c t t h a t the volume of one mole of liquid H e 3 i s a b o u t 2.S x 10m5m3. T h e n , w h e n EF/kgr e E 1, the temperature should be given by NO 1 g---2 x 2 . 5 x 10--m3 Taking for eEF the value 3 x -3/2 (11.32)

10e6 c a l c u l a t e d a b o v e a t 2 7 3 a n d a m o l a r

volume of 0.0224m3, we have 3x 10-b=2 x No .0224 m3

(1 1.33)

Therefore, dividing the first of these equations by the second and solving for we get T ~ 273 x / .0224 \ 2.5 x 3 x x 1o-5

T,

(11.34)

This can be only an order of magnitude estimate, since a liquid will not act as a degenerate ideal gas because of the important effects of interparticle interactions. unity. Also, expression (1 1.28), which is obtained actually will not be valid at low temperatures, where e assuming -EF/kIIT .
IS

e~EFkgr

>>

1,

comparable to

IO FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS-DEGENERATE CASE

The most important case where l%mi-Dirac noninteracting particles. p/e Assuming that nondegenerate statistics apply for electrons in a metal, at room temperature T = 273K, take N/V ZI 102s mm3, m = 9 x 10e3 kg, and calculate - ,, e CFXB using Equation (11.28). Check the consistency of the result with the EF/kn r proximation, e << 1. ion For this case, e
EF,kgT

effects are large is that of electrons

in metals. Here it is often a good approximation to treat the electrons as free

_ -

lo2* -4 2 4.6 x

6.28

O-3 6.63

x x

1.38

:<

1O-23

273

10-34--

lo2

This is much greater than unity, so the assumption that the statistics are nondegenerate must be wrong.

A much better approximation than that used in the above example would be to assume that: fj =r n == 1 I 0, E<E, E > E, (11.35)

324

Quantum statistical mechanics as may be seen from FiglJre 11.2. In this case, p r o x i m a t i o n s g i v e n i n E q u a t i o n (11.35), by (I 1.36)

EF

may be evaluated most easily

by using the density of states given in Equation (1 1.24). Then, using the apthe number of particles would be given

The integral

s
0

6 d x = */3x3*,

leads to the result:

(1 1.37)
and the Fermi energy is (1 1.38)

Again using the parameters N/V = lo*, m = 9 E F = (6.63 2 x 9 x 10-34)2 x 10-3

1W3,
-

EF
1

in electron volts is

1.6

x lo-l9 i/eV (11.39)

= 2 . 7 eV At room temperature, J = 273 K, one.

k,J

= 0.024 eV, so here EF >>

ksJ;

statistics

a r e d e g e n e r a t e , a n d t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n i n E q u a t i o n (11 1.35) should be a good

11 .l 1 HEAT CAPACITY OF <AN ELECTRON GAS

Because, in the degenerate case, the Fermi energy EF is much greater than that the average electron kinetic energy will be much larger than number of states in the energy interval tions (11.35) is hold approximately, the particle

ksJ,
the per

and essentially all the states are filled up to the Fermi energy, it is to be expected

ksJ.
dE,

Since energy

dE

is proportional to V% value of the

and Equa-

expectation

kinetic

(11.40)

with ri = 1 up to Er. These integrals may be evaluated as follows:

EF

E3/2dE

2 = -

Es/* F

EF s 0

E12& = 3

E;/

(11.41)

11.12 Work function

Then

325

2E:/=/5 (E) = - = 2E;/=/3

This is on the order of several ellectron temperature. On the other hand, an average kinetic energy of

3 Er 5 ksT

(11.42)

volts, much greater than statistical mechanics

at room given

classical

would

have

3kBT/2,

by the theorem of equipartition of energy. the electron gas, the actual dependence of

To calculate the heat capacity Iof

ii(E) on temperature must be taken carefully into account, so that the average energy per particle can be calculated more accurately. When this is done the average energy per particle is foulId to be:

(E) = ; EF 0[
where

$ (zl[+ Orderof(k,T/E,,)4

aa.1

(1 1.43)

EFo

is the Fermi Energy calculated in Equation (1 1.38),

the Fermi energy at

zero temperature. The total energy in a mole of electrons is then No N,(E) with respect to temperature and is

(E),

where No is Avogadros

number. The heat capacity per mole, at constant volume, is just the derivative of

C =
hand, the classical heat capacity is Cv =

(1 1.44)

where we have used the expression for the gas constant, R = N,,k,. On the other

3R/2.
- 0.01 at room temperature. This

Thus, the heat capacity of an electron gas is reduced by the effect of statistics, by a factor of the order of magnitude k,T/E,,, can be understood qualitatively by noting that for heat to be absorbed by the system, the electrons must make transitions from lower occupied states, to higher empty states. Since the thermal eriergy available for one electron is about only electrons with energies within about region of energy is of order of magnitude electronic heat capacity is negligible

k,J,

ksJ of the Fermi energy can change

their states when heat is added to lihe system. The fraction of the electrons in this

ksT/EFo.
to

Thus, one would expect a contributions to the heat

reduction of the heat capacity by about this factor. At ordinary temperatures, the compared other capacity in metals, due mainly to lattice vibrations. However, at very low temperatures, the electronic heat capacity, although very small, is larger than the remaining temperature contributions than T. Thus, which the approach zero
OS

some at

higher low

power

of is

the the

electronic

heat

capacity

temperatures

main contribution to heat capacity in metals.

12 WORK FUNCTION
In studying the photoelectric effect, it was found that the incident photons had to be of energies greater than a certain critical energy in order to cause elec-

326

Quantum sfotisficol mechanics trons to be ejected from the metal surface. The minimurn energy needed to get

an electron out of the surface was called the work function, Cp. In terms of the work function, the minimum photon energy required to eject an electron is

15,;

= hu,;, = Cp

In Figure 11.4, the potential energy of a single electron in or near the surface of a metal slab is sketched. The curved portions outside the surfaces approach v=o

I-_ 7
t Fermi energy 5 I Surface Figure 1 1.4.

Work function % - - - - - - - _-_--_~----___-___-

--__-----_-

,_._ ----__--.---. -Surface the overage potential energy inside the metal.
V = - V, ,

Potential energy of a single electron near the surface of a metal. where x

zero as x approaches infinity according to the equation -e2/16xtOx, is the distance from the s,urface.

This potential energy results from attraction of

the electron by positive charge induced on the surface near the electron. AS a result, electrons will be bound to the metal, with an average potential energy -VI inside the metal, where V, is of the order of from 5 to 15 eV for different metals. The electrons then fill the energy levels above --V, u p t o -VI + Er, which is usually of the order of several eV higher in energy than -V, . The work function is therefore the energy which must be added to the most energetic of the electrons in the metal in order to remove it from the metal, and hence the work function, Fermi energy and minimum potential energy -VI are related by: a The work function is typically several = v, - E, volts. (1 1 .46)

electron

I 1.13 PHOTON DISTRIBUTION

Calculation of the distribution with energy of the average number n(E) of photons of energy E in a cavity is of considerable historical interest, since it was Plancks study of this problem that launched the quantum theory. Photons can be considered as particles of light, described by wavefunctions having the space and

7 7.73 Photon distribution time dependence given in Equation (1 1.15). Inside a cubical cavity of side I, the single-particle states are therefore described by giving the momentum quantum n u m b e r s nr, nr, n,, j u s t number mass, s = 1, and The are and hence state. only as two in Equation (11.16). two in Photons have they spin have quantum zero rest each comtherefore spin of states bosons. ,jtates-or is given Furthermore, Equation

327

polarization

states-for Another

momentum

density

(11.22).

plication is that, in contrast to a system of massive bosons such as a gas of He, photons can be emitted and absorbed by the walls of the cavity; thus the number of photons inside the cavity is not fixed, but may fluctuate as energy is exchanged with the cavity walls. Hence, we clo not speak of one of the particles making a transition from state 1 to state 2, but rather of a loss of particles from state 1 due to interaction with the walls and a gain of a possibly different number of particles in state 2 from the same cause. These properties of light waves require that the distribution function for photons be derived by a special method, based on the observation that if the radiation in the cavity is in thermal equilibrium with the walls, then the probability that the radiation has total energy eepr. E must be given by the Boltzmann factor, generAfter deriving the photon distribution n(E), we may examine and rest mass.

alize those special features which are due to the fact that photons obey BoseEinstein statistics for application to a gas of bosons of nonzero For simplicity of notation we shall let the single index j stand for the combination of integers (n,, nr, n,) describing a single particle state. If n, is the number of photons in one of these states, the total energy of these n, photons is n,hv,, where vI is the frequency of the state, given by

, = c = cp, = 5 (nf + n;; + Z, )2 X h

from Equations (1 1.16). The total energy in the cavity will be a sum over all states j of the energy in each state, ni h u,, so the total energy is

k = &,hv;
The Boltzmann factor is exp[--PTn,hu,] = exp[-(n,, + n2b12 + . ..)&I

(1 1.48)

(11.49)

Different overall states of the system will then differ in the set of occupation numbers n,, the various n2, ns,. ., that is, they will differ in the numbers of photons in states. To calculate the average number of photons in single-particle

the particular state i, we therefore have to calculate the following sum: cnij= Co4=OC~2=OCne=0...n,xp[-(n,v, +

n2uz, -f ...;u, +

..)h/&.T]

**-n,u, + .-.)h/k,,T]
(1 1 SO)

328

Quantum statistical mechanics where the sums run over all the possible values of each of the integers; i.e., n, = 0,1,2,3 I..., n, = 0, 1,2,3,. . corresponding to the fact that in any state j, any number of photons may exist. The above sum may immediately be simplified because the summations over all of the n,s, except j = i, is exactly the some in numerator and denominator. The constant factor due to these other summations then cancels out. We thus have ~~=, The sum over n, may be = faound ni e x p

(--niu,h/kaT)

C~=oexp(ZAA~ by performing the following differentiation: -dldx cc.; emndx) =_ C,,, -c, nie-rx e-n;l

(11.51)

C, e--nix T h e a b o v e r e s u l t i s i d e n t i c a l t o (n,) if x = the form: 1 +- emX In general, if a < 1, C; a + e-2x + . . .

(1 1.52)

uih/kBT.

The remaining sum in the

argument of the logarithm in Equation (11.52) is an infinite geometric series, of

= (1 - a ) - . T h u s , i f x i s p o s i t i v e ,

(11.53)

Combining these results, we obtain the following formula for (n,) : (n,) = -$ I n ( 1 - e-)- = l-&x(+e-x:l

x= ,h,kBT

X=~,h,kgT (1 1.54)

1 e hu;PgT _ 1

or Z(E) where f is a photon energy. = This (ew result -. I)- resembles in the the 1.1 1 .55) Fermi-Dirac in

strikingly -1

d i s t r i b u t i o n , E q u a t i o n (11.6),

except that

appears

denominator

place of + 1, and there is no constant similar to the Fermi energy. This latter o m i s s i o n i s e n t i r e l y rea!sonable, normalization as the Fermi energy was determined by a condition, c, (n;) = N, the total number of particles. Since the

total number of photons is not conserved, no such normalization condition can be w r i t t e n d o w n f o r photon,;.

11.14 PLANCK RADIATION IFORMULA

To find the range du, infinitesimal n u m b e r o f p h o t o n s d n i n t h e c a v i t y i n t h e f r e q u e n c y we may use the density of states, Equation (1 1.22). If we use spherical

17.14 Planck rodiotion formula

coordinates states in the in momentum space, d p , dp,dp, including + 4*p2 is dp. For photons, the

329

momentum p a n d f r e q u e n c y v are related by frequency range

p = hu/c. Hence, the number of

du,

polarizations, 8irVu2du = 2

The number of photons in the interval dv is therefore

87r\l _c3

u2du
(ehvlk8 1)

(11.57)

The energy per photon is h u. If we then multiply hu by the number of photons in the interval du, we obtain the energy dE, average is then contributed by photons of frequencies in the range du, to the total energy i? in the cavity. The energy per unit Frequency, per unit volume,

Vdu
This is Plancks inside radiation a cavity formula

1 dE

=
c(e

8nhu3
hu,kgT 1)

(11.58)

for

the only

energy

density at

per

unit

frequency T. When

interval,

containing

radiation

temperature

hu/k,T << 1 , e hk8r

approximately:

= 1 + hu/k,,J

+ -a -, and the Planck formula becomes

- _- = v tlu

1 dE

8ru2k8
C3

which is the Rayleigh-Jeans radiation formula. The Rayleigh-Jeans formula was derived originally by using classical ideas. It is evident that such a derivation is possible because h does not appear in it. The Rayleigh-Jeans formula agreed well with experiment at low frequencies but not at high frequencies. The Planck formula was one of the early triumphs of the idea of quantization of photon energy. Using the same h as found from the photoelectric effect, Planck was able to completely explain the radiation experiments. In Figure 1 1.5 are plotted both the Planck radiation formula and the Rayleigh-Jeans law; the two are seen to agree only at very low frequencies If the walls of the container were perfectly black, that is, if they absorbed all of the radiation incident upon them, then for thermal equilibrium to be maintained, the frequency distribution of the radiation emiited by the walls would have to have the same form as that of the incident radiation. In other words, since there is equilibrium, if energy is absorbed in a particular frequency range, on the average an equal amount of energy in this frequency range must be emitted by the walls. For ordinary intensities of radiation, it is to be expected that walls the are radiation in from the with walls the should incident not depend significantly we on whether conclude the that, equilibrium radiation. Hence may

in general, the radiation from a black body has a frequency distribution the same as that given in Equation (1 1.58) f or equilibrium radiation. This is therefore

330

Quanfum stofistical mechanics I - - dE V dv

I I I ;Ibyl.lgh-.hn.

1--r-

Figure

11.5.

Graphs of the classical Royleigh-Jeans formula for energy density in a

cavity and the Planck radiation formula obtained from quantum theory. At high frequencies, the classical energf density per unit frequency interval becomes infinite, whereas Plancks formula agrees with experiment. called b l a c k b o d y r a d i a t i o n . O t h e r b o d i e s w h e n h e a t e d e m i t r a d i a t i o n w h o s e frequency distribution closely resembles the radiation from an ideal black body. For instance, in the visible range the light from the sun is very much like that of a black body near 6OOOK, which would actually be white hot. The usual procedure for performing experiments with black body radiation is to form a cavity in any substance so there is equilibrium radiation inside. The radiation is sampled through a very small hole in the cavity wall, so that the radiation is not significantly disturbed by the meosurements. To find the total energy due to radiation in a cavity as a function of temperature, we may simply integrate Equation (11.52) over all frequencies from zero to infinity:

To simplify the algebra, let-us designate by the variable x the quantity appearing in the exponential. Then

hu/k,T

=ksTx &=!??d
h
We therefore obtain:

The

required

integral

is

found

in

definite z s o

integral =

tables, ir4 15

and

is (11.63)

x3dx -. ex- 1

The

energy

density

is

therefore E 8r5(kB J)4 u z - = _ _ _ _ V 15h3c3 (11.64)

I I. 15 Spontaneous emission
The significant feature of this expression is its dependence on the fourth power of the temperature. This fourth power dependence could be calculated from thermodynamics; Plancks constant, however, could not the be proportionality calculated constant, because it involves classically.

33 1

The result, Equation (1 1.64), also implies that the power radiated from a hot black body is proportional to J4. The radiation from non-black bodies frequently has approximately the same temperature dependence.

1.15 SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

Let us now consider the processes of emission and absorption of radiation in the cavity from the point of view of detailed balance. Suppose, for example, that there is one object inside the cavity which has two energy levels E,, E2 > E,, separated in energy by the amount h v,, w h e r e u; is the frequency of a particular one of the single photon states in the cavity. We can assume that the object itself obeys Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Thus, an equation such as Equation holds:
P I

(1 1.2) (1 1.65)

-BE, 4

- p? -

+,e-BE;

T h i s i s a w a y o f s t a t i n g d e t a i l e d b a l a n c i n g . I n E q u a t i o n ( 1 1.65), the Boltzmann factors can be interpreted as the relative probabilities that the object will be found in the upper state E, Suppose that associated or lower state El at thermal equilibrium. with CI transition 1 + 2 of the object is the absorption i. Similarly, associated

of a photon of frequency v,, in the single photon state frequency.

w i t h a t r a n s i t i o n 2 4 1 of the object is the emission of a photon of the same Now let us analyze the transition probability for absorption of a photon per unit time, p,+, in more detail. obiect, I f a beam of light is incident on an absorbing of the incident energy is absorbed; this such as the surface of a metal, it is well-known, even in classical electro-

magnetic theory, that a certain .fraction

fraction is independent of the intensity of the incident beam. In other words, if n, photons of the mode i are incident per second on the absorbing object, the rate of absorption by the object should be proportional to n,. Therefore, p,+ proportional to the number of incident photons n;. We write this as: PI-Z = Cn, (11.66) is

where C is some proportionality constant, not dependent on the temperature of the walls because of the way the transition probability

P,+~

was defined.

Next consider emission processes. An isolated object tends to spontaneously emit radiation and make transitions downward in energy, until it ends up in the ground state. This process can occur even when there is no radiation initially present. If the emission were due entirely to spontaneous emission, then pZ -, w o u l d h a v e t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d w e w o u l d w r i t e p2 ., = A, a c o n s t a n t i n d e p e n d e n t o f T . Eiristein was the first to notice that thermal equilibrium could not be maintained if the emission were due only to spontaneous

332

Quantum statistica/ mechanics

emission,

for

then

detailed

balance
Cfi Y

would
e-oEx =

require
Ae.-&

that (11.67) (11.68) function derived in Equa-

or n, which is inconsistent distribution. with the photon

A -,+hv = --e C distribution

tion (1 1.42). It would be consistent only if the photon distribution were a classical Boltzmann

11.16 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION

E i n s t e i n recognized that another process, called s t i m u l a t e d e m i s s i o n , contributes

to the emission probability. In this process, if the system ils initially in the excited State E2, and some number n, of photons in a mode frequency v, are initially present, then a kind of resonant interaction occurs between the object and the radiation, mode. In which fact, increases the the probability of of emitting another is photon in the same to the probability stimulated emission proportional

number of photons n; initially present. It is this proportionality which leads to the terminology directly Thus, stimulated to the emission, because the incident radiation stimulates intensity of the must A incident be + radiatiion. further emission of photons of the same type, the probability of emission being proportional the total emission probability written: hi; independent balance, (11.70) of (11.69) temperature. At

pz-+, = where thermal B is another we proportionality must have, by

constant, detailed

equilibrium

(~e-@~, - I Then, inserting the expressic>n, Ce Bhu,

= (A (1

+ BEj)emaE. 1.55),

Equation - 6 =

for the photon distribution, (11.71)

&Oh - 1)

In order for this equation to be satisfied at all temperatures, we must have A=B=C (11.72)

Thus, from Equation (1 1.69), the total emission probability is proportional to A(1 + n;), and hence to 1 + netic field. n,, which is the number of photons present after emission, or the number of photons present in the final state of the electromagIn the factor 1 + n;, the 1 corresponds to the contribution from emission processes. spontaneous emission processes, and the n; corresponds to the contribution from stimulated Stimulated emission is the basis of operation of a celebrated invention--the laser. The name of the device is taken from the initial letters of the words light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

7 7 .I 7 Origin

of fcictor

333

In a laser, a large number of atoms are placed in an excited state by some special means, such as by collisic~ns with other atoms or by shining light of proper frequencies upon them. The atoms are then not in thermal equilibrium, because the number of atoms in the excited state is larger than the number in the ground state-in disagreement If one of with the the Boltzmann should probability factor, which a holds at of equilibrium. atoms spontaneously radiate photon

mode n;, then the subsequent probability of radiation of another photon in the same mode is increased because of the factor 1 + ni in the emission probability --that is, by the effect of stimulated emission. As other atoms then radiate into the same mode, the stimulated emission probability factor for that mode builds up into an enormous factor. A large number of the atoms can thus be made to radiate into the same mode, so that a pulse of radiation containing as many as 1019 photons, all going in nearly the same direction and with nearly the same frequency, can result. The buildup of energy in a single mode is enhanced by enclosing the active laser material between partially coated mirrors, so that the light is reflected back and forth many times through the material before getting out, thus contributing further to the stimulated emission. This coherent light is unlike the light emitted by most natural sources, such as hot bodies. Due to its high directionality and the sharpness of the frequency, laser light has many important uses.

1.17

ORIGIN OF THE FACTOR 1 .t n; IN BOSON TRANSITIONS

In the preceding section it was seen that the total emission probability for photons in the mode i is proportional to the number of photons in the final state, or proportional to 1 + n; w h e r e rt; is the number of photons initially in mode i. This factor, 1 + ni, occurs in general for transitions of bosons to a state i, with an initial number n; of bosons in the state i. By way of contrast, in Equation (1 l.l), which applies for fermions, there is a factor 1 A,

in the transition

rate to state i, where fii is the average occupation number of particles initially in state i. This difference of sign is characteristic of the difference between particles integral of spin, half-odd-integral which obey spin, which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, and those of Bose-Einstein statistics.

A discussion of the factor 1 + n, for bosons follows. Anyone not interested in this discussion should skip to Section 1 1 .lB. The wavefunction for a system of two or more fermions must be antisymmetric under exchange of any two particles, which requires that when single-particle states are used to describe the system, the wavefunction must be an metrized combination of single.,particle antisymstates; this also requires that no two

single-particle states in the wavefunction can have the same quantum number. This gives rise to the factor 1 - ii, in the transition rate. On the other hand, tne wavefunction of a system of two or more bosons must be symmetric, i.e., must not change even in sign, under an exchange of any two particles. For example, the symmetric wavefunction for two particles in different

334

Quantum stcrtisficol mechanics states #, and 1,5? would be:

+(r ,rs,; r2,s2) = $[Gl(r11.1)+2(r2.s2 ) + ~1(r2rS2)~2(r1rs,)1

where the tactor

(11.73)

~2 in the denominator, which is the square root of the number

of terms in the symmetrized wavefunction, is for correct normalization. To see that this normalization is correct if 1c/, a n d 1c/ 2 are each normalized, we consider the integral: 2./G*WV,dVz = [s 1$l(r,, s,) 1 dV,)(./ 1&.(rZ, s2) 1 dv,) s, 111 dV,) s2)1c/2(r2, s2)dV,)

+(S l$,(r2,s2 11 dV2)( 1 1 ic/2(r11

+(he rl r 51 bhl(rl I 51 )dV,)(./J/;(r,,

+(./+rCrl I 51 hb(r1 I 51 )dV,)(S#;(r,,

s2)1C/,(r2, sZ)dV2] (11.74)

As shown in Appendix 2, an integral such as .[$2*(r,,

81 M,(r,, s, )dV, is zero.

Also an Thus 2s~ ~dV to uA,ty. integral such as .[J $l(;, 51) 1 d v , = 1 it $1 and $2 are normalid * the correct normalization. If 12 t a n d l/v% there are p terms in the symmetrized wavefunction, the normalization is metric wavefunction would be (1 1.75) l,ldp by the same reasoning. If two particles were in the some state, say $, , the sym-

$(rl I s l ; rzl s2) = #,(rl I 5, Ml(r2, s2)

We may give a brief indication of the origin of the factor 1 + n in the transition rate, by considering an initial state of the system with The symmetrized $hial wavefunction = L-\/1+G + of the system would be n, particles in the final single-particle state 2, a n d o n e p a r t i c l e rn the initial single-particle state 1.

[11/~(r~~~~)~2(r2~S2)~~~~2(r,2+1,s,2+l) + --* (11.76)

1C2(rlrS1)~1(r2rS2)...~2(r,2+,,s,2.,,)

+ $2 (rl I 5, ) - - * A (r, 2+1 I s,, 2-t I )I

normalization constant is I/-\/in,. The wavefunction, of the final

Here there are 1 + n, terms in the symmetrized combination, and therefore the state, with 1 + n2 particles in state 2, 81s hnaf = rC/2(r~,~1)~2(r2~~~)~~~1C/~(r,~+,,s.~+~) (1 I .77)

In calculating a transition probability from quantum mechanics, the square of a n i n t e g r a l i n v o l v i n g t h e product o f t h e a b o v e t w o w a v e f u n c t i o n s a p p e a r s . cause there are r-t2 + 1 terrns in #,ni,iol In t h e p r o d u c t , #ini+i,, leads tc a factor of -\/n,+ 1 in the denominator. Also, bea n d o n e i n $final, there are n, + 1 terms in the product; each contributes equally to the transition probability, so there is a n e t f a c t o r [(l + nz)/.\/l-r 2in the transition probability. If the initial waven2]

7 7.78 Bose-&stein distribofion function corresponds to n, particles in state 1, n2 in state 2, and the final function

335

corresponds to n, - 1 in state 1, 1 +

n, in state 2, then similar reasoning shows

that there is a factor n, (1 + n2) in the transition probability.

18 BOSE-EINSTEIN DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

We may proceed under the assumption -that in all boson systems the transition

rate for transitions from a single-particle state 1 to a single-particle state 2 is proportional to 1 + rtz. Letri, ,~i, b e t h e t i m e - a v e r a g e d v a l u e s o f t h e n u m b e r o f particles found in the single-particle states 1 and 2, respectively, of a system of bosons at thermal equilibrium. Then the principle of detailed balance can be written as: n,(l + ii,)p,+ = ilz(l + Ti,)pz-, (11.78)

Here, as in the Fermi-Dirac case, we assume that the ratio of transition probabilities per unit time, p, .2/pZ-l, using Equation (1 1.2), we obtain: E,IkBr Fl -e 1 + ii,
772 T-e 1 + 772

is the same as in the classical case. Then,

EzIk,q

(11.79)

Since each side of the above equation depends on a different energy, each side must be equal to a constant independent of energy. We shall denote this constant by the symbol Z:

ii(E) --e E/kg1 = Z

1 + A(E) the = Then, solving for ii, we find E(E) Bose-Einstein distribution: 1 I Note that for the special case of iohotons butions lies in the under presence particle of the sign _

(1 1.80)

(11.81)

which are not conserved in number, the 1 in the denominators; this

Z = 1. The main difference between the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein distripreceding sign arises as a direct consequence of the symmetry, or antisymmetry, of the wavefunction exchange. The constant Z in the denominator of the Bose-Einstein distribution, for a system of particles of non-zero rest mass, s e r v e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a s a n o r m a l i z i n g EF/kgr. In the Fermi-Dirac case. The condition used constant, just as did the factor e to determine Z would be

z; fi,(E,) =
of noninteracting bosons with kinetic energy

(11.82)

for a system of N particles. The summation could be written as an integration by using the appropriate density of states, such as in Equation (11.24), p2/2m. for a system

336

Q uantum

statistical mechchcs

The most common isotope of helium, He4, w i t h t w o p r o t o n s a n d t w o n e u t r o n s in the nucleus, has zero spin, and thus these nuclei obey Bose-Einstein statistics. A calculation at room temperature, assuming that the statistics are nondegenerate for He4 gas (i.e. assuming that Z << l), closely pa~rallels that done for He3 previously. It shows that Z is indeed much less than 1. The 1 in the denominator of the distribution, Equation (1 1.81), gives negligible effect in this case, and the gas follows essentially Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The order of magnitude of the temperature at which the 1 in the denominator would be important- the case of degenerate statistics-is a few degrees Kelvin; the calculation of this would again be similar to that for He3. However, in the Bose-Einstein case at low temperature, many particles tend to collect in the state of zero energy rather than filling states up to a Fermi energy. In Figure 11.6, the Bose-Einstein distribution is plotted for Z = 1 - 0.01 = 0.99.

101

.lkgT
Figure 1 1.6.

Bose-Einstein distribution function for 2 = 1 ~ 0.01 = 0.99. changes

Experimentally, it is found that at 2.2K the specific heat of liquid He4

abruptly, and that below this temperature the liquid behaves as if it were composed of two interpenetrating fluids, one of zero viscosity. The fraction of the zero viscosity part increases as temperature decreases. This superfluid exhibits a number of interesting properties connected with the lack of viscosity. The behavior of liquid helium c:an be explained on the basis of Bose-Einstein statistics, with the zero viscosity component roughly connected with accumulation of helium atoms in the ground state.

NUMBER OF STATES
By consideration of free particle wavefunctions and imposition of periodic

boundary conditions at the boundaries of a volume V, it was found that in the

Summary limit as V becomes very large, the particle spin. so number of single-particle states in the

337

momentum interval dp,, dp,, d p , i s ( 2 s +

l)Vdp, d p , dp,/h3, w h e r e

s is the

W h e n the quant i t i es t o be integrated d epend only on the ma g ni t ude o f p , i t is often useful to write the volume element in momentum space as 4*pZdp, the number of states in dp is 4?r(2s + 1)Vp2dp/h3. is E = p2/2m, For free particles, the energy

a n d i n dE the number of states is 27rV(2s + l)m fidE/h3.

FERMI-DIRAC
For the identical average

DISTRIBUTION
of of half-integral particle!; spin, per for which the exclusion state of principle energy holds, E at

particles number

single

particle

temperature T is yy= e 1 (E-EF)/~~T + 1

EF is a constant called the Fermi energy. If the smallest value of E is taken to be 0, then if Ef > >

kT,

the distribution is much different from the classical Maxwelltm3 be degenerate. If -(EF) >> kT, the distri-

Boltzmann statistics, and is said statistics. For free electrons with

bution is nondegenerate, and is substantially the same as Maxwell-Boltzmann degenerate statistics,

where N is the number of electrons of mass in volume V. Also for this case, the average energy per particle is approximately /, E,. A more careful calculation results in a correction to the average energy proportional to T2. T h i s l e a d s t o a specific heat on the order of k, T/EF times the classical specific heat.

BLACK
For

BODY
the

RADIATION
Z in the Bose-Einstein distribution is 1. Thus, the average number

photons,

of photons per state in the equilibrium radiation is l/(eh

- l), w h e r e hv

is the photon state energy. In the relation giving the number of states, 2s + 1 should be taken as 2 for a zero rest mass particle. Also, p = hv/c. T h u s , t h e number of states in du is 8XVu2du/c3. the energy in Multiplication of this number of states by the average number of photons per state and the energy per photon,

hu,

gives

du:
dE =

8rVhu3du
c(e hv/kgT 1)

The energy radiated by a perfectly black wall, and often approximately by other objects, is proportional to this function. Integration gives a total energy radiated proportional to T4.

338

Quantum stotisticol

mechonrcs

STIMULATED AND SPONTANEOUS EMISSION

The probability of emission of a photon of a particular mode or single-particle photon state, is proportional to 1 + n, where n is the number of photons initially present. The term 1 in 1 + n corresponds to the contribution to emission probability from spontaneous emission; the term n arises from stimulated emission. In any system of bosons, the probability for ,transition occupied initially by n particles is proportional to 1 + n. to a final state

BOSE-EINSTEIN DISTRIBUTION
For identical particles of integral spin, the average number of particles per single particle state of energy E at temperature T is 1 (l/Z)eE - 1

ii=

I f Z << 1 when the minimum of E is 0, the statistics are nondegenerate, closely like Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. For Z N 1, the degenerate statistics are quite different from Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. The ground state is much more densely populated for particles obeying Bose-Einstein statistics.

1.

Calculate the number of states of electromagnetic radiation using periodic boundary conditions in o cubical region 0.5 meters on a side, between 5000 and 6000 Angstroms in wavelength. Answer:

3 . 5 3 x 1o18.
wo!j confined to move on a flat

2. Suppose a gas of particles of energies E =: p2/2m per unit energy interval dE for zero spin. Answer: 2mxA/h2.

plane of area A, rather than in three dimensional space. Find the density of states

3. The density of electrons in some regions of interplanetary space is about 10/cm3. Would the statistics be degenerate or nondegenerate? Estimate the Fermi energy in eV for these electrons, assuming they are in thermal equilibrium with the sun. (Temp. of sun = 600ClK) Answer:

EF = = - - 2 4 eV.

4. The overage energy per particle of an electron gas at low temperatures is E = /, EF + a2kiT2/4EF. Calculate the specific heat per particle of the conduction electrons in copper (8.5 x 10 electrons/cm3) with the classical result, /, kB. Answer: Cv = 1.66 x 10ez7 i/K. Classical result is 12.07 x 1O-23 i/K. 5. In oluminum, there are three free electrons per atom. The density of aluminum is at a temperoture of

T = 2.OK.

Compare

Problems 2.7g/cm3, a n d t h e a t o m i c weiglht temperature. A n s w e r : 1 1 . 7 eV. 6. In a crystal of the compound iridium can ontimonide, the number of free electrons be varied by introduction of impurities. Also, because of the mteraction of elecelectrons/cm3 the statistics of Al is 26.97. Find the Fermi energy at zero

339

trons with the crystal atoms, ttle electrons behave as free particles with /,, the true electron mass. Show that at concentrations of lOI are nondegenerate at room temperature. Show that at liquid nitrogen temperature, about 80K, and at CI concentration of 10 electrons/cm3 the statistics are degenerate. Find the Fermi energy. Answer: 0.29 7. eV. A similar relation The density of states in energy rlear E = Er, for the part of a degenerate electron gas with spin parallel to magnetic field, is 2aV(2m)32dEF/h3. energy, the electrons have potential energy +~,,,6, to the spin parallel and antiparallel strength of the electron ga!, 3N/.~i6/2f,. ot holds for the antiparallel spin part. In the magnetic field, in addition to the kinetic where p,+, is the electronic magnetic moment eh/2m and 8 is the field strength. The plus and minus correspond cases. If ~~8 e: Er, show that the dipole equilibrium is 4*V(2m)32p,$B z/Eflh3 = smaller than classical statistics would

This is on the order of kbT/E,

give. (Use the fact that the Fermi energy is the same for the two spin parts, but that the lowest energy of one spin part is 2~~6 lower than the other, so there are more electrons with the antiparallel spin orientation.) 8. 9. 10. Most metals melt at temperatures below 3000K. Explain why the Fermi energy of a metal is almost independent of temperature. Estimate the decrease in work fur,ction of o metal at lOOOK, A n s w e r : 0 . 1 eV. In a metal of Fermi energy 7.0 eV, at a very low temperature, what fraction of the electrons have energies between 6.9 and 7.0 eV? In CI low density nondegenerote electron plasma at 25,00OK, 6.9 and 7.0 eV? Answer: 11. 0.02 1; 0.0037. the average kinetic energy per particle of a XT = h/p is deCompute XT for o gas of hydrogen atoms at By the classical equipartition thee>rem, fined so that :/*ks T = % m(h/X,)2. degenerate if A:N/V << X;N/V << 1.) Answer: 12. XT = 1.46 x lo-cm. If light of energy density du is hitting CI wall at an angle of incidence B, show that the energy hitting per second per unit area is (cdu) cos 0. Show that if the energy density for black body radiation is u, then the contribution to u arising from radiation propagating in the solid angle dQ = 25~ sin II d0 at angle 0 from the wall normal is du =: % u sin /3 d0. From these results, argue that the total intensity emitted by a black wall is cu/4. This quantity, cu/4 = rT4. Evaluate c. Answer: 13. cr =: 5 . 6 7 x 10~8watt/m2K4. hc/2.82k,T. If the suns surface temperature is about Verify that for black body radiation the wavelength for the energy maximum of I / V x dE/du i s a t X, = 6000K, what is X,? what fraction of the electrons have energies between in eV, as compared to OK.

Maxwell-Boltzmann gas is 3/2ks 7. The average thermal wavelength

300K. Show that for a gas of N electrons in CI volume V, the statistics will be nont o t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n partiazles. 1, that is, if the thermal wavelength is small compared -EF/kgr (Hint: Assume e >> 1, show that

340

Quantum sfafisfical

mechanics

Answer:
7000

8500

Angstroms

(the

visible

region

is

around

4000

Angstroms

to

Angstroms).

14.

S h o w t h a t t h e e n e r g y per u n i t w a v e l e n g t h p e r u n i t v o l u m e i n b l a c k b o d y r a d i a t i o n i s hr/AkB T - 1). Verify that the wavelength for the maximum. l/V(dE/dX) = 8ahc/JL5(e o f t h i s f u n c t i o n i s a t X,,, = hc/4.97ksT. T h i s d e p e n d e n c e o f XM o n Wien displacement law. If

is called the

= 6000K for the sun, what is

A,,+?

Answer: 15. 16.

4 8 3 0 Angsiroms.

I f t h e e n e r g y d e n s i t y o f b l a c k b o d y r a d i a t i o n i s u, s h o w t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e w a l l a t e q u i l i b r i u m d u e t o t h e r a d i a t i o n i s /z u. A combination of the first and second laws of thermodynamics for a reversible process is

JdS

= d(uV) + pdV,

where S is entropy, V is volume, p is pressure, and

u i s e n e r g y d e n s i t y . I f t h e p r e s s u r e f o r b l a c k b o d y r a d i a t i o n i s /z u a s f o u n d i n P r o b l e m 1 5 , f i n d (cYS/&) a t c o n s t a n t V a n d (dS/dV) a t c o n s t a n t u . A s s u m i n g t h a t u is a function only of

7,

f i n d a/13V(dS/?Ju)

a n d I?/&J(~S/CYV).

Setting these second

derivatives equal to each other, show that const.

4(dJ/J)

=: du/u, a n d t h u s t h a t u =

(J)4.

17.

There exists a kind of excitation in magnetic solids called spin waves, which may be treated as particles like photons but with no spin. The effective particles have an e n e r g y E = vop2, w h e r e vc, i s a c o n s t a n t a n d p i s t h e m o m e n t u m a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h o w a v e . S h o w t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s p e c i f i c heat o f t h e s o l i d , a r i s i n g f r o m spin waves, is proportional to

J3.

18.

There exists in solids a kind of excitation or vibration of atoms called phonons (particles corresponding to sound waves), which may be treated as particles similar t o p h o t o n s b u t w i t h t h r e e k i n d s o f polarization, o n e long~~tudinal and two transverse.

At low energies, the energy is proportional to the effective phonon momentum, as for light. Show that at low temperatures the specific heat due to phonons is proportional to

J3. (n + % )hv,
= 0, 1, 2, 3,. . w i t h for o n e s t a t e p e r n . I f hu = 10eR eV a n d t h e r e o r e 3 x 10 nl a n d energy corresponding

19.

The energies of a one dimensional harmonic oscillator of frequency v are n

particle

oscillators,

= 300K find the approximate /, p a r t i c l e s ; f i n d t h e numbelr

to the Fermi energy for spin

o f p a r t i c l e s approximaiely C~=O l/(ae& - 1 ) E

i n t h e Jowest e n e r g y l e v e l f o r s p i n 1 p a r t i c l e s . ( U s e l/(a 1) n l/6 = In(a x -

e -26) f o r d << 1 . A s s u m e t h a t = 0.75eV; 1 . 8 x 10.

a =

1 + 1, w h e r e

L is very small.)

Answer:

7 5

108;EF

20.

An impurity atom in a crystal has one valence electron which has the possibility of either being bound to the atom in either state or being in the continuum with the other crystal electrons. In writing the detailed balance equation, one should include the fact that if there is no electron bound to the atom, continuum electrons of either spin orientation can go to the bound state. However, in the absence of spin-changing interactions, a bound electron with a particular spin state can go to only thot some

s p i n o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o n t i n u u m . U s i n g t h e s e i d e a s , sh,ow t h a t i f ii = l/[e(mEFkr) + l] f o r t h e c o n t i n u u m e l e c t r o n s a n d E b i s t h e e n e r g y o f a b o u n d e l e c t r o n , tllen Fb-EF)lkT l/[% e + l] f o r t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f bfound e l e c t r o n s . the value of Z is very close

Ti =

21.

I n a c e r t a i n B o s e - E i n s t e i n l i q u i d a t a v e r y l o w temperature,

t o 1 : Z = 1 - lo-*. I f t h e l i q u i d h a s 10 p a r t i c l e s i n a v o l u m e 0.2m3, w h a t i s t h e n u m b e r o f partic es in the state of exactly zero energy? ) = lo*.

Answer:

1/(1/Z < Z

- 1

22.

Show that 0

5 1 for the ideal Bose-Einstein gas.

2 so1i.d state physics

Solid state physics, as the name Implies, is the study of physical properties of solids, as distinct from those of liquids and gases. This field has been the subject of intense research activity in the past two decades, which has resulted in many important technological advances. Examples of solid state devices which have recently seen widespread use are transistors, corntouter lasers. In this chapter we shall discuss some of the most basic properties of solids. In all our discussions, we shall consider only crystalline solids, i.e., solids in which the atoms or molecules are arrarlged in some simple repetitive pattern. While many solids--such as glass-are not of this type, more progress has been made in understanding crystalline solids because they are simpler to treat mathematically. Some of the consequences of having a crystalline structure will be illustrated in the discussions of crystal lattice vibrations (sound waves.11 energy bands in solids. and of electron memory elements and

2.1

CLASSIFICATION

OF

CRYSTAL!;

The primary property of crystals which simplifies their discussion is their periodic or repetitive structure, or translational symmetry. For example, in discussing lattice vibrations, we shall set up an equation of motion for a general atom in a one dimensional crystal; an equatlon of the same form then describes any other atom. Another way of stating this property is to say that, except at the boundaries, a translation of the crystal by a as vector laftice vector leaves the crystal unchanged. A lattice vector is a vector from one atom site in the lattice to a similar site, such

in Figure 12.1. Thus we could consider translating the crystal by vec-

tors a, times

or c in the Figure, and nothing would be changed except at the boundaplus an integer times

ries. The general lattice vector by which one could translate would be an integer

plus an integer times c. Because of the periodicity, propert&. The three smallest inde-

it is clear that the crystal can be considered to be composed of small volumes called unit (cells, w h i c h a l l h a v e t h e s a m e pendent lattice vectors

a, b

and c, which can be used to build up the crystal by

translations,, are called the

primitive lattice vectors. The unit cell of a crystal can

be taken as the parallelepiped formed on

a, b

and c. Bravais lattices according to

Crystals are classified into 14 possible types of

other possible symmetries, in addition to translational ones. Figure 12.2 shows

341

342

Solid state physics

Figure

12.1.

Diagram illujtrating

how a solid crystal may be built up of identical Iunit

cells stacked together.

the basic structures of the 14 types, together with their names and some properties. Each lattice point in these diagrams might represent one atom or a group of atoms. In some crystals tllere may be several atoms per unit cell represented by the lattice point. The lattice point represents the basic periodic structure, clnd there is one lattice point per unit cell. Some of the basic structures shown are not unit cells as defined above. That is, the edges shown in Figure 12.2 are not the smallest centered vec:tor three independent lattice vectors. For instance, the unit cell of the bodycubic is actually a parallelepiped based on the two cube edges and a they allow easier visualization of other types of

from a corner of .the cube to its center. The reason for showing figures

o t h e r t h a n u n i t c e l l s i s tlat symmetries.

12.2 REFLECTION AND ROTATION SYMMETRIES The classifications into these fourteen crystal types are based on symmetries of rotation and reflection. Let us choose an origin of coordinates at the center of each structure in Figure 12.2. All rotation axes and reflection planes we discuss will be ass#umed through leave the to pass through this origin. By rotation axis here we mean a line the origin crystal such that a so rotation far as about the line through are some angle would exunchanged physical properties concerned. For

ample, in Figure 12.3 imagine identical atoms at each of the sites marked A, and imagine a rotation axis normal to the paper at the geometrical center 0. Rotations about 0 by any of the angles a/3, 2a/3, 3?r/3, 4x/3, 5~13, 67r/3, w h i c h are multiples of lr/3, would bring the set of atoms back to the sites marked A.

p:fcJ pijFJ
Triclinic ct f [I, CY c f, p ;i- y Edges which are not parallel are unequal in length. uneq!Jal Simple monoclinic U#90. Edges which are not parallel are in length. B a s e centered monoclinic

Simple orthorhombic

Base-centered orthorhombic

Body-centered orthorhombic

Face-centered orthorhombic

All angles between edges are 90. Edges which are not parallel are unequal in length.

Rhombohedral All angles at one corner a r e equmol but not equal to 90. All sides are equal.

Hexagonal Two faces are regular hexagons. The edges not in a hexagonal plane are perpendicular to that plane.

Simple

tetragonal

Body-centered tetragonal are perpendicular to that plane

T w o f a c e s a r e s q u a r e s . T h e edcles o f a d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h n o t i n t h e p l a n e o f a s q u a r e

Simple cubic

Bl>dy-centered

cubic

Face-centered cubic

All edges meet at right angles and have equal lengths. Figure 12.2. The fourteen Bravais lattices.

344

Solid sfafe physics

Figure

12.3.

A set of positions, marked A, having rotational symmetry. Rotation by any

multiple of the angle 7r/3 atlout an axis through zero and normal to the paper takes the set of positions into itself. Since there are six possible angles of rotation which will leave atoms at the same sites, the axis is called a sixfold rotation axis. I n a s i m i l a r w a y , a re0ection p l a n e is a plane such that a mirror reflection of the crystal relative to the plane leaves the crystal physically unchanged. In Figures 12.4(a, b , c ) t h e p l a n e t h r o u g h M , M is to be imagined normal to ,the palper. In Figure 12.4(b), the line MM is a reflection plane, whereas in Figures 12,4(a) of ,the and 12.4(c), reflection through MM would change the positions of some atoms; hence in these two figures, MM is not a symmetry reflection plane. sym-

One symmetry that all the structures in Figure 12.2 could have is inversion

metry. Inversion is a change in sign of all coordinates of each atom. As indicated in Figure 12.5, it is equivalent to a rotation by 180 about an axis, (which changes the signs of two coordinates) followed by a reflection of the atom coordinates in a plane perpendicular to the axis (which changes the sign of ,the third coordinate). The inversion simply interchanges points on opposite sides of the origin, and it may be seen by inspection that it is possible for this operation to leave the crystals unchanged. While there may be some structures in each crystal class which have this symmetry, it is possible that a crystal would not have inversion symmetry if the combination of atoms or ions corresponding to a single cell did not have the proper symmetry. Inversion symmetry is the only possible symmetry of the triclinic system. lln the monoclinic systern, o reflection in a plane parallel to the face containing the angle cy may leave the structure unchanged. Also, a rotation of 180 about an axis perpendicular to the face containing cy m a y l e a v e t h e s t r u c t u r e u n changed. This 180 rotation tiolns
IS

called a twofold rotation, because two such rota90, and a sixfold

would give one complete revolution. Likewise, a threefold rotation axis cor-

responds to symmetry under 120 rotation, a fourfold axis to of rotation axes are all ttlat can occur in a crystal.

axils to 60 or a/3. Because of the translational crystal symmetry, these four kinds In the orthorhombic system, there can be symmetry reflection planes each of whlich is perpendicular tc, a face and parallel to an edge. Also, there may be a

12.2 Reflection and rotation symmetries

. M .

345

M (Cl1

Figure 12.4.

Diagrams

illustrating

symmetry

under

mirror

reflection.

Diagrams

(a)

and

(c) do not have reflection symmetry in the MM plane. In diagram (b), MM is a mirror reflection symmetry plane.

Reflection in XY plane

Figure 12.5.

Diagrams illustrating symmetry under inversion. Inversion is equivalent to

a reflection in one plane, followed by a 180 rotation about an axis normal to the reflection plane. twofold among rotation other axis perpendicular symmetries, can to any a face. The rhombohedral rotation axis system, the

possible

have

three-fold

through

diagonal connecting corners, where the angles LY meet. Threefold axes may occur in the hexagonal and cubic sysiems as well. Fourfold rotation axes may occur in the tetragonal and cubic systems, while only hexalgonal fold rotation axes. The reason for being interested In rotation and reflection symmetries is that for a crystal of known symmetry one may derive limitations on the possible values of some physical quantities, i.e. they must be consistent with the symmetries. Such quantities as electrical conductivi+y, heat conductivity, dielectric constant and permeability can vary with the directions of the corresponding fields. However, for a rotation symmetry axis of order greater than two, it turns out that these quantities have to be independent of direction in the plane perpendicular to the axis. Then, in a hexagonal crystal of a metal such as zinc, the electrical conductivity can vary at lnost with the arlgle of the applied field relative ta the axis of systems can have six-

346

Soll;d the

sfofe physics hexagon. Similarly, the conductivity in a cubic crystal is independent of direc-

tion since there are threts various angles with respes:t

fourfold axes and four threefold axes, oriented at to each other.

12.3 CRYSTAL BINDING FORCES

A different classification of crystals could be made on the basis of the types of forces holding the crystals together. There are four general kinds of binding involved: (1) Valence crystals are held together by the same kinds of forces that hold organic molecules togethcer. While the electrons of the atoms are bound fairly tightly to the atoms, there is a sharing of electrons between neighboring atoms. For example, Figure 12.6 represents a valence crystal in two dimensions, in which

Figure 12.6.

In covalent bonding, the crystal is held together by concentrations of nega-

tive electronic charge between positively charged cores. The negative and positive charges attract each other, giving a net binding effect to the crystal. each atom contributes an electron which spends most of its time somewhere in between the atom and its nearest neighbors. Then, on the average, the positively charged atoms which remain will be attracted toward the negative charge cloluds, and hence toward the other atoms. The electrons are shared, sinc:e one such electron cannot be said to be bound to any particular atom. The attraction caused by this sharing can give rise to a lower energy than if the electrons were all bound to individual atoms; therefore, if the atoms are to be separated, forces must be exerted to give work to make up this change in energy. A typical crystal with this kind of binding is the diamond, made of carbon atoms. (2) Ionic crystals are held together primarily by Coulomb forces. A typical crystal of this type is sodium chloride-table salt. The outer electron in sodiurr is

12.4 Sound WOWS fairly loosely bound, since it is the only electron outside a closed n = 2 shell, whereas the chlorine atom needs one electron in the n = 3, & = 2 orbits in order to form a closed 3p s u b s h e l l . T h e n , w h e n a s o d i u m a t o m c o m e s n e a r a chlorine atom, this electron tends to go over to the chlorine atom. The resulting positive and negative ions are then bound by electrilcal forces between ions. are very loosely bound, and each electron forces. likewise, a crystal made of such dissimilar ions of valences * 1, or +2, is held together by Coulomb (3) In metals the outer electrclns

347

moves through the whole crystal, being shared about equally by all the atoms. As in the case of valence binding, this sharing lowers the energy and causes the atoms to be bound together. (4) In crystals consisting of neutral atoms or molecules where the electrons are bound so tightly that there is little shuring of electrons, the forces are weaker and are called van der Waals forces. These arise primarily from electric dipole interactions. SoBme fluctuating molecules have permanent electric dipoles and interact through to give the binding. these. In other cases, such as in s#olid crystals of argon or neon, there are only dipoles

12.4 SOUND WAVES IN A

CONTIINUOUS

MEDIUM

In discussing physical processes which occur in solicds, two things are of primary interest: first, the properties of the lattice of atoms; and second, the electronic wavefunctions and energy level structure for the outermost atomic electrons. One of the important lattice properties is that of lattice vibrations. These vibrations are oscillations of atoms in the crystal about their equilibrium positions, and are responsible for such diverse phelnomena as sound waves and specific heats at electrical conduction and high temperature; they are also important in limitling some condiltions,

heat conduction. The interaction of electrons with lattice vibrations can, under cause electrons to be bound together in pairs, and can give rise low temperatures. Elect o t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s u p e r c o n d u c t i v i t y a t sufTiciently

trons in crystals play an extremely important role in phenomena such as magnetism, propagation and absorption of light in crystals, and conduction of electricity. In the following two sections we shall discuss the classical and quantum theories of lattice vibrations in crystals and see how they enter into the calculation of the specific heat of a crystal. For purposes of comparison, in the present section we shall consider the classical theory of sound waves in a continuous medium. To describe wave propagation through an elastic medium in classical mechanics, the medium is treated as a continuous one with a mass density p, and a suit-

ably defined elastic constant. The wove equation can then be derived by straightforward application of Newtons laws of motion in an infinitesimal element of the medium. t) to describe the displacement Consider, for example, compressional waves in aI long, thin, elastic, solid rod, as in Figure 12.7. We introduce the variable $(x, from equilibrium at time f of a Floint in the rod whose equilibrium position is x.

348

Solid sfafe physics Displaced positions of points in the rod as the wave passes

Equilibrium positions of points in the rod Figure 12.7. The motion of o long, thin rod, os compressional waves propagate through it, is described by o variable Ic/( x, f), the displaement at time t of a particle where equilibrium position is x. Consider an infinitesimal portion of the rod of length Ax, between x a n d x + Ax a t etquilibrium. Under the action of the wave as it propagates through the rod, this portion of the rod may be stressed so that its length is changed. The change in length will be 31 == #(x + A x , f ) - #(x, t) (12.1)

and the fractional change in length will be

Al G(x + A&f) - e&t) -= ._~_ Mx, f)

AX A X

ax

(12.2)

if Ax is sufficiently s m a l l . T h e p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e t a k e n h e r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e change of length is calculated at a particular time. The fractional change in length, called strain, is related to the elastic constant Y-Youngs modulus-by (1 2.:3) where 7 is the tension in the rod at the point x and A is the cross-sectional area of the rod. The quantity T/A is called stress; it is the force per unit area tending to change the length of the rod. Youngs modulus is thus the stress divided by the fractional change in length of a piece of material. Combining the above two equations, the equation

expresses

the

elastic

property

of

the

rod.

Next, applying Newtons law of motion to the infinitesimal section Ax of the rod, we find that the net force in the positive x direction is

7(x + Ax,t) - T(x,f) N $JAx

(12.5)

72.5 Wove equation

349

This must equal the mass pAAx,

times the acceleration d*$/?t: (12.6)

Thus, differentiating Equation (12.4) and combining with Equation (12.6), obtain the wave equation,

we

(12.7)

I t i s e a s i l y v e r i f i e d t h a t # satisfies this equation if it is any function of x - wt or x + w t , w h e r e w = 6. T h u s , t h e p h a s e s p e e d o f p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e w a v e s will be

w = qp
For a wave which is of the form 4 == #0 cos (kx - wf), w h e r e tiO is a constant, the angular frequency w and wavenumber k of the wave will be related by w = w k = .\/t/p k, where w will be essentially independent of k or w.

12.5 WAVE EQUATION FOR SOUND WAVES IN

A, D I S C R E T E

MEDIUM

Let us now consider sound waves in u crystalline solid to see the effect of having a medium made up of discrete atoms or molecules, rather than a continuously distributed mass. For simplicity, the discussion will be based on the one dimensional crystal-like system shown in Figure 12.8, in which the forces between

Figure 12.8. A one dimensional model of a solid lott~~ce, ~0, connected by springs of spring constont K/a.

consisting of atoms of mass

neighboring atoms are approximated by massless springs. When all the springs are at their equilibrium length a,. the atoms are said to be in their equilibrium positions. The one dimensional siructure pictured is then crystal-like, because it has a simple repetitive, or periodic, structure. If one of the atoms is displaced slightly and then released, it will vibrate about its equilibrium position, and neighboring atoms will start to vibrate because of the elastic forces between

350

Solrd state physics atoms. In CI real crystal, something very similar occurs, but the vibrations take place in three dimension,;. The basic unit is the mass m E pa, connected to neighboring masses by the massless springs of spring constant K/a. The equilibrium spacing of the masses is a. Clearly, /J is the effective mass per unit length, or the linear mass density. If a force tends to compress an object giving CI change in length At, the same force acting on an object half
OS

long would give a change in length A 442;

i.e.

the spring constant would be twice as big. Thus in our case we have chosen to write the spring constant as K/a, so that the spring constant times the length of a n i n d i v i d u a l s p r i n g i s a c o n s t a n t , K , which is independent of length. These springs can be thought of as simulating actual forces between atoms in a crystal for small vibrations. The quuntities K and ~1 for the one dimensional case are

analogous to Y and p for the three dimensional case. We shall consider only ongitudinal motion of the atoms, parallel to the length of the system. Then, in analogy to the displacement variable #(x, t) used in des c r i b i n g w a v e m o t i o n i n ct continuous medium, we define $,,(t) a s t h e d i s p l a c e ment from equilibrium of ihe nib atom in the line. In terms of the spring constant K/a, the force on the nth atom is:

This, force gives the mass bra an acceleration d2#,/dt2. second law for the nth particle,

Hence, using Newtons

There is one such equation for each atom in the line of atoms, corresponding to different values of the index n. The above set of coupled differential equations is closely related to the wave e q u a t i o n , E q u a t i o n (12.7),: in the limit of infinitesimally small spacing a, Equation

(12.10) reduces to Equation (12.7). Let us see how this happens. In the limit of small a, the distance na must be replaced by the corresponding distance x of the atom from some reference position. Then,

a Similarly,

-l 0lim002 [W. - #n-l) + (#. - #+, )]

= lim 1 a(x) 0 -0 a1 ax
Also, d2#Jdt2 (12.10) becomes:

W(x + -_~--0) l-- a'+

ax ax2
a$./&.

(12.12)

is the time derivative at a certain particle, so it becomes a Hence, Equation

derivative at constant x, or the partial derivative

12.6 .SoJutions

of the wove equation

351

a4 CL a+ --:: -dx 2 K at2

and the phase speed will be given by w = v%/P.

(12.13)

In the model for lattice vibrations which we are using here, a is small-of the order of a few Angstroms-but finite. We would expect variations from the continuous wave solutions when the wavelength is comparable to a. We must return to Equation (12.10) and find solutions valid for all n and all t, for fnnite a.

6 SOLUTIONS OF THE WAVE EQUATION FOR THE DISCRETE MEDIUM

Equation (12.13) has solutions for continuous x and for a definite frequency w, of the form: # = A, cos (kx + wt i- ul) w h e r e AI,A2., cp, a n d and find positive is 1c, = A cos kx cos (wt + a) where @ is an arbitrary phase constl>nt. In the discrete case, on the other hand, the variable na corresponds to the position variable x. This leads us to attempt to find solutions for the discrete equation of motion, Equation (12.10), of a form similar to the above but with x replaced by no. Here we shall consicler only standing wave solutions. let us then try the function 4,(f) = A cos (kna) cos (wt + P) (12.16) (12.15) x + A2 cos (kx - wt + (~2) and w = w k = of such solutions, (12.14) V%/P k. one can wave

(p2 a r e a r b i t r a r y c o n s t a n t s , respectively. standing By superposition for

Here, the terms in Al and A2 correspond to waves propagating directions, solutions representing waves; example, one

in the negative standing

solution

i n E q u a t i o n (12.10), to see if we can obtain a solution. Then on the left side of Equation (12.110), -#+l among other terms, the quantity, A cos(wt + [co:, a) (km + k a ) + c o s (km - k a ) ] + p) + cos(B - CP ) = 2 cos (12.17) 6 cos (0,

--I/-, := -

occurs. The trigonometric identity cc~s(B w i t h 0 = km and CP = ko, then gives us: -$,+1 Hence, -#-I =

-214 cos(wt

(P)cos(kna)cos ka

(12.18) the

w h e n #. of Equation (12.lti)

is substituted into Equation (12.10),

factor A cos(kna)cos(wt

+ a) occurs in each term. This substitution gives us

-t

[ A cos(kna)cos(wt + +)I[2 - 2 c o s ka] = pa 9

= jm[ - - w2A cos(kno)

cos (wt + CD)]

(12.19)

352

&lid state physics T h i s e q u a t i o n i s s a t i s f i e d i f w2 = 2Kj/.~a~(l 2 sin2(Yz r9), - - c o s k o ) . S i n c e 1 - co!;0 =

the relationship between w and k may be written in the form:

W2

(12.20)

This equation has two solutions for w which are opposite in sign. Only the positive
solution for w need be considered, so with the choice of the positive square root, this solution for the possible frequencies may be written as: (12.21) Thus substitution of the assumed solution, Equation (12.16), into the differential

equation gives us a solution if w and k are related in a certain way given by Equation (12.21). Such a relation between frequency and wave number is c:alled (I (,wt dispersion + @). A graph of the dispersion relation, Equation (12.21), is given in Figure 12.9.

relation. The same dispersion relation would have resulted it we had

worked with any of the other standing wave solutions, such as B sin(kno) cos

The corresponding dispersion relation for the continuous medium, w = v%/, k,

l,~,,l,,,,l,~,,l,,,,l,,,,I,,,,~ 2/c ll/a

IFigure 12.9. Graph of the dispersion relation, Equation (12.21), f o r waves o n o o n e tdimensronol linear chain of atoms, connected by springs. Dotted line is the dispersion relation for a continuous Imedium, Equation (12.7). ils indicated by dashed lines on the same graph. Thus it can be seen that for k << I/a (long wavelengths), the phase speed w = w/k = m is approximately

a constant, and i s the same

for the continuous and discrete media. For

large value.

k in the real solid, the phase speed deviates appreciably from this colnstant

12.7 NUMBER OF SOLUTIONS

To count up the total r,umber of physically different possible standing wave solu-

tions, we note first that from Equation (12.21), it is evident that the frequency w

12.7 Number of solufions

is a periodic function of k, with a maximum value of: (12.22) The frequency w of Equation (12.21) is unchanged if ,k is changed to -k or if k is changed to (27r/a) - k. likewise, #. = A cos (kna) cos (wf + a) for a fixed n is the same for these changes in k. Therefore, we can restrict the discussion to values of k in the region 0 to r/a, since we get nothing new by taking a k outside that region. For larger values of 1k / , t h e w a v e l e n g t h s

353

2r/k would be shorter

than the lattice spacing; this would be

meaningless, since there are no atoms this The

close together to vibrate with such wavelengths. M a n y s o l i d s h a v e w a v e s p e e d s a t l o w f r e q u e n c i e s o f a r o u n d 103m/sec. spacing, a, between atoms is around 2 x 10-m. possible angular frequency of a wave propagating in such a solid is then:
2 --~5l!E = = 103 se,: - 1

/In estimate of the highest

W mox

lo-I0

The speed of sound differs by only (about 1% from its low frequency value at 4 x 10 cps. Thus in the audible range, zero to 20,001O cps, the speed of sound in a solid is essentially independent of frequency. #.. Once these are Up to this point, we have specified neither the size of the one dimensional crystal nor the boundary condition:, on the displacements specified, even in classical mechanics a discrete set of values of k results. If, as in the discussion of the density of states in Chapter 11, we impose periodic boundary conditions at the ends of a periodicity region of length Na = L, then for # = A cos(kna)
c o s (wt

+ a), w e w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t

# n+N

= #

(12.23)

Here N is the number of masses, or crystal cells, in the length 1. Equation (12.23) results in: cos(kna This means that kNa = or kL = 2 m x (12.25) + kNa) = cos(kna) (12.24)

k=?!!?
Na

m = 0,1,2,...

Theother s t a n d i n g w a v e s o l u t i o n s , J/A = B sin kna cos (ot + a), w o u l d g i v e t h e s e some values for k. The independent values of k lie in the range 0 to $-a/a, corresponding to m ranging from 0 through % N for even N, or 0 through % (N - 1) for odd N. T h e v a l u e s k = r/a and k = 0 give nothing for the solution $A = B sin (kna)

354

Solid state physics c:os(wt + a), s i n c e : sin (0) = sin ( Tna a ) = 0 (12.27)

for any n. Then for even N there are % N - 1 solutions for the solution $:, a n d 14 N + 1 s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e s o l u t i o n #,, = A cos(kna) c o s (wt + a). T h u s t h e r e are N different states. likewise, N states occur for odd N. The number of different oscillation states (or normal modes, as they are called in classical mechanics) is equal to the number of movable atoms in the fundamental periodicity region. Also, rili ,.,+, if other types of boundary conditions were used, such as requiring =: #0 = 0 for fixed endpoints, the number of different modes of oscillation

w o u l d e q u a l t h e numbcsr of degrees of freedom of the system. In this case, the number of degrees of freedom would equal the number of movable masses or cells, N. Imposition of the periodic boundary conditions for the one dimensional (chain corresponds to taking the long chain of N atoms and bending it into a circle, so that one end fits onto the other. If N is sufficiently large, the slight curvature introduced into the chain has negligible effect on the equations of motion. A wave propagating out past one end, however, must then propagate back in from the other end.

12.8 LINEAR CHAIN WITH TWO MASSES PER UNIT CELL

To see the effects of introducing internal degrees of freedom in the crystal cell, we next consider a slightly more complicated one dimensional crystal with two inequivalent atoms in ench repeated unit. The chain is diagramed in Figure 12.10; the alternate masses are denoted by pa and 1011 and Ma, and the distance between sucand Ma

cessive masses of similclr type is a. The distance between neighboring masses Ma pa is a/2, and the displacements from equilibrium of the masses pa are denoted by $r, #y, respectively. The springs connecting the masses are

assumed to have the same spring constant K/a. The crystal ceil is one com-

plete unit from which ithe whole crystal can be built by repetition; hence, in this

K/a

K/a

K/a

K/a

K/o

K/a

K/a

K/a

K/a

Figure 12.10.

linear chain with two dissimilar atoms per unit cell.

12.8 Linear chain

case, the cell width or lattice constcznt is a, and the c:ell contains two masses: pa, Ma, and two springs. let us assume that the displacement of the nth mass pa is J/y = Al COS(~~~)COS(O~ and the displacement of the nth mass Ma is #!, = The Newtonian equations of A2 cos[k(n + moticn are: - $r) - #gi,) - $;i, - I,&;) way to: (12.30) Vi )a]cos(wt + a) -I- a) (12.28)

355

(12.29)

~ad2$~)/df2 Mad$(.?)/dt These equations of motion lead

= -(K/a)(2#i) = -(K/a)(2#k2) in a

straightforward

A,(w2po

- f) +

A.@cos;

ka) =

A ,

[$os ; ka;) +

A2cu2Ma - f) = 0

(12.31)

For these two equations to be consistent, the determinant of the coefficients of Al and A2 must vanish. The resulting dispersion + relation is (12.32)

a4pMw The solutions

- 2K02(p + M)02

4K2 sin; k a = 0

#a) = 6, s i n (kna) c o s (wt + +a) $L would lead to this same =

B2

sin k n + 1

dispersion

I 211
relationship. -. -

a cos (wt The

+ a) solution!; for

(12.33) w are:

positive

w,

= ,

&Fqk). --$sin2iki

(12.34)

For long wavelengths, w + and w -

ti

ka << 1, the solutions may be approximated by: 1 a -.~ k2a2

(12.35)

1 E -

(12.36) - k.

Note that again w is unchanged in changing k to -k, or to 2ir/a

356

Solid state physics

12.9 ACOUSTIC AND OPTICAL BRANCHES

Sketches of crw+ m and aw- *K for the special case M = 2~ are given in Fig. 12.11. There are now two branches to the w versus k curve. In general, if there are 4, masses per cell that differ in mass or geometry, or that have different w

*/o
&lure 12.11. The two b r a n c h e s o f t h e d i s p e r s i o n relation f o r o linear chain o f o+c,ms, with two dissimilar atoms per unit cell,

forces acting upon them, there will be 4, branches to the curve. In the one dimensional case, only one of tllese curves will pass through the origin w = 0 at k = 0. This branch is called the acoustic branch because for small k it describes the sound waves to which we are accustomed. The other branches lie at frequencies of the order of lOi3 cps. Electromagnetic infrared waves also are in this frequency range, and although lattice vibrations are not electromagnetic waves, these branches are called optical branches. The high-frequency branches have been detected experimerltally in absorption experiments with infrared light, and also by low energy neutron scattering experiments. Each branch is periodic iin k and if periodic boundary conditions are applied, it can be shown, as in the discussion following Equaticon (10.26), that each branch has N modes if N is the number of cells (not necessarily the number of masses). While our discussion has been for one dimensional spring-like forces, a three dimensional discussion with more realistic forces leads to very similar results. Instead of a single k, there is then a vector k with three components. There are still acoustic and optical modes with the number of modes per branch equal to the number of cells in the crystal. The cell now has three characteristic lengths and has a volume. Likewise, the zone giving the independent values of k is a volume in three dimensional k-space. The main change is that now, in addition to the longitudinal modes, there are transverse modes in which the actual motion of the atoms is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Consider, for instance, the two dimensional array shown in Figure 12.12. If the nth column of atoms is pulled downward uniformly, it exerts forces on the n + 1 column, giving rise to wave propagation to the right with vertical displacement. Of course, the longitudinal modes exist also. In three dimensions, for a given direction of k there can be displacements either parallel to k or displacements in two

12. J 0 Energy of lotfice vibrations

357

h .- 1

"

n+1

Figure

12.12.

Two dimensional solid, consisting of atoms connected by springs. In addi-

tion to the longitudinal (compressional) waves supported by a linear chain, this model con support transverse (shear) waves. directions perpendicular to k. Thus, for each longitudinal branch, there are two transverse branches; a branch may be either acoustic or optical. (Actually, for on onisotropic crystal with different properties in different directions, the various branches or modes of definite tudinal nor purely transverse, but freaiuency a mixture are, of in general, neither purely longithe two.)

0 ENERGY OF LATTICE VIBRATIONS

N o w we shall r etu r n to th e co nsideratio n o f the simple line ar c h a in , Fi g u re 12.8, in order to discuss the similarity between lattice vibrations and a collection of simple harmonic oscillators. Equation (12.10), were found to be of The solutions to the equation of rrlotion, the form: #. = A c o s k n a cos(wt + a)) $L = 8 sill k n a cos(wt + a) (12.37)

and by superposition of these solutions, one can describe all possible wave motions of the atoms in the crystal lattice. The essential feature of a normal mode solution is that all the atoms vibrate with the same frequency. In a standing wave, successive atoms in the line would vibrate with slightly different amplitudes, but the vibrations would be in phase. (In a running wave the amplitudes could all be equal, but the phase could change slightly from one atom to the next.) The changes in vibration amplitude from one atom to the next are described by the factors cos kna or sin kna in the above solutions. The time-dependence for a// atoms is contained entirely in the factor A cos(ot + @). Thus, the factor A cos(wt + a) describes, in a colle,:tive variable q(t), sense, the simultaneous vibrations of all the atoms in the crystal. We can, in fact, introduce a collective displacement and write the solution $ as: #. = ~2 c o s k n a qw(t) (12.38)

The factor ais for convenience. If we had assumed a solution of this form instead of Equation (12.16), in which the time-dependence is given explicitly, then

358

Solid state physics upon substitution into the equations of motion we would have immediately found that

q*(t)

must

satisfy

the

differential

equation

of

the

harmonic

oscillator, (12.39)

d2q 2 + w2q, = 0 dt2

where w is given by Equation (12.21). Thus fi placement variable of a single oscillator.

q,,(t) = A cos (at + a)

is the

most general real solution of such an equation. Let IJS think of qU(t) as the disSince the displacement of each particle in the lattice is proportional to q-(t), each has a kinetic energy proportional to (dq,/dt). Therefore, the total kinetic energy T of the lattice is some number C times 1 =

(dq,/dt)2,
+ @a)

or

A2Cw2sin2(ot

C is constant in time. Since total energy-kinetic plus potential energy--is conserved, the total energy is a constant in time and the total potential energy Imust t h e r e f o r e b e % ACwcos(wt + a) = C wqi. The kinetic energy and potential energy of the crystal for this mode are thus the same as for a harmonic oscillator of displacement cl,, f r e q u e n c y w, m a s s 2C, a n d s p r i n g c o n s t a n t 2Cw. satisfies the harmonic oscillator equation d*q,/df +

(Also, q,
2C.

wq, = 0).

Hence, the whole lattices appears similar to a single harmonic oscillator of mass We will show that this mass is Npa, the total mass of the chain of atoms. Let us examine the t,>taI kinetic energy of the lattice, to find C. The kinetic energy is, from Equation (12.38),

N-l = C
n=O If the phase kna in cos!(kna)

(12.40)

varies over a large number of values as n goes kinetic energy is therefore simply: (12.41)

from 0 to N - 1, we would expect that in the summation the square of cos(kna) could be replaced by its average value, % . The

Ini fact, this can easily be proved to be exact by writing cos(kna) e -kna), Elquation tnass using the formula for the sum of a geometric series,and (12.26),

as % (e + noting that by

= 2mT/Na,

where m is an integer. This kinetic energy is

exactly the same as that of a single harmonic oscillator of displacement qw a n d Npa, which is the mass of the entire lattice. Hence 2C = Nya. The total energy is thus: +q2 dt ) + Jqz,

E(w) = 1 +

:paN

Both in the equation of motion, and in the expression for the energy, the variable q,--which in a sense describes the motion of all the masses in the crystal displacement for this particular mode-is effectively a simple harmonic oscillator

(121.42)

72.7 7 Superposition of modes variable. Since the Schrodinger equation is obtained from the energy expression,

359

the importance of Equation (12.42) c a n b e p a r t i a l l y recognized of lattice vibrations. This will be discussed in the following section.

trom the ease

with which one may utilize Equation (12.42) to obtain the quantum description

I ENERGY FOR A SUPERPOSITION OF MODES

The above expression, Equation (12.42), for lattice vibration energy was derived

for a single mode. The question arises as to whether, when several modes are excited simultaneously in the crystal, the total energy will be the sum of individual contributions from each mode. That this is so may be seen from the following argument. Suppose that the displacement were a superposition of the form: (12.43)

riin =

fiq,, cos(klna) +

~2 qw2 cos(kzna) =

$(w,) +

#n(w:!)

Then the kinetic energy has the form:

1
n
The cross product summation = involves: c cos(k,na)cos(kzna) n 0

2 + 2~-drl/n(w,) d$.(e)
dt dt (12.44) + kz)na] + cos[(k, - kz)no]j (12.45)

= J(u,) + J(w~) + $a.2C .yT!!!$!d

i c (cos[(k,

Since kr # kz, one would expect the cosines to oscillate as n changes and hence to average out to zero. That this surr of a geometric series. Likewise, eve11 the solutions, proportional to cos(kna) product terms never contribute to the the potential energy. Therefore, if 13 is exactly zero can be shown by again exand using the equation for the sum for equal frequencies the cross product of and sin(kna), sum to zero. Thus the cross kinetic energy. A similar argument holds for number of modes are excited, the total pressing the cosines as sums of exponentials,

energy is just the sum of the energies of the individual modes. Thus the normal modes in a sense act like independent particles. Although all the atoms in the lattice participate in a normal vibratl,on mode, the various normal modes do not interfere with each other in any way, even though a great many of them may be present; and the total energy of the system, which is basically a sum of kinetic and potential energies of individual particles, can also be written as a simple sum of energies of the individual normal modes. It is this last fact that makes normal modes so useful.

360

Solid state physics

12.12 QUANTUM THEORY OF HARMONIC OSCILLATORS AND LATTICE VIBRATIONS

All our previous discussion was based on Newtonian mechanics. We wish ,to see now what modificatiorls orise in quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the SchrGdinger equation describing stationary states (states of definite energy) is the energy E in terms of the coordinates and the moand so forth.

o b t a i n e d b y expressin,

menta, then replacing the momentum component pX b y -iM/r3x,

The resulting expression is then a differential operator which acts on the wavefunction. In calculating the energy contributed by one normal mode of a lattice ,vibration, ,vibrotions, turn t h e effectivt? c o o r d i n a t e i s q, and the mass is Npa. dq,/dt. The effective momenmomentum is then Nwa Thus, in treating the quantum theory of lattice

one would expect that in the energy expression the effective

should be replaced by letting (12.46)

This can be shown rigorously from the

foctthat

/.~a d$,/dt,

the classical moWe

lmentum of the ith particle, is replaced by -iFta/c?$, shall not prove this here, however. The energies of

, and the fact that in general, the lattice vibrations in quan-

1+5 is a superposition of terms of different frequencies proportional to qw. tum mechanics are, then, found from the quantum mechanical

discussion of the

one dimensional harmonic oscillator of mass N/.Lu a n d a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y w. From the study of the simple harmonic oscillator of spring constant k a n d m a s s m in Chapter 7, it will be recalled that in Newtonian mechanics the energy of the oscillator is (12.47) and the natural angular frequency of oscillation is (12.48) Iln solving the SchrGdinger equation for this system, it was found that only dkcrete

energies of the system were possible, given by

E, = (n + % )hw

(12.49)

w h e r e n is a positive integer or zero. These energy levels ore equally spaced; the minimum possible energy is E.

= % fto, and is called the zero

point

energy. (12.47),

In quantum mechanics, whenever a system has energies which can be written in a form corresponding t o that of a simple harmonic oscillator, Equation the gies, T energies (n will be quantized The according possible to Equation (12.49). energy of the crystal is

In the case of lattice vibrations, each normal mode then has the possible ener+ % )hw. smallest vibrational
2 N modes % hw. While our discussion was for a one dimensional crystal, except for

1 2 . 1 3 Phonons
the fact that k becomes a vector and additional palarizatians are possible, all these results still hold far a three dimensional crystal.

361

e I f t h e a v e r a g e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y 103/sec, crystal? n Z e r o P a i n t E n e r g y ?? %iic~N = = 50 joules.

w of the normal modes in a crystal is about

t h e n u m b e r o f c e l l s i n a c r y s t a l o f r e a s o n a b l e s i z e i s 1023, a n d

A z 10-34i-sec, what is the order of magnitude of the zero paint energy of the

/z (l0~)(10)(10)

e If the binding energy of the crystal is of the order of 1eV p e r a t o m , w h a t i s t h e order of magnitude of the ratio of the zero paint energy ta the binding energy?

*leVe 1 . 6 x 10~19 % hw % (10-3")(lo'3)

h, 3oo

I PHONONS; AVERAGE ENERGY PER MODE AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE

Frequently, it is convenient (though not strictly correct) ta think of the quantum number n in the energy expression, (n + % )hw, as meaning the number of particles of sound, called phanans. Thus, if due ta an interaction of a lattice v i b r a t i o n m a d e w i t h a n e l e c t r o n , n i n c r e a s e s b y An, w e s a y t h a t &I p h a n a n s were waves created. rather Usually, than phanans are thought of in association with traveling sound standing waves. ,ta motions of atoms can be found from a

The specific heat of a solid due

knowledge of the relationship between w a n d Baltzmann factor of statistical mechanics e -E,/knr ~= e (n +

far the lattice vibrations. The

far one made is

1/2)hw/kgT

(12.50)

This factor gives us the relative prabmclbility acterized by the eigenvalue E, of energy.

of finding the solid in the state char-

At high temperatures, when k*T ir, large compared with the average of Aw, then the Baltzmann factor e~(c2)hk~r I S slowly varying far small changes in n, a n d m a n y s t a t e s a r e e x c i t e d . T h e quantizatian of energy should then be of no significance, and one could as well describe the crystal in terms of the classical oscillators. Far a simple crystal containing one male of atoms (No atoms) in No unit cells, there are 3iVo modes of oscillation (since there are 1 longitudinal and 2 transverse modes per atom). By thle equipartitian of energy theorem, each of the quadratic terms proportional ta qi a n d made, contributes an average energy of % the total energy is (dq,/dt) in the energy of one

ksT

ta the total crystal energy. Thus,

3Nok8T

= 3R1,

and the heat capacity per male is 3R. This

is called the Wang-Petit law, and it agrees well with experiment far mast solids. Far very law temperatures, only ttie lowest frequencies can give a Baltzmann factor much different from zero. In calculating a thermal average ta find the

362

Solid state physics average total energy, we have to average over all states of the system. This i n v o l v e s a n a v e r a g e o v e r a l l t h e q u a n t u m s t a t e s w i t h e n e r g y (n + % )Ftw f o r a given mode, and then a sum over all modes of various frequencies. The average energy for a given mode is

(12.51)

w i t h E, = (n + % )hw. The summation in the denominator D is

D=e

-I,21u,k87~ n=O

(e-Xw{k,T)n

(12.52)

and therefore simply involves a geometric series. Thus, the standard formula for the sum of an infinite geometric series, B.=,,a = l/(1 - a) for 1 a / < 1 , ( g i v e s for the denominator: C = e - 112 Wkg 7,( 1 _. e -*u/kg 7 ). The reader can easily verify from Equation out the (12.51) frequlsncy that (E)mode the = (l/D) (dD/d(-l/k,T)], contributed by
SO

that after mode-

carrying

differentiations,

average

energy

one

or by phonons of

w-is

f
12.14 LATTICE SPECIFIC HE:AT OF A SOLID
N e x t , w e w a n t t o s u m o v e r t h e v a r i o u s m o d e s f o r a g i v e n l o n g i t u d i n a l o r tlransverse polarization, to find the average total energy for that given polarizotion. In discussing statistical mechanics, we found the density of states for particles by considering periodic boundary conditions on a wavefunction of the type exp[i(k,x + k,y + k,z)]; and we found that the number of states in an element ot momentum space and volume V of ordinary space was Vdk, dk, dk, = Vdpx dp, dpz ~-h3 (12.54)

(W3

where, in that case, p =: hk. Here, we could write the spatial dependence of the p h o n o n w a v e f u n c t i o n s ,for running waves as an exponential of this same form, and a similar applicaticln of periodic boundary conditions would lead to: Vdk, dk, dk,

PI3
for the number of states of each polarization. This can also be seen easily by generalizing Equation (12.26) to the three dimensional case. Since E. = /2

h(k)

72.74

Lattice specific heat

363

is the minimum possible energy of each mode and does not change when more phonons are created in that mode, it is of more physical interest to calculate the average of the difference .IE, = E, - Eo = ntrw from the zero point or ground state energy. This average is (112.56)

Since only the lowest frequencies contribute at low temperatures, we can assume that w is in the acoustic brclnch, i.e. depends linearly on 1k ( . If we are dealing with the longitudinal mode, then we may assume that for small w,

where wlis the speed of propagation of that mode, at low frequencies, which might differ from the speed of propagation of the transverse acoustic modes. Since w is a function of the magrlitude of k, we can choose a spherical shell in

k space of radius k and thickness

dk, for the element of volume, and write:

d k , dk, d k , - - 4rkdk

(12.58)

Since k = w/w C, this becomes:

dkx

d kY

d 2k

-+ %du w,;

(12.59)

and similarly for the two transverse modes with speed wt. Thus, (A,!!) has the form of

( A E ) := I- w3f(w/J)dw 0
where f (w/J) = 2

(12.60)

l=l WksT _ ,

is a function of the ratio w/J. While the range of w is actually finite, we have, for simplicity, taken the upper limit to be infinity for temperatures low enough so that ksJ << hw,,,. Then the factor l/(ekBr - 1) makes the integrand negligible for the large frequencies. Thus at LDW temperatures, (12.61)

(AE) = const. x T4 $,~~)f(~)d(~)

= const. x J4

The integral involved is the same IJS was encountered in the discussion of black body radiation in Chapter 11, and has the value a4/15. We may then evaluate the constant of proportionality to obtain: (12.62)

364

Solicl sfate physics

I f 1E i s p r o p o r t i o n a l .io .T a t l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e n t h e h e a t c a p a c i t y d .I,E /d7at to low temperatures is proportional to T3. These results agree well for substances heat the at low limiting where the at phonon In low energy high gives the the primary contemperatures. Figure and 12.13 specific heat C, with is experiments

tribution

specific showing

plotted,

behavior

temperatures.

T/O Iigure 12.13.

Specific heat at constant volume, due to lattice vibrations in o solid.

12.15 ENERGY BANDS OF ELECTRONS IN CRYSTALS

In electric conduction, hesat light, index of refraction,

conduction, the photoelectric effect, absorption of and many other phenomena, the effects are

magnetism,

primarily dependent on the behavior of electrons in solids. In this section we shall discuss some of the properties of wavefunctions and of the energies of electrolns in crystals. To get an intuitive idea of the structure of the energy levels of the electrons, let us consider a sodium crystal and begin by imagining the atoms very far apart, so that the wavefunction due to an electron on one atom is negligible at poslitions (one per atom) on all the atoms the of those atoms closest to it. Also, we will start with the outer electrons in their lowest energy state, except for some olne

electron which we single out to investigate. This one electron could be in any olne of tile energy states of its atom, and for each such energy there are two possible orientations of the electron spin. Also, if there are N atoms, there are N possible atoms in which the excited electron can be found. Thus, for any one atomic energy level there are, ir general, at least 2N distinguishable states for this electron. As the atoms are brought nearer to each other to form the actual crystal, electroniic wavefunctions start to overlap, and one can no longer say that an electron is associated with any one atom. Then the 2N energy states, derived from any one single atomic state, will ordinarily develop into 2N states that differ slightly frorn each other, and have energies that are slightly different. Therefore, a band of energies results containing 2N states. In the final crystal, the electrons will have

an energy band structure, the bands being derived from the single atomic energy states and each band containing 2N closely spaced energy states.

72.76 Blochs theorem

365

!.16 BLOCHS THEOREM

Now, utilizing the translational symmetry of a crystal, we will find some properties of the electron wavefunctions, and we will show more rigorously that energy bands occur with 2N states per band. An electron in the crystal sees pri-

marily the Coulomb potential energy of interaction with the atomic nuclei of the crystal, and the Coulomb potential energies of interaction with other electrons. We will assume, as is usually done, that the other electrons can be treated as a continuous charge distribution which, because of the electrons interactions with atomic nuclei of the lattice, has the spatial periodicity of the lattice. Thus, the overall potential energy has the periodicity of the lattice. Again for simplicity, let us trea,t a one dimensional lattice. Then, if V(x) is the periodic potential energy and a is the lattice spacing, V(x + a) = V(x). The one dimensional Schrgdinger equtgtion f o r t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n G(x) of the electron is

Tlz a+(x) _--2 m ax2

+ V(xM(x) = W(x)

(12.63)

If x is replaced by x + a in the above equation, dx ----+ changed. However, all we can say about $(x) the wave equation becomes h2

dx, so the kinetic energy

operator is unchanged. Also, V(x + a) = V(x), so the potential energy is unis that it becomes ,$(x + a); hence

2m

az+tx + ax 2

a)

V(x)#(x

a )

= E$(x +

a )

(12.64)

T h e w a v e f u n c t i o n IF/(x + a) therefore satisfies the same equation, with the same energy E, as does $(x). Now we can make an argument very similar to that made in discussing the exclusion principle in Chapter 9, to derive information about the possible form of the electron wavefunction. Since the point x, and the point x + a, are physically equivalent, we expect that it is possible for the elect r o n d e n s i t i e s a t t h e t w o p o i n t s t o b e t h e s a m e . T h u s , w e e x p e c t t h a t a wavefunction q(x) m a y b e f o u n d s u c h t h a t # * ( x ) $ ( x ) = $*(x + a)#(x + a). This can only be true if # is of the form $(x + a ) = eik#(x) (12.65) and

where ka is some real constant. That is, if two complex numbers G(x) IF/(x

+ a) have equal absolute values, they can differ by at most a multiplicative

p h a s e f a c t o r , w h i c h w e h a v e w r i t t e n i n t h e f o r m elk. The phase factor cannot depend on the coordinates, for then both Equations (12.63) and (12.64) could not simultaneously be satisfied. Likewise, then,

$(x + 2a) = e$(x + a) = e@)+(x)

J/(x + 3 a ) = ek(31 J/(X);. ;#(x + n a ) = (e)+(x) (12.66)

366

Solid sfofe physics for n an integer. The result i s t h a t u p o n t r a n s l a t i n g b y a n a m o u n t n o , t h e wavef u n c t i o n is, IF/(x + no) = ~ek(na) G(x) a n d h e n c e i s c h a n g e d o n l y b y a m u l t i p l i c a tive factor. One such function that has this property is $(x) Thus, if in this function x
IS

= eki

(12.67) tunction becomes e n elrX.

replaced by x + a, the

This function therefore satisfies: #(x + a ) = e+(x) (12.6~8)

[but will not satisfy the Schrldinger equation unless V(x) = constant]. Suppose we multiply elkX by u(x), w h ere u has the property u(x + a ) = u ( x ) , i . e . u ( x ) h a s the periodicity of the lattice. Thus we set l)(x) Theln elk( ) u(x + a ) = eLXu(x) (12.69)

= t!koeikiu ( x ) = e$ (x). This is, in fact, the most general

function that has the desired periodicity property expressed in Equation (12.65). Thus the wavefunction can be chosen to have the general form, l)(x) = ekxu(X) (12.70)

w h e r e u(x + a) = u(x). In three dimensions, similar reasoning gives us +(r) = eku(r) where u(r) has the periodicity of the lattice. This is called the Bloch fact that the wavefunction takes this simple form allows many performed in a relatively simple fashion. (12.71) theorem. Tile to be

calculations

12.17 NUMBERS OF BLOCH FUNCTIONS PER BAND

Once again considering the one dimensional case, Equation (12.65), let us apply

boundary conditions to find the number of possible different values of k. Tlqe boundary condition we will impose is the periodic boundary condition, w h i c h states that #(x) hartdly at one side of the crystal is the same as at the opposite side. In = I~(X + No). While periodic boundary conditions are our case, this is q(x)

related to actual physical boundary conditions, they are simple to use and

will give the correct number of values of k; this is because, as in the similar problem of lattice vibrations and in the previous discussion of statistical mechanics, the number of values of k is not sensitive to the particular boundary conditions. Since u(x + No) = u(x) from the periodicity of u(x), the condition q(x) = $(x + Na) means that e or
,k(x+No)

= e

,kx

(12.72) 27rn, where n is a

tlhat elkNo
or

= 1. But, in general, if integer k = or zero.

e = 1, @ m u s t e q u a l Thus, R = 0,+1,*2,...

positive

negative

2rtr/Na,

(12.73)

12.18

Types of bonds

367

While these values of k are the only possible ones, not all these values are physically distinct. Suppose, for example, we consider two possible values, k and k + 2?r/a. T h e n e4k+W4~ = e e 2*xa (12.74)

T h e n , w h e n a t r a n s l a t i o n x -+ x + a is performed, the function e* + e*O, and so is unchanged; i.e. it has the periodicity of the lattice. Thus, e2*Xa equivalent physically to k. We can then restrict could zone: be taken as part of u(x), since it has the lattice periodicity. Hence k + 27r/a i s

to lie within the Brillouin

This tions.

is

very Here it

similar meons

to

the

restriction allowed

on

which

arose

in

discussing twice the

lattice lattice

vibraspac-

that

wavelengths

shorter

than

ing are included in the function u(x); the exponential e varies only with wavelengths greater than twice the lattice spacing. The Bloch theorem thus separates the spatial variation of the electron wavefunction into a long-wavelength (slowly varying) part and part a short-wavelength is needed. (rapidly varying) part: the long-wavelength part, e, is completely determined. In many calculations, it is only this long-wavelength that The restriction (12.75) on k, along with the possible values of k from Equat i o n (12.73), means that the total number of independent values of n, and thus of k, is N, the number of unit cells. As n changes by unity, we can expect the energy to change slightly. Thus, as only by solving the Schrtidinger Eqluation

changes slightly, and

changes over its range,

we get a band of energies. The actual values of the energies can be obtained (12.63) i n a p e r i o d i c p o t e n t i a l . T h i s i s ordinarily very difficult. For each k,

ithe

spin of the electron can have two orienta-

tions. Then the number of states per band is 2N. Likewise, for a three dimensional crystal with N c e l l s t h e r e a r e 2N stlgtes per band, in agreement ,with t h e q u a l i tative reasoning in Section 12.15.

8 TYPES OF BANDS
There will be an infinite number of energy bands in a crystal, but only a relatively small number correspond to bound states which are important in explaining normal crystal properties. The enercgy E(k) = E is a function of

and can be compli-

cated. Some possibilities are indicated in Figure 12.14. One simplification is that

E(-k).

This can be shown from the fact that, except for $, Equation = e(x) i s a w a v e f u n c t i o n , 1+5*(x) = e-u*(x)

(12.63) is real. Hence, if rc/(x) is a solution with the same

E.

Note the similarity between graphing

versus k

here, and graphing w versus k for lattice vibrations. In some cases there will be an energy gap (or minimum energy difference) between bands, such as tween for the bands 3 and in 4 the of Figure 12.14, which are corresponds typically of to the energies order not of electron crystal. Such gaps

E,

be-

allowed

magnitude

of an electron volt. In other cases the bands may overlap, such as in bands 1, 2 and 3, or bands 4 and 5 of the figure.

368

Solid sfofe physics

Figure 12.14.

Diagram illustrating o number of different possibilities for electron energy

bands in crystals.

12.19 EFFECTIVE MASS IN A BAND

For a free particle, E = % p/m, w h e r e p is the momentum and m is the mass. The free-particle wavef#Jnction is proportional to e in one dimension, where E = (1% A*/m)k. N o w i f Q m i n i m u m o r k = p/Ii. T h u s f o r t h e f r e e p a r t i c l e , maximum occurs at k =

ko

for the electron energy

E(k) k

in a crystal band, then

when k is near this minimum or maximum, i.e. when

- ko is small, the energy in

the band as a function of k - k,, may be similar to that for the free particle: E ( k ) where a Ee + cu(k - kg) (12.76) w h e r e m * is

ED

a n d a ore constants. Let us then rewrite o a s fi h2/m*, Then, near ttle maximum or minimum,

constant.

E(k) E E. + FA: (k - kO) ( )

of an effective mass, m* = ii2 2a
OS

(12.77)

Comparison with the energy expression for the free particle leads one to the idea

(12.78) a free particle of mass m*, ,with

In a sense, the electron can then be treated m a s s i s n e g a t i v e , a n d nfear does) vary with direction in direction. The concept of

no periodic potential energy present. Near a maximum of energy, the effective a minimum, the effective mass is the more familiar positive quantity. In three dimensions, where

is a vector, 01 in

may (and frequently densities of states

space, so that the effective mass is a function of mass is useful calculating

effective

and in discussing phenomena in applied electric and magnetic fields, for situa-

72.20 Conductors, insulators, semiconductors

tions in which particles near the minimum or maximum of energy contribute significantly to the effect. n/e Suppose that for the one dimensional case,

369

E =

(1 - c o s k a ) ma2 0 = 1 - % 8 + . .. , can be used. A similar and at the minimum

For small ka, the expansion, cos

e x p a n s i o n n e a r k a = 7r c a n b e usecl by noting that cos 19 = -cos(a - 0). Find the effective mass at the energy maximum (k = r/a), (k = 0).

on Forka <

<

1,E =

51 -{I - ~11

h2k2 %- , 2m For 1 s kal << 1,

m*=m

~5 = %I +
ma2

cos(ka -

r)l
m* = -m

h,%(k 2h2
ma2

r/a) ___-

2171

0 CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS

Since the Pauli exclusion principle applies to electrons, in solids it is important to use Fermi-Dirac statistics for the electrons rather than classical statistics. This is, first, because the number of states tper b a n d ( w h i c h e q u a l s t w i c e t h e n u m b e r o f cells) is comparable to the number of outer atomic electrons. Secondly, the energy spread within a band is comparable to electron volts, whereas ksT a t room temperature is about l/40 eV. Then the electrons will fill up the various different states in a band, and their average energy will be around an electron volt. Thus, the classical equipartition theorem does not hold and the effect of the exclusion principle is important; the <statistics will be degenerate. L e t u s f i r s t v e r i f y t h a t t h e b a n d w i d t h AE volts. The change in k lo-m, is about a reasonable value, then might be of the order of electron

Ak z r/a. I f t h e l a t t i c e s p a c i n g , a , i s 3 x

Ak E lOmAssuming that AE E %ti2~k2/m* 2 eV. If AE w i t h m*, the effective mass, approximately in electron volts, is X z or m were significantly different from

the true electron mass, or about 1O-3o kg, then U, were a different function of Ak

the mass of the electron, a different numerical result would be found; but this

370

SoAd state physics argument does give the Iright elfectrons. The order of magnitude of the band width for the outer

Inner electron; of the atoms have a very small band width, and the number of electrons per state, using Fermi-Dirac statistics, is (12.79)

effective mass is very large because of their tight binding to the nucleus. average

rl(E) = [ e x p ( E - EF)/~BT and for the degenerate case, EF >> k8T.

+ 11-l

Then each state is essentially filled with

one electron, up to an energy of about E F, and there are almost no electrons in s t a t e s a b o v e EF. The transition region where f(E) drops from - 1 to - 0 h a s a width of the order of magnitude of ksT in energy. In the crystal, therefore, this trlonsition region will ordinarily be a small fraction of the band width. Suppose, then, that the energy bands do not overlap, as indicated for bands 1 and 2 in Figure 12.15, and that tile energy gap E, is several electron volts. Suppose there

-A
-Figure 12.15. The energ:, difference between the conduction band minimum (band 2) and valence bond maximum is called the energy gap, E,. In insulators, the valance band is filled, and the energy gap is of the order of several electron volts; the conduction bond is empty. are enough electrons to fill all the states in band 1 and all of the lower bands, but not enough to fill band 2 completely. If there are N cells, and hence 2N available states per band, then if there are an even number of electrons per cell, there will be almost no electrons in band 2. This is because the even number of electrons will just fill an integral number of bands. The last filled band (band l), is called the valence band, and the higher unfilled band is called the conduction bond (band 2 in Figure 12.15). On the other hand, if again the bands do not overlap, but there are an odd number of electrons per cell, there will be only N electrons in the last band, and N unfilled states in that band (the conduction band). On the basirof the foregoing discussion, one may obtain a simple explanation of the main differences between conductors and insulators. In order for an electric current to flow, there must be more electrons moving in one direction as comp a r e d w i t h a n o t h e r . S i n c e hk is somewhat like the electrons momentum, this means With the electrons must field have wavefunctions cases of with odd average and even k different numbers from of zero. no electric applied, both electrons

per cell have an average k of zero, since wavefunctions of k and -k correspond to the same energy. When an electric field is applied to a substance having an odd number of electrons per cell, it can easily excite electrons with energies near

7 2.2 7 Holes EF into states producing a net current, because there are unfilled available energy states nearby in energy. Thus this crystal will be a conductor. For a substance having an even number of electrons per cell, the unfilled states, appreciable current. Such a crystlal large, conductivities. This is because is then an insulator. we have assumed a perfectly periodic crystal are several electron volts away in energy, and it would take a very large electric field to produce From what has been said so far, all conductors should have obout equal, and lattice. One deviation from a perfect crystal lattice that is always present is the l a t t i c e v i b r a t i o n , o r p h o n o n . Elec:trons can interact with these phonons and be scattered away from current-carrying states. This is the main effect that limits conductivities in most conductors at room temperature. Other lattice imperfections which reduce conductivities are impurities and atoms missing at lattice sites. Also, in the discussion above it was assumed that the bands do not overlap. Suppose bands 1 and 2 of Figure 12.15 had overlapped. Then there would be more than 2N states having energies below the top of energy band 1, and thus for an even number of electrons per cell, the last 2N electrons could fit in, leaving nearby energy states unfilled. This crystal would then be a conductor. Calcium, with an even number of electrons per cell, is a conductor of this type. Suppose that a crystal with an even number of electrons per cell had valence and conduction bands which did not overlap, but the energy gap was only a few tenths of an electron volt. Since k,rT at room temperature is about l/40 number of electrons in the conduction silicon many band; so the crystal would ure eV, then electype. the gap is not enormously greater than k&T, a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e a r e a s o n a b l e conduct of this tricity, but not as well as a normal conductor. A crystal of this type is called a semiconducfor. Semiconductors Germanium, are used in and various compounds in devices, especially transistors.

371

12.2 1 HOLES
Suppose perature an there there of is a semiconductor be some in in which in the gap E, between band, at the conduction there will and be

valence bands is less than an electron volt, as in Figure 12.16. Then at room temwill electrons the the conduction primarily and absence electrons valence
E Conduction band

band,

energy

maximum.

1.3 f-

gap.

Figure

12.16.

Illustration of conduc:tion

and valence bands having a very small energy

372

Solid

sfote physics

These unfilled states in the valence band are called hales. The effective mass associated with these unfilled states at the energy maximum is negative. For simplicity, let us assume that just one state, the j state, near the energy maximum is unfilled, so there is one hale. If the charge of an electron is e current is proportional ta: == - 1,e / a n d V, i s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n v a l u e o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e ith s t a t e , t h e n t h e

C (- I e I vi)
I;

(12.80)

Here, the summation is aver all valence band states except the one that is unfilled. This can be written as:

C - I e I v, = C (- I e I vi) +- I e I v, i+; .I1 I

(12.81)

If the valence band were completely filled, the electric current would be zero. T h u s , c.,,; (- ( e 1vi) = 0. T h e net current is then proportional ta ( e ( vi. T h u s , a hale acts as a particle with a velocity associated with the empty state, and with a positive charge equal in magnitude ta the electronic charge. The rate of change in tilne of the current is proportional ta 1e 1 dv;/dt. state, and an electric field Supof pose there were an electrcn of charge - 1e ) a n d e f f e c t i v e m a s s m * i n t h e j

were

present.

Then,

using

the

expectation

value

Newtons second law, we giet

I e 1dv, _
dt

- le12E

m*
= -lm*I,so

(12.82)

Near a maximum in energy, m* is negative, m *

1e 1dv, _
dt The motion is that of positively charged

+/e12E

Im*l

(12.83) positive mass. Thus, such a

particles

with

hale will contribute ta electric current in the same sense as an electron in thle conduction band, which has negative charge and positive effective mass. This discussion shows that in a semiconductor the electric current will consist, in general, of an electron current due ta conduction band electrons, and a hale current due ta valence band hales.

12.22 n-TYPE AND p-TYPE !XMlCONDUCTORS

By introducing impurities into a semiconductor, the number of electrons in the conduction band, or the number of hales in the valence band, can be greatly increalsed. farms a Far example, the germanium atom, like carbon, has a valence of 4 and valence-bound crystal, in which each germanium atom is surrounded by

four other germanium atoms. If an arsenic atom impurity with 5 outer electrons is substituted far a germanium atom, 4 of the 5 electrons are bound tightly by the valence bands, but the fifth is loosely bound. To see how loosely, let us treat the

12.23
impurity as if it were like a hydrosgen the electron of charge - 1e lying below the conduction

Ho//effect

373

atom. Thus the arsenic nuc:leus and all elec-

trons but the fifth outer electron form an effective nucleus of charge 1e 1 , a n d 1 is bound by the attractive Coulomb-like force minimum. However, the Coulomb force inside a between it and the core, and will be described by hydrogen-like energy levels band medium with a dielectric constant K is -e2/4~t,Kr2, for this hydrogen-like atom is e/-&-The and all electric fields are hence reduced by a factor effective mass is dependent on dIrection, so the effective charge l/16 in germanium. Also,

dielectric constant in germanium is 16,

one should use the effective mass m* rather than the true electron mass. While the the average effective moss at the miniThe binding energy mum of the conduction band is about m/5. The binding energy of a true hydrogen atom in free space is 13.6 eV and is proportional to me4. of the fifth electron may then be estimated as: Eb g 13.6 x

1 m - x K2 m

13.6 (16)2 x 5

.0106eV

This result agrees in order of magnitude with the actually measured binding energy. Since the binding energy below the conduction band is about .Ol eV is smaller than k,T l/40 eV, and at room temperature a large fraction of the

impurities will be ionized, with the extra electrons going into the conduction b a n d . T h e F e r m i l e v e l Ef will lie near the bottom of the conduction band rather than halfway between bands as in a pure material, and so there will be very few h o l e s i n t h e v a l e n c e b a n d . Almc8st all conduction electrons will come from the impurities. Because the impurities give electrons to the conduction band, they are called donors. Also, since the current is due to negatively charged particles because there are few holes, this is called an n-type semiconductor. Likewise, the germanium could be doped with impurities of valence 3 instead of 5. In this case, the impurity would draw an electron out of the valence band, to give itself 4 electrons. The resulling negative ion would then have the resulting hole bound loosely to it. Because this kind of impurity takes electrons out of a band, it is called an acceptor. Many of the holes are unbound at room temperature and move freely in the valence band. The Fermi energy is near the top of the valence band, and so there are few electrons in the conduction1 band. Thus the electrical conduction is mainly due to hole motion. Because the hole is effectively a positive particle, we say this is a p-type semiconductor. A pure semiconductor, where there are equal numbers of electrons and holes, is called an intrinsic semiconductor. When the electrons or holes are due primarily to impurities, it is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

.23 H A L L E F F E C T
The fact that both holes and electrons can exist in semiconductors can be obs e r v e d i n t h e Hall effect. Suppose a piece of semiconductor (or any other material) is hooked across a battery as in Figure 12.17. Indicated on the figure by arrows labeled H a n d E a r e the average directions of motion of holes and elec-

374

Solid state physics

Figure

12.117.

Schematic diogrom

of

the

experimental

setup

for

observing

the

Hcrll

effect. The dots indicate o magnetic field out of the paper. Current flowing from right to left in the sample is forced downward by the Lorentz force acting on o moving charge. A resulting potential difference, the Hall voltage, then builds up across the sample. trons, respectively. If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the applied electric field (B out of the paper in the figure), the magnetic forces tend to deflect the and (charged an particles, due to their would overage velocity. The deflections that a hole electron, respectively, receive, a r e i n d i c a t e d o n t h e d i a g r a m b y

c u r v e d a r r o w s labeled

h and e. Thus, electrons ond holes are deflected in the

some direction. If there are more electrons than holes, a negative charge builds up on side B and a positive charge on side A, until the resulting electrostatic forc(es a r e e q u a l a n d opptssite to the magnetic forces. If there were more holes, 6, proportional to the magnetic field that experimentally the Hall voltage side B would be positive and side A would be negative. The electrostatic potential difference resulting between sides A and strength, is called the Hall voltage. The fact

c a n b e e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t b o t h h o l e s a n d electrolls can be responsible for electrical conductivity. This is the Hall effect.

CRYSTAL

CLASSIFICATION the 14 Bravais lattices of Figure 12.1 according to

Crystals ore classified intc

symmetry axes and reflection planes. The possible symmetry axes consistent with translational symmetry are twofold, threefold, fourfold and sixfold, corresponding to rotations of a Bravais 180, 120, 9 0 a n d 60, respectively. Each lattice point of to several atoms or molecules. lattice can correr,pond

Summary

375

BINDING

FORCES

Valence crystals are bound by electrons being shared by neighboring atoms, while metals are bound by each electrons being shared by all the atoms. Ionic crystals are bound by direct Coulomb electrostatic forces. The fourth type of binding is due to permanent or fluctuating electric dipoles.

LATTICE VIBRATIONS
Because a solid is not a continuous medium but consists of discrete atoms, the equation of motion leading to sound vibrations is somewhat different from the wave equation for a continuous medium. Instead of all frequencies being possible, the number of frequency modes is equal to three times the number of atoms (for three dimensions), and there exists a maximum frequency of propagation. There are branches of the w versus and thus

curves, with the number of modes in each

branch equal to the number of cells. The frequency is a periodic function of

can be restricted to one of these periods. The branches of modes for

which w = 0 when

= 0 are called acoustic branches. There are, in general, in-

one longitudinal and two transverse acoustic branches. If there are several modes and correspond to w - 103/sec near

equivalent atoms per cell, there are other branches which are called optical

k = 0.

ENERGIES OF VIBRATIONS
The total vibration energy of the crystal is the sum of the energies associated with the individual modes. The energy of such a mode can be put in the form of the energy of a harmonic oscillator witn the mass of the crystal and the frequency of the mode.

QUANTIZATION

OF LATTICE VIBRATIONS

The quantization of a normal mode is the same as the quantization of a harmonic oscillator. The possible energies are (n + % )Aw, w h e r e and w is the angular frequency of ttie n = 0, 1, 2,. . . mode. For many purposes, it is convenient

to think of the vibrations as composed of particles called phonons. Then the integer, n, is considered to be the number of phonons present.

LATTICE
At high

SPECIFIC
temperatures,

HEAT
one can treat lattice vibrations as classical harmonic oscil-

lators

with 3N

modes. The equipartition of energy theorem then gives an average per mode, leading tc a specific heat of 3R per mole. At low tem-

energy of

ksJ

376

Solid dote physics peratures, because the energy is proportional to w a n d t h e d e n s i t y o f statses is proportional to kdk -. WdW, the average energy is proportional to T a n d the specific heat to T3.

EILECTRON E N E R G Y IlANDS
Due to the periodic potential energy that any one electron sees, the electronic w a v e f u n c t i o n c a n b e p u t In the form of a where Bloch function, #(r) = Ae u(r),

is a constant vector and u(r) is a function which has the lattice periodic-

ity. Since the energy is a periodic function of of cells, there are N independent tions

k, k

can be restricted to a Brillouin

zone. When boundary conditions are imposed, it is found that if N is the number

ks.

Then, because of the two possible orienta-

of electron spin, the resulting electron energy bands contain 2N states each.

EFFECTfVE

MASS
of E v e r s u s

If at a maximum or minimum elnergy E = ()ik)/2m,

dratically with the components of

k k -ko,

at

ko

the energy varies <qua-

by analogy with the free particle

one can find an effective mass for each direction.

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS, SEMfCONDUCTORS

Because of Fermi-Dirac statistics and the fact that there are 2N states per band, if there are large energy gaps between bands, then at normal temperatures a crystal with an even number of electrons per cell has the bands below the Fermi energy elnpty completely filled, and those above completely empty. Since the nearest states are far away in energy, a reasonable electric field gives little current

and the crystal is an insulator. For an odd number of electrons per cell, the Fermi level is in the middle of the last band containing electrons. The band is half-filled, and since unfilled states are nearby in energy, this is a conductor. Likewise, if there is overlap in the last bands containing electrons, there are more than 2N states below the energy gap, and there are unfilled states in these bands, gap bsand forminlg a conductor. If there are an even number of electrons per cell, but the energy is small, there may be a reasonable number of electrons in the conduction at room temperature, so there will be some conduction of electricity. The

substance is then called a semiconductor.

HOLES
The empty states left in the top of the valence band of a semiconductor when electrons go to the conduction band act as if they were particles of positive charge 1e / and positive effective mass. These particles are called holes. They

can conduct electricity just as the electrons in the conduction band.

Problems

3 7 7

n AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

If an impurity is in a semiconductor and has one extra electron, the electron is loosely bound and is easily excited to the conduction band. The impurity is called a d o n o r . Conduction is then primarily due to the negative electrons and the material is called n-type. A deficiency of one electron on the impurity causes the impurity to bind an electron tightly from the valence band leaving a hole. The impurity is called an acceptor. The positive hole conduction leads to the term P-Vf=

HALL

EFFECT

When a potential is applied to a substance, current tends to flow parallel to the electric equal field. and If a magnetic to the field is applied forces. perpendicular The resulting to the electric field, the due charges are deflected until the new charge distribution produces electric forces opposite magnetic potential difference to the charge redistribution is the Hall voltage. Because electrons and holes are deflected in the same direction, the Hall voltage has opposite signs for the two kinds of conduction.

1.

Sodium has o b o d y - c e n t e r e d c u b i c s t r u c t u r e w i t h t w o a t o m s p e r c u b i c (cell. T h e d e n s i t y o f s o d i u m i s 0 . 9 5 2 g/cm3, and it: atomic weight is 23.0. Calculate the length of

the edge of a cubic cell and the smallest distance between atoms. Answer: 2. 4.31 Angstroms; 3.73 Angstroms.

Copper has a face-centered cubic structure which has on the average four atoms per c u b i c c e l l . T h e d e n s i t y o f c o p p e r i s 8 . 9 g/cm3, a n d i t s a t o m i c w e i g h t i s 6 3 . 5 4 . W h a t is the length of the edge of a cubic cell, and what is the smallest distance between atoms? Answer: 3.62 a Angstroms; 2.56 Angstroms lattice is equivalent to a different simple

3.

Show

that

body-centered lattice.

rhombohedral

rhombohedral 4.

S h o w t h a t o b a s e - c e n t e r e d tetragolal

lattice, where the bases are the square faces,

i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a d i f f e r e n t s i m p l e tetragonal l a t t i c e . 5. The diamond structure is a face-ten-tered cubic lattice, but with two carbon atoms per lattice point so that the crystal does not hove the full cubic symmetry. It has the symmetry of the regular tetrahedron imtead ( e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e f a c e s ) . I t h a s f o u r s i m i -

lar threefold axes, three similar twofold axes, and six similar reflection planes. Also, there are three similar axes for which o plane tion. Find perpendicular to the axis, a r o t a t i o n o f 90, f o l l o w e d b y r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t the tetrahedron to its original configura-

returns

all these axes and planer. If the inversion were added and combined with
obtclin the complete cubic group of symmetry opera-

all these operations, one would tions.

378

Solid state physics

6.

The rhombohedral lattice has a threefold axis, three similar twofold axes, three similar reflection planes, and the inversion. In addition, there is an axis such that o 60

rotation followed by a reflection about a plane perpendicular to the axis leaves the structure the same. Find these axes and planes.

7. 8.

I n liquation

( 1 2 . 3 4 ) t h e results f o r w v e r s u s k w e r e g i v e n f o r t h e l a t t i c e v i b r a t i o n s o f

a o n e d i m e n s i o n a l c r y s t a l o f a l t e r n a t e m a s s e s ~a a n d M a . V e r i f y t h e s e r e s u l t s . Suppose a one dimensional lattice consists of masses, pa, c o n n e c t e d by springs. If

a l t e r n a t e s p r i n g s h a v e s p r i n g c o n s t a n t s K / a a n d K/a, branches given by:

show that there are two

i f a i s t h e equilibriunl

d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a l t e r n a t e masses,

or twice the distance be-

tween successive masses. To solve the problem, label K/a t o t h e r i g h t b y clisplacements constant K/a

amasses w i t h s p r i n g s o f c o n s t a n t w i t h a sprirlg of

$, a n d t h e n e i g h b o r i n g masses

to the right by displacements

+c,, W r i t e t h e t w o e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n ,

o n e f o r e a c h o f t h e s e t y p e s o f m a s s ; t h e n a s s u m e sollJtions o f t h e f o r m : 4 = an = Acos(kna)cos(wf 8 cos(kna + + a) a)

(Po)cos(ti>t +

where A and 6 are constants. The phase angle s u c h a s cos(kna + <bo) = cos(kno)cos

@o i s d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g i d e n t i t i e s ao, and setting coeffi-

QI o - sin(kna)sin

c i e n t s o f sin(kna) and cos(kna) i n t h e e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n s e p a r a t e l y e q u a l t o z e r o .

9.

In the two dimensional lattice shown on the next page, each mass is m, anal the springs all have labeled sprinsg c o n s t a n t K and equilibrium tension T. The horizontal row!: a r e

b y t and the verticle by n. For small displacements in the plane, the forces

o n t h e +C, n* m a s s a r e ( d i s p l a c e m e n t s a r e <and q i n t h e x a n d y d i r e c t i o n s ) :

A s s u m e t h a t Ex,, =

I:,J s i n ( n k , a + -!, k,a - w t ) , a n d f i n d w a s a f u n c t i o n o f k, a n d

k , . I f k, = 0 , a l o n g i t u d i n a l w a v e r e s u l t s , a n d i f k, = 0 , i t i s a t r a n s v e r s e w a v e . Another branch is given by assuming a similar form for t h e r o l e s o f k, a n d k , . ox , w h i c h j u s t i n t e r c h a n g e s

Problems

379

t 4

10. If the lattice spacing of a one dimensional lattice ot atoms of mass 3.7 x 10m27kg is 3 Angstroms and the effective spring constant is 15 x 10m3nt,/meter, what is the maximum angular frequency of waves which can be propagated in the lattice? Of what angular frequency are wwes quency Answer: waves? 4.03 x 102sec-;4.02 x 102secC. in a one dimensional crystal of atoms of 0.95 the wavenumber of the maximum fre-

11. The maximum phase speed of an elastic wave of mass 6.3 x

10-27k g is 3 x 105cm/sec. If the atom density is 3.14 x 10 per

centimeter, what is the cutoff frequency? Describe the motion of neighboring atoms at this frequency. Answer: v = 3 x 103cps; 18Oout of phase. 12. In a one dimensional crystal with atoms of only one mass, when the wavelength of oscillations is 100 times the interatomic distance, the phase speed is 4 x lo5 cm/set. What is the phase speed and group speed when k is r/a? Answer: 13. 2.55 x 1 O5 cm/set., 0. In finding the kinetic energy for CI mode, it was assumed that

N-l c cos2(kna)
n=O

= f N

if

k=Tt?L!?!
No

0,1,2,

P r o v e t h i s b y u s i n g cos(kno) = !Iz (eik + e-line sumed that

) and the formula for the sum of o it WQS as-

geometric series. Also, in showing that modes do not interfere in #energy, N-l c cos(kna)cos(kna)
n=O = 0

if k # k. Prove this. 14. I f the density of vibrational states between k and k + dk is kdk/2r in two dimensions, find what the high temperature lattice specific heat is in two dimensions, and on what power of Tit depends at low temperatures. Answer:
2R/mole; T2.

15. In the chapter on quantum statistical mechanics it was found that the heat capacity per mole of electrons was on the order of Rks J/El, where EF is the Fermi energy and R is the gas constant. To measure the low temperature dependence of the specific heat of a solid lattice due to phonons, should you use a conductor or an insulator? Why?

3 8 0

solid

stofe

physics

16.

I f t h e e n e r g y i n a b a n d i s g i v e n b y E ( k ) = E,, + p[3 - cos(k,z)

cos

(k,o) -

cos(k,a)cos(k,a) k, 17. = 0. m,

cos(kp)cos(k,a)],

w he r e Eo and pare c o n s t a n t s , f i n d t h e e f f e c -

t i v e m u s s i n t h e x , y a n d z dlrections a t

k, = k, = k, = 0 , a n d a t k, = P/O, k, = @);m, = -h2/(2a2~), /zh2k2/2m* my = mz

IS

A n s w e r :

= my

= mz

= h2/(20

= I,
of the

If in the conduction states between k and Fermi energy clre e m p t y .

balld o f CI c o n d u c t o r , E =

a n d t h e d e n s i t y Iof /15

k -t d k i s k2dk/a2,

show that the overage energy

EF, a s s u m i n g all s t a t e s b e l o w Er are f i l l e d a n d a l l s t a t e s a b o v e ,EF

18.

I n d i a m o n d , t h e g a p w i d t h i s 7 eV. W h a t f r e q u e n c y o f i n c i d e n t e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c radiot i o n w o u l d cause an electron to go from the valence to the conduction band? x lC~~cps. eV,

Answer: 19.
The valence

1 . 6 8 9

band and conduction band of several crystals are separated by 3.0

0 . 3 eV, a n d 0 . 0 0 eV ( o v e r l a p ) . D e s c r i b e t h e t y p e o f e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y e x h i b i t e d by each crystal if there are on even number of electrons per cell.

20.

The gap width of silicon is 0 . 0 4 6 eV b e l o w t h e bott,>m diagram, roughly to scae,

.I.21

eV. A r s e n i c d o n o r a t o m s i n s i l i c o n h a v e a n e n e r g y

of the conduction band. Make a sketch of the energy level for this situation, and estimate the temperatures at which

the donor levels would be filled.

Answer: 21.

T <c 5 3 3 K k and k + d k f o r e a c h i s k2dk/X2,

and the energy

I n a s e m i c o n d u c t o r , t h e e f f e c t i v e m a s s m* o f t h e h o l e s and e l e c t r o n s a r e t h e s a m e , !so that the density of states between

above the bottom of the conduction band or below the top of the valence band (at

k = 0 ) i s (hk)2/2m*. T h e F e r m i e n e r g y Ef i s h a l f w a y b e t w e e n t h e t w o banols.
l/[e-(EF-E)kBr + l] rV

A s s u m e t h a t t h e g a p e n e r g y E, i s l a r g e e n o u g h s o t h a t e(EF-E)kBfor

E in the conduction band, and the distribution function is approxifor

m a t e l y 1 - e -(EFmE)ks7 to

ksJ,

E in the valence band. If the bands are wide compared Es = 1 eV and m* e q u a l t o

find the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band and the number

o f e l e c t r o n s p e r - u n i t volume i n t h e c o n d u c t i o n b a n d . F o r the true electron mass, find this number for T = 273 K.

Answer: 22.
When an

2(mkT/2ah2)32e-Eg2kBT. impurity atom, such OS arsenic, in the fifth column of the periodic table,

replaces on atom of silicon in

o crystal of silicon, there is one extra electron, which

effectively sees o charge +e at the position of the arsenic. Assuming the silicon is a medium of dielectric constant

K = 11.9 and the average effective mass is

0.4m,,

calculate the binding energy of the electron to the arsenic. atom in electron volts. Also, calculate the radius of the lowest Bohr orbit.

Answer: 23. 24.

,038

eV;

15.7

Angstroms.

If a small amount of indium is combined with germanium to make a semiconductor, will it be p-type or n-type? In the semiconductor germanium, the energy gap is 0.79 eV in width. What is the

wavelength of the photon which, when absorbed by a pure germanium crystal, will create an electron-hole in appreciable par? At what temperatures would these pairs be excited

thermally

numbers? far greater than the melting or boiling

Answer: 25.

1 5 , 7 0 0 a n g s t r o m s ; T > 9160K, point of Ge.

If silicon is doped with a small amount of p-type or n-type semiconductor?

aluminum,

would you expect it to be a

3 probing the nucleus

In Chapters 8 and 9 atomic structure was discussed assuming that the nucleus, which actually contains over 99.94% of the mass of the atom, is simply a point mass carrying a charge Ze, where Z is the atomic number. There it was seen how an enormous amount of experimental data can be assembled into a simple conceptual scheme: energy level structure and spectra of the elements, the periodic table, chemical properties of the elements, x-ray spectra, and so on. These phenomena may be understood quantitatively, by largely ignoring any internal structure the nucleus may have. However, it is natural to expect that the nuclei may themselves have an internal structure and exhibit a rich variety of phenomena, particularly if sufficient energy is given to the nuclei so that they can approach one another and react or scatter from each other. The study of nuclear structure began in 1896 with the discovery of radioa c t i v i t y b y B e c q u e r e l , a n d s i n c e then it has been of major concern in physics. In this chapter we shall discuss one of the most important methods used in the study of small particles: scattering. ITlass, ?he In a scattering experiment, a beam of particles of some type is produced, which may be described by some parameters such as kinetic energy, charge, to strike a selected target, and spin direction, etc. This beam is allowed angles of deflection, number and type of

recoil particles, losses of energy, and other quantities, are observed. This information may then be used in formulating a theory of the forces involved; or, with the aid of a theory or model of the scattering process, information may be obtained about the internal structure of the target particles. For example, Laue spot patterns are observed when x rays are diffracted from crystalline solids. This may be considered as a process involving scattering of the x-ray photons in the incident beam. By observing the spot patterns, one may determine the internal structure and arrangement of the atoms in the crystal.

3.1

NUCLEAR

MODEL

For simplicity, in our first discussions of the nucleus we will consider a model in which the nucleus is assumed to be spherical in shape, and in which the charge, Ze, and the mass are uniformly distributed throughout the sphere. Experiments show that these assumptions are not quite correct in general, but we should nevertheless be able to obtain reasonable estimates of nuclear dimensions using this model. 381

382

Probing

the

nucleus

Let the radius of the sphere in this model be R; this radius is the distance from the nuclear center at which the mass and charge densities fall to zero, and is somewhat of an abstmraction because in real nuclei no such sharp outer boundary exists. In order to design a scattering experiment which would reveal some of the internal structure of a nucleus, one would first like to have a rough idea of the radius R for a nucleus of a given charge and mass. Imagine, for example, a point test charge Q, such as an electron, placed at a distance r from the center of the spherical nuclear charge distribution. The force on this test charge will be a function of both r a n d R , and hence if this force could be measured, R coLlld be determined. If r is greater than R , s o t h a t

tlhe

test charge is outside the spherical distribution, then by Gauss law the entire charge Ze of the nucleus may be considered to be concentrated at the center of symmetry. The force between test charge and nucleus would then be equal to ZeQ/4?rtorz. H o w e v e r , i f r i s l e s s t h a n R , s o t h a t t h e t e s t c h a r g e i s in&de t h e n u c l e u s , t h e n b y G a u s s l a w o n l y t h e c h a r g e a t r a d i i l e s s t h a n r effectively acts on the test charge. Since the nuclear charge is assumed to be uniformly distributed, the fraction of nuclear charge acting on the test charge will equal the fraction of nuclear volume at radii less than r. The total nuclear volume is /, 7rR3. The volume at radii less than r is % xr3. Therefore, the fraction of nuclear The total amount of nuclear Summarizing, the charge acting on the test charge is equal to (r/R)3.

charge effectively acting on the test charge at r < R is then equal to Zer3/R3, ancl the force on the test charge is equal to ZeQr,/4rcoR3. force is given by: ZeQ F=47rtor2 fz = ZeQr 47mOR3 for r > R

for

r < R

(13.1)

LI-rR 2R 3R 4R Figure 13.1. Graph of the force between a test charge Q and a spherically symmetric, uniformly distributed nuclear charge of finite radius R.

13.2

Limitations

on

nuclear

size

383

In Figure 13.1 the force is plotted as a function of r . Thus, for a distributed charge, at small radii the force does not continue to approach infinity as l/r2 but approaches zero instead. If the ledge o f t h e n u c l e a r c h a r g e d i s t r i b u t i o n w e r e sharp, there would be a sharp change in the slope of the graph of F(r) at a value of r equal to R, the nuclear radius. Then if we could place a test charge in this region, we could measure R. Actually, we cannot measure forces directly in nuclear physics, but we can measure some of the effects to be expected from different potential energies of interaction.

2 LIMITATIONS ON NUCLEAR SIZE FROM ATOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

From the above considerations, it is seen that for radii r > R , the potential will be a Coulomb potential. By (considering deviations between theory and experiment for hydrogen-like atoms with heavy nuclei, we may obtain some idea of the value of R , at which the potential ceases to be Coulombic. Thus, in the theory of the hydrogen atom which was developed in Chapter 8, the calculated electron energies agree with experilnent to at le ast six signific a n t fig u re s . T h e re it was assumed that the nucleus is CI point charge, with R = 0. In the 1s state of hydrogen, the electron spends most of its time in a region of space at radii comparable to the Bohr radius, a = 4at0ti2/me2 = 0.53 Angstroms. The fact that the agreement between theory and experiment is so good means that the nuclear radius R must be much smaller than 0.5 Angstroms. To put an upper limit on R, we observe that the order of magnitude of the electron probability the d e n s i t y , ( $(r) 1 , d oes not change significantly for the 1s state for radii from r N 0 t o r 2 a . S i n c e t h e volume of the order of magnitude R3/a3, of a sphere of radius r i s 4xr3/3, fraction of the time spent by the electron in the neighborhood of the nucleus is and because the theoretical energy is correct to at least six significant figures, we should have:

fi!3

a < 1o-6

or R should be less than about 10m2 Angstroms. We can go farther. In a hydrogen-like atom with nuclear charge Z, the radius of the first Bohr orbit is a/Z. In the heavy elements where Z is around 100, this radius can get as small as ab#Dut 0.005 Angstroms. Moseleys law, which gives x-ray frequencies based on a hydrogen-like model, is in good agreement with experiment. The argument used above in connection with the hydrogen atom, would then indicate that nuclear radii cannot be greater than around 1 O-4 Angstroms. A /J meson is an elementary particle which has charge -e and a mass m, about 200 times that of an electron. It is possible for a CC- meson to be attracted to a nucleus, and to replace an electron in an atom to form a relatively stable atom with the p meson in a 1s starte. T h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e r a d i u s o f t h e B o h r /.L meson orbit is the same as for the hydrogen atom, but with the mass of the

384

Probing the nucleus replacing the mass electron. This radius, aP = am/m,Z, is inversely proportional

to the mass and is around 0.00025 Angstroms for a Z of 10. The binding energies of /L mesic atoms may be determined by various means, and it is found that the energies begin to differ from that expected for a pure Coulomb potential by 10% or so, for Z E 10. This means that the /.I meson is spending a significant part of its time at radii r inside the nucleus. Using the argument above,. we find very roughly that (R/aJ3 0.0002.S/103 taken into < /,,, s o t h e n u c l e a r r a d i u s i s l e s s t h a n a r o u n d lo-l4 meters. This is probably an over) $ 1 i s l a r g e s t n e a r t h e o r i g i n , w h i c h w a s n o t Angstroms, or about

estimate of the nuclear :size, since account.

T h e p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t i n t h e 1s state, the wavefunction does not vanish at the nucleus but approaches the constant value tiIO,, = ,dm a s r + 0. Hence there is some finite prol>ability of finding the electron (or meson) in the region of the nucleus, and herlce the internal structure of the nucleus may have some effect on the atomic energy levels. In lead, for example, a 1s p meson spends most of its time inside the nucleus and the atomic energies are changed by large factors. For lead, Z = 82, and the first Bohr orbit of a p mesic atom of lead would be Historically, v 4 x 10. radii Angstroms. known to be of this general order of magnitude nuclear were

long before mesic atoms w e r e d i s c o v e r e d . T h e s e r a d i i w e r e f o u n d b y R u t h e r f o r d and his co-workers by allowing a beam of heavy charged particles of high speeds to strike a thin foil, and observing that a few of the incident particles *were deflected through large angles. To produce a large deflection requires a Large force. From Figure 13.1 it can be seen that the maximum possible Coulomb force is, inversely proportional to R . Hence the smaller R is, the larger is the maxilmuin be possible force, and to hove a large force, and hence a large deflection, R mu!jt sipread out over the whole atom-i.e. R

very small. Quantitative considerations show that if the nuclear charge were u 1 Angstrom-then the particles in the incident beam should suffer only very slight deflections due to Coulomb forces. The fact that large deflections are observed means that the nucleus must be much sIrnaIler chapter, pletely than an Angstrom in radius. Of course, it is possible that forces other However, as will be discussed later in this down to very small radii. Rutherfords the scattering scattering formula, based only on Coulomb forces, comthan Coulomb forces are present. explained results

Because of the rather small lengths that occur in nuclear physics, it is convenient to introduce a Iunit tile fermi (named after the of length comparable to nuclear radii. A unit called nuclear physicist, Enrico Fermi) is frequently used:

1 fermi = lo-l5

meters = 10-s

Angstroms

Thus nuclear radii, on the basis of our above rough estimates, must be of the order of several fermis.

73.3

Scotferhg

experiments

385

3 SCATTERING EXPERIMENTS
A great deal of useful information may be obtained by allowing particles to collide with various targets. In investigating the structure of some object by means of a scattering experiment, it is desirable to use a beam of incident particles whose de Broglie wavelerlgths are either of the same general order of magnitude as, or less than, the size of the structures being investigoted. For example, in the scattering of n rays by a crystal, Laue spot patterns are formed when the wavelengths of the incident photons are comparable to the lattice spacings. Similarly, in scattering off of nuclei, interesting phenomena should occur when the wavelengths of the incident particles are of the same order of magnitude as the lengths characterizing nuclear structure, a few fermis. If kg m/set. The kinetic energy
x

the incident particles are protons of wavelengths h E 10 fermis, the protons m o m e n t a w o u l d b e a b o u t p = h/X = 6.6 x lo-* w o u l d b e p2/2m. Since the proton rest sponding kinetic energy is 1.3 x 10-* in their early experiments. To decrease mass m. = 1.67 1O-27 kg, the correThis is roughly the

ioules, or 8.3 MeV.

kinetic energy of the incident particles used by Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden t h e p r o t o n w a v e l e n g t h t o X z 1 fermi, in the relativistic range. The the required kinetic energy is roughly 600 MeV,

speed of the protons would be cp/E = 0.8c, comparable to the speed of light. To get electrons of wavelengths X ,V 1 fermi requires an energy of this same order of magnitude, and hence the electrons would have speeds very close to that of light. The smaller X is, the larger the kinetic energy of the incident particles must be. Therefore, the smaller the features of nuclear structure are thot we wish to detect, the larger the incident kinetic energies must be. The scattering process will usually depend on the kinetic energies of the incident particles in an important woy. Hence, the incident beams should be beams of definite known energies as nearly as possible. If the energy is really very sharply defined, so is the momentum, and so, according to the uncertainty principle, the position of an incoming particle is unknown. The incoming beam would then be described by a wavefunction like that of a plane wave. Consider a beam of particles of known energy traveling in the x direction, as shown in Figure 13.2. Since pr = 0 , t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n pr is zero, and the y positions of the particles are unknown. The same is true for the z positions. Hence, if this beam falls on some target, the exact positions at which the incident particles will strike the target will be unknown. The target may consist of a solid chunk of material or o vial of liquid; this will be a piece of matter of macroscopic size because in practice, we cannot put one nucleus in a given position and hold it there, unless it is attached rigidly to the laboratory apparatus. In a solid piece of material as big as 1 mm3, we do not know exactly where the nuclei are. We will only know that the nuclei are distributed in some fashion throughout the target. Hence, we would not know how close a particular incident particle could come to a nucleus incident particle. eren if we knew exactly the position of the

386

Probing the nucleus

Figure

13.2. of

A beam of particles traveling in the x direction and striking a target. these in positional terms of uncertainties, probabilities. it If is the necessary beam to describe is the

Because scattering

process

intensity

uniform

across the target, we must assume that an incident particle is just as likely to fall at one oosition on the taraet as on anv other. In Figure 13.3, a target of

A3
A2

-I lm-Figure 13.3. The relative probability of an incident particle striking an area A is praportional to the area A. area 1 m2 is represented as it would appear to the incoming beam. It is A2 has twice the area of A,, on the average twice as

oriented with its area perpendicular to the beam, and divided up into elements of area Ai. If element many particles should fall on A2 as on A,. In general, the probability that an incident particle falls on an area A is proportional to A. Suppose that a total of N; particles per square meter per second are incident on the target. This number N; is called the ,incident flux densify. Then the number of particles incident (13.2) on the area A per secorld would be given by: Number incident on A per second = N;A

13.4 CROSS-SECTIONS
Suppose the target con,sisted of a large number of circular scatterers of equal

area u, as indicated in f:igure

13.4, randomly placed throughout the target, and and u is so small that no two circles

all oriented so that the circles are broadside to the incident beam. If there are q of these scatterers per unit area, o,verlap, the total area covered by the circles in one square meter of target would

be just equal to tea. Then, according to Equation (13.2), the number of particles

73.5 Differedid cross-section

387

OU 0

0
0

0
0

J
Figure 13.4. Target consisting of randomly placed circular scatterers of area u. incident on the circles per square meter per second is N, = N,va

(13.3)

The area u i n t h i s e x p r e s s i o n i s c a l l e d t h e fatal scattering cross-section. We may suppose that, whatever the scattering process actually is, one may represent the probability of the process in terms of an effective cross-sectional area u, i n such a way that the number of particles scattered is given by Equation (13.3). A particle in the incident beam falling inside a then is scattered, a particle falling outside is not scattered. In actuality, the scattering probability may be a rather complicated function of the distance of the incident particle from the target particle. Equation (13.3) nevertheless serves as a definition of cr. If that 1 is known and N, and N; can be measured. a is not known, Equation (13.3) may Ibe used to measure (r experimentally, provided

5 DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTION
In practice, when an incident particle is scattered, it may be deflected through any angle 0 from zero up to 180. The scattering angle 19 i s d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 13.5. A great deal more information about the scattering forces can be gained by studying the number of scattered particles as a function of angle, than from an experiment in which only u is found.

Incident beam

388

Probing the nucleus We can think of the area u as being composed of nonoverlapping infinitesimal

a r e a s , da(O),

w i t h (T = -/ da

da

is that part of the total cross-section which

corresponds to the scattering of particles into some small range of angles about 0. It is convenient here to consider the number of particles scattered per unit solid angle, into some small range of scattering angles near 0. T h e s o l i d a n g l e d:Q subtended by a section of a spherical surface of radius R, between the angles 0 a n d 0 + d0, i s d e f i n e d , as i n F i g u r e 1 3 . 6 , b y dO := dA/R, w h e r e dA i s t h e

Figure

13.6.

Solid angle corresponding to an increment in polar scattering angle 0.

area cut off on the spheres surface between the two cones of central angles 6 and 0 + do. In terms of

do,

the differential solid angle, s i n 0 * RdB R2

da

is

dR = _27rR

= 27r s i n 19 d0

(13..4)

Thus, du(0) The ratio number material, of then

is the cross-section for scattering into dC!.

da/d0
particles by

is called the differential cross-section. If dN,/dD scattered with per unit solid angle, the per unit area of Equation (13.3), differential cross-section

is the targset is

analogy

(13..5)

or the fraction of particles scattered into angles near 8, per unit solid angle, divided by the number of scatterers per unit area. The total cross-section is then

73.5 Differential cross-section

Suppose, for example, that the scatterers were hard spheres, and that point masses surfaces in of the the incident beam were scattered about lines elastically through upon the striking of the the spheres. spheres, Then the areas

389

da

would be the projections of thin, ring-shaped areas on the concentric center

spheres,

parallel to the incoming beam, as in Figure 13.7. Since the various ring-shaped

Incoming particles

Figure

13.7.

Different101 scattering orea, dg, for a hard sphere.

areas ore inclined at different angles to the beam, they scatter the particles through different angles. rmp~e If the areal density of scatterers fraction of the particles ution i s v = 10z4 per square meter, and the differen-

tial cross-section for scattering at 89.5 is

da/d62

= 10e3 m, w h a t i s t h e

scattered into angles between 89 and 90?

One degree is about l/57.3 radians. The solid angle between 89 and 90 is then about 2sr s i n (1 O*)( (89.5)Ao 2~ 7,s. T h e n AC =

du/dD

AQ E

10 -32m2.

The effective scattering area per !square meter of target material is then ~Acr = 1 Om3) = 10-s. This is the fraction of particles scattered.

,mpIe

Suppose a differential cross-section is given by total

da/dQ

= u2 cos

0. F i n d t h e

UfiOll u=

s ddf]= s r
o dfi
0

cross-section.

a2 cos2 c9 (27r

sin 6

d0) = F

(-cos3@ = 4m2 -. 3 0

390

Probing the nucleus

13.6 NUMBER OF SCATTERERS PER UNIT AREA

Consider a target made of some solid material which has a known number of scattering centers per uniq, volume, n. If the target is a thin slab of thickness per unit area will be = nt (13.:7) will be t, the total number of scattering center:; ?)

Thus, the fraction of particles scattered when the total cross-section is r~,

-2 N

= nta

Usually, the number of scatterers pet unit volume, n, is not given directly in tables, but the density p, In grams per cubic meter, is known. Also, the atomic weight W is given. The number of moles per cubic meter is then p/W. The number of particles in one mole is Avogadror. number, No mole. Hence, the number of particles or == 6.022 x 10z3 p e r gramscatterers per unit volume is

NOP FW
example

For gold, the atomic weight is W = 197.2 grams per g-mole, and the density i s p = 1 . 9 3 x 1 0 g/m3. S i n c e A v o g a d r o s n u m b e r i s No = 6 . 0 2 x lo, t h e number of particles per unit volume is x 1023)(1.93 x 197.2 107)

Plop

(6.02

W = 5.89

x 102s/m3

Suppose the gold is a foil of thickness t = 6 fraction of the incident particles that are

1V5 cm. If the cross-section

x

for scattering into angles greater than 1 is au = 9.0 scattered into from Equation (13.8),

10-24m2, greater

then the than lo is,

angles

A!N, -

ntAa =

( 5 . 8 9

x 102)(6 x

lo-)(9.05

10-24)

= 0.32 13.7 BARN AS A UNIT OF CROSS-SECTION

In nuclear scattering problems, many cross-sections are found to be typically on the order of called the 1Om32 to 10m2* m2. The quantity 10e2* m2 is a large cross-section, ancl in nuclear problems It i s sometirrles burn. taken as a unit of cross-section (area)

13.8 a and fi parficles

391

Thus a cross-section of 4.2 x lo-

m2 would be 0.042 barns.

rip/e If a nucleus is a sphere of 2.5 fermis in radius, then what is the cross-sectional area ,tion in barns?

The cross-sectional area of a sphere of radius r i s zr. H e r e r is 2.5 fermis, or 2.5 x lo-l5 meters. Then the cross-sectional area is A = a ( 2 . 5 x 10-5)2 = 1 . 9 6 x 1O-29 m2 = 0.196 barns This cross-sectional area will not necessarily be the same as the scattering cross-

section because the forces causing scattering may extend over a larger area.

3.8 a AND fl PARTICLES

With the definitions of scattering cross-section given above, we can now study one of the earliest experiments giving direct evidence about the nuclear size. This involved the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils. After the discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel, Rutherford and his co-workers studied the radiations given off by uranium and found there were two types: one type which was easily absorbed by thin sheets of material, and another type which was very penetrating. beta in a opposite cloud The first Both type alpha Also, Hence, was and they one called beta both could alpha rays left radiation and the by when a second they was called but of through radiation. were visible deflected tracks both that magnetic passed must field, consist

directions.

chamber.

conclude

radiations

charged particles. It has since been established that beta rays are high speed electrons, and alpha rays are the rluclei of helium atoms. We are interested here particularly in alpha particles. of a typical cloud chamber photograph of In Figure 13.8 is a reproduction

the cu radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei. The (Y rays leave tracks consisting of tiny droplets of liquid condensing on ions caused by the passage of the particles. By studying the length of a track (called the range), the initial kinetic energy of the CY particle may be determined. From a study of the characteristics of the vapor molecules, it has been determined that on the average it takes about 32 eV of energy to form an ion pair. Since a small droplet condenses around each ion, by counting droplets ol?e may measure the total energy lost by the (Y particle. It has been found that the number of ions formed per unit of track length is nearly constant, except near the end of the path, so the initial kinetic energy of the particle is a well-defined function of the range. If all LY particles coming off have the same range, then one could infer that all the particles have

392

Probing the nucleus

Figure 13.8. Cloud chamber photograph of alpha rays, showing two distinct ranges corresponding to two different energies of the emitted alpha particles. equal kinetic energies. In Figure 13.8 we see that there are have discrete energies. These kinetic energies have been c~ particles of two to be of the

different initial kinetic energies. In general, the a particles emitted by nuclei all determined order of magnitude of a few million electron volts. For example, one a particle emitted by polonium has an average range of 3.84 cm in air at 15C, kinetic energy of 5.30 MeV. L.et us denote the charge of the cr particle by Q and its mass by M. The chargeto-mass another ratio, type Q/M, of may be determined in which a by observing number the of deflection particles, of N, the are particles in both electric and magnetic fields. The charge Q may be determined in experiment known captured in a chamber arid the total charge NQ is measured. The results of these experiments are: Q = +3.2 x 10--9coulombs lo7 coul/kg and has a

Q/M = 4.84 x so

M = 6 . 6 2 x 1O-27 k g The mass of the proton is M, = 1.67 x 10mz7 kg, so the (Y particle mass is very

closely four times that of the hydrogen nucleus. Also, the charge Q is two times the magnitude of the electronic chal*ge. This suggests that an cr p a r t i c l e i s a helium observed heliium. nucleus. the Rutherford established of these that atoms, this is the found case it by collecting to that cr of particles in a tube, where they attracted electrons to form atoms. Then he emission spectrum and identical

13.9 3.9 RUTHERFORD MODEL OF THE ATOM

Until 191 1, the structure of the atoln

Rutherford mode/ 393

and the size of the nucleus were completely

unknown. Many physicists felt that the nuclear material occupied most of the region in the interior of the atom, i.e. was spread over a region of approximately one Angstrom in diameter. In 1911, Rutherford proposed that the nucleus occu-

pied only a small region compared to atomic dimensions. In 1913, Geiger and Marsden reported experiments which completely confirmed the predictions of

Rutherfords model of the atom. In these experiments, alpha particles were s c a t t e r e d f r o m t h i n f o i l s o f varioL1s m e t a l s . W h i l e q u a n t u m m e c h a n i c s w a s u n known at that time, we can calcul~ate see with hindsight that these particles the wavelength of the (Y particles used, to were suitable to use in the experiments. MC is

T h e (1 p a r t i c l e s h a d a n e n e r g y 0.f a b o u t 8 MeV. S i n c e t h e r e s t e n e r g y

about 3750 MeV, t h e r e s t e n e r g y i s m u c h l a r g e r t h a n t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y ; s o a n o n r e l a t i v i s t i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e m o t i o n m a y b e m a d e . T h e n p = 2//2M, where

T i s t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y , 8 MeV. T h e n , n u m e r i c a l l y , p = [2(6.6 x 10-27)(8 x 1 . 6 x lo-l3 i/MeV)] = 1 . 3 x lo-l9 kg-m/set. The de Broglie wavelength = 5 fermis, about

corresponding to this momentum is X, = h / p = 5 x 10-15m

the size of a nucleus as we know it today. In the experiment of Geiger and Marsden, a s o u r c e e m i t t i n g t h e 8 MeV (Y p a r t i c l e s w o s p l a c e d b e h i n d s l i t s , a s

shown in Figure 13.9. These slits gave a collimated beam of particles of a single

Figure 13.9. Collimation of a bean1 well-defined direction. energy, all traveling along

by a slit-system, to produce a beam going in a

essentiolly

parallel

paths.

Because

of

the

small

wave-

length of the particles, diffraction by the slits had negligible effect. W h e n (YS o f k i n e t i c e n e r g i e s o f a f e w MeV nuclear charge Ze and Z electrons, the mass of collide with an atom having a the electrons is around Z/7000

times the mass of the cr. Hence the 1% particle simply smashes right on through the electrons without any appreciable ILoss of energy, somewhat like an ortillery shell

passing through a wad of newspapers. Thus the presence of atomic electrons m a y b e n e g l e c t e d w h e n d i s c u s s i n g s c a t t e r i n g o f cr p a r t i c l e s . W e m a y t h e n c a l c u l a t e t h e d i s t a n c e o f c l o s e s t a p p r o a c h b e t w e e n a n u c l e u s a n d a n 8 MeV (Y particle, assuming that the force of interaction all the way in is a purely electrostatic Coulomb force. The Coulomb potential energy for an alpha particle of c h a r g e 2 e a n d a n u c l e u s o f c h a r g e Z e i s 2Ze2/4rt,r, between centers. If all the kinetic energy were w h e r e r is the distance into potential energy,

converted

the two particles would be as close together as they can get. This can occur only if the particles collide headon, and even then only in the frame of reference in

w h i c h t h e center o f m a s s i s a t r e s t . I n a n y o t h e r f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e , t h e r e i s

394

Probing the nucleus

motion of the center of mass and thus some kinetic energy which cannot be converted into potential energy. However, if the nucleus is very heavy, as is the case for gold-which was often used in the early experiments-the nuclear mass is around fifty times that of the alpha particle, and only a few percent error is made using the laboratory rather than the center of mass frame. For gold, Z is 79; also, 1/(47rt,) is 9 x lo9 numerically. Therefore, if we set the initial LY parenergy at closest approach, we have: ticle kinetic energy equal to the poten,tial (8MeV)( 1.6 x 113-3i/MeV) = 9

109(2)(79)( 1.6 x

10-19)/r

or r = 28 fermis. With o target made of silver, the smallest possible distan,ce between particles is 17 fermis. Since these distances are greater than the sizes of the nuclei (as we now know), it is quite reasonable that the Geiger-Marsden experiments confirmed Rutherfords predictions, which were based on the assumption that the nucleus is very small; so the forces are Coulombic down to very small distances. If the nucleus had been greater in size than around 20 fermis, if, in particular, it were around an Angstrom or lo5 fermis in size, then the scattering experiments would hove given quite different results. Thus the agreement of the experimental results with Rutherfords predictions indicated thIat the nuclear radii were less than 17 fermis. Actually, we know today that the radii are a little smaller than this. The results of many experiments on measuring nuclear sizes by electron scattering, a scattering, etc., may be summarized in the approximate formula: R z: R.

Wj3
later.

(13.10)

where discuss

RO = 1.1 fermis ond W is the atomic weight of the nucleus. We shall the physical significance of this equation

13.10 RUTHERFORD THEORY; EQUATION OF ORBIT

W e s h a l l n o w g i v e a n e x a m p l e o f a .iheoretical discussing the Rutherford Coulomb scattering calculation of a cross-section by in more detail. In this discus-

theory

sion, we will assume that the scattering nucleus is a point charge, Ze, fixed at the origin. The results obtained will be only approximate in the laboratory system, because the nucleus rebounds to some extent, but will be exact in the center of mass system if the a particle mass is replaced with the reduced mass of the alpha nucleus system. In Figure 13.10 the dashed line II represents the path that an incoming (Y particle would follow if it were not deflected by the nucleus at 0, whereas the actual path of the particle along the heavy curved line IS. The angle of scattering, which is the angle between the incident and scattered directions, is labeled in the diagram by the symbol 0. T h e s h o r t e s t d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e l i n e I I a n d the origin 0 is called the impact partrmeter. It is labeled b on the diagram. At by the any point on the trajectory of the cy particle, the position may be labeled

r a d i a l d i s t a n c e r a n d t h e a n g l e @ shown in Figure 13.8. As the particle approaches the nucleus and then recedes to infinity, ip decreases from 7r to 8, t h e final scattering angle.

7 3.7 0 Rutherford theory

Y I

395

Figure

13.10.

Path of an alpha particle scattering from an infinitely massive nucleus of

charge Ze. Since the de Broglie wavelength of the alpha particle is smaller than the distance of closest approach, we may use classical mechanics rather than quantum mechanics to analyze the motion. Also, the speeds involved are much less than c, so nonrelativistic mechanics may be used. The equation of the LY particle path may be obtained from two conservation equations, conservation of energy and conservation of anslular momentum. The latter conservation law holds because the Coulomb force is a central force, so there is no torque about the origin. The resulting expression for the scattering angle in terms of impact parameter and energy is given in Equation (13.23); we shall now derive this equation. Initially, before the collision, all the energy is kinetic, T,, = ?6 v,, find and potential energy, V = 2Ze2/4,xt,r, that (13.11) Here dr/dt angular a n d rd@/dt is the are the radial and tangential components of velocity. Then at all times the same: Mr $ = Mv,b (13.12) MY;, where is the initial speed of the alpha particle. Setting the sum of the kinetic energy equal to the initial kinetic energy, we

The initial angular momentum about the origin is Mv,b. momentum

We can solve Equation (13.12) for d @/dt,

and express dr/dt in the energy equaThe result is:

tion, Equation (13.1 l), a s dr/dt = (dr/d@)(d@/dt). +

-=
2Ze 4irtor

1 Mvj: 2

(13.13)

396

Probing the nucleus

We may simplify the notation by defirling a constant y as follows: iy =. v2Mv:

(2Ze2/47rco) T h u s , y is twice the ratio of initial kinetic energy, to the potential energy the a l p h a p a r t i c l e w o u l d h a v e a t a d i s t a n c e b from the nucleus. Then Equation (13.13) can be written: - _ _ -

(13.14)

Solving for d @, d@ = -

bdr/r

(13.15)

1
The integral of this function of r may loe found in most integral tables. The result is:

(13.16)
The constant of integration +0 m a y b e e v a l u a t e d b y n o t i n g t h a t a t t h e i n i t i a l position, @ = a a n d r =

cc, s o
cPo = 7r + 1 sin-~-

( I 3. . I 7)

Gyz
Hence,

a=

r 3-

sin

sin-l

V-v/r)
we obtain:

VT+ Solving for the reciprocal of the radius r, 1 -=-p+ y r sin L i * - sin

[ tYTy 1
+ 1

(13.18)

&L) - 1x VC+ y2

(I 3.19)

13.11

RUTHERFORD

SCATTERING

ANGLE is at a distance r = 0~1, when t/l 1 + r (13.:20) or l/r = 0.

The outgoing particle, long after the c.ollision,

We see that this will occur in Equation (13.19), sin or 1 - s i n - -~ vi+r)

@ = 2 sin

(13.:21)

73.72 Rutherford differential cross-section

This value of @ corresponds to the scattering angle 19. Thus, sini8= _ Also. cot - B = 1 _ dT+ _ y2 (13.22)

397

=y=Jo4xc,b.
sin % 0 Ze2

(13.23)

Equation (13.23) implies that for a given angle of scattering. If

J o,

the smaller

is, the larger is the

approaches zero, corresponding to a headon collision, 180; the alpha particle is scattered straight

the angle of scattering B approachles collision and no deflection.

backwards. If b approaches infinity, 0 approaches zero, corresponding to no

12 RUTHERFORD DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTION

Now that a relationship between the scattering angle 0 a n d t h e i m p a c t p a r a m eter b has been obtained, we may proceed to derive the differential cross-section

du/dfi.

Imagine drawing a circle of radius

around the nucleus, as seen by an

incoming cy particle. This is depicted in Figure 13.1 1. All as w h i c h h i t

inside the

Figure 13.1 1. Circle of radius b; particles striking inside the circle will be deflected through angles greater than that given by Equation (13.23). circle of radius

will be scattered through angles greater than the angle given

by Equation (13.23),

4rt, co+ = J,,- b Ze2

Hence, this is the cross-section for scattering through angles greater than or equal

(13.24) to 0,

which will be denoted by a(> 0), will be just the area of the circle. In terms of b,

a;> 0) = rb2
Using Equation (13.23) to express scattering through angles 20 to be

(13.25) 8, we find the cross-section for

in terms of

(13.26) Consider particles which hit inside the ring bounded by circles of radius b and

db,

shown in Figure 13.12. Such particles will be scattered into angles

398

Probing the nucleus

FiglJre 13.12.

Differential area between b and b +

db,

corresponding

to

scattering

within the range of angles d$. b e t w e e n 19 a n d 19 + de. T h e a r e a o f t h i s r i n g i s d a = 27rbdb. of scattering angles d0. Since d(cot r9) = -dH/sin 0,. (13.:27) Therefore, with dR = 2n sin 19 cross-section is da -= dQ / 27rbdb ( 1 Ze cos(% 0) 1 Ze 1 .~ -~- 2( 4?rtoT,) sin3 (% r9) sin 0 = 4 i4~coT, )sin4 (I/i 1 9 ) (1 3.28) sinmce sin 19 = 2 sin (5 0) cos (15 0). For large b, cos 19/2 = 1 a n d s i n 19/2 z= O/2, Also, we may

differentiate Equation (13.23) to find db in terms of the corresponding range

d0,

in terms of 19 a n d dll the differential scattering

dL

so for large impact parameters, the differential cross-section do/d0 would find that creases practice, relatively the

approaches

infilnity. In fact if we tried to integrate da to find the total cross-section (T, w e e is infinite. This reflects the fact that the Coulomb force deslowly as distance force increases. We say and it is a long-range particle is force. not In between nucleus alpha really

electrostatic

long-range, because if the alpha nuclear distance is greater than a few Angstroms, the nuclear charge is screenecl parameters (13.23) no which are too there big will our be longer holds; out by its bound electrons. Thus, for impact assumptions no scattering. break down, and Equation

13.13 MEASUREMENT OF THE DIFFERENTIAL CROSS-SECTION

Figure 13.13 shows how the differential cross-section might be measured by a movable detector of fixed area. The scattered cr particles are counted by a detec:tor at some fixed distance L from the target, which is arranged so that it may be placed at various angles 19 relative to the incident direction. The detector lhas an area AA. Hence, if 0 is small, the detector may detect all of the particles going into d0, but if 0 is large. the detector may detect only a small fraction of the particles going into d0. This is simply because the detector area is fixed, and the angle subtended by a small area A at a distance I scattering is azimuthally symmetric; that is, it is symmetric about the directiorl of the incoming beam. The r,olid from the target is AA/L. T h e integrol of Equation (13.28) over this solid angle

would be proportional to the number of US counted in the experiment. This

J 3. J 3 Meosurement
Detector of fixed
OEO

399

AA

Figure 13.13.

A detector of fixed oreo AA subtends on ongle of AA/l.

fractional cross-section times the number of particles incident per unit area per second should give the number of particles hitting the detector per second per target that If nucleus. is called the Rutherford scattering formula. It says cross-section is proportional to l/sin4 relating 8/2. the tile expression, Equation (13.8), the effective is differential combined scattering with The result, Equation (13.28), this result

scattering cross-section and the numbers of particles scattered, then if the incident flux density is N;, the number AN scattered into the detector per second from a target of area 1 square meter, thickness t, a n d n s c a t t e r e r s p e r u n i t v o l u m e , will be: AN, (into detector)

~~

AA d a = -nj.1 dQ

(13.29)

N,
for AA/L2 small, or

nr\r,N,

sin41(1/2
(O/2) dependence. The

(13.30)

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t h e r e i s t h e sin?

factors

(AA/12)nt

express the choice of detector size, geometrical setup in the lab, choice

of scatterer, and thickness of scatterer. The quantity

du/dQ

depends on the give the same

incident (Y particle energy, and on the nature of the interaction between (Y a n d nucleus. Surprisingly, quantum mechanical calculations of

da/da

result for the cross-section as we have obtained here using classical mechanics. Let us summarize our derivation. We have obtained a specific formula for the number of (Y particles detected if energy T,

the

force between nucleus and (Y is a Coulomb

force. The problem was treated by using classical mechanics. For an (Y of incident and impact parameter tl, the angle of scattering is given by: 1 47rtoT, COS j /I = b Ze2

(13.31)

400

Probing the nucleus

All particles falling within a circle of radius b, drawn between b and b + from db by

centered

on the nucleus, is obtained

will be scattered through an angle greater than 8. Particles falling in the area

db

will be scattered into the angles d/I where drY the above equation:

differentiating

(13.32)

The

differential

cross-section

for

scattering

into

d0

is

then (13.33)

2rb 1db du - =: dQ -= dR

Since the detector area AA, L meters from the target, is fixed, the detector always subtends a solid angle AA/I. So the fractional cross-section for scattering into the detector of area AA is

For an incident flux of N, particles per unit area per set, the number of particles scattered into the detector at 0, from a target of thickness t and m3, will be given by: A N AA Ze2 2 1 -2 = -. nt L2 89t0 Jo sin4 O/2 N, ()(13.35) n scatterers per

13.14 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFKATION SCATTERING FORMULA

OIF THE RUTHERFORD

T h e a b o v e p r e d i c t i o n car1 be used in several ways. The number of as detected per set are proportional lo: (1) (2) (3) the reciprocal of sin4 (O/2); the reciprocal of kinetic energy squared; the square of the nuclear charge Z. but these are the most important. Lets consider

There are other dependences,

them in order. In Table 13.1 are given some experimental results for scattering from gold foil as a function of scattering angle. According to the theory, the product of AN, and sin4(fY/2) should be constant. The agreement between theory and experiment shown in the last column is reasonably good; that is, AN, is proportional to l/sin4(B/2). In another set of experiments, a particles of varying velocity were scattered into a detector held at a fixed angle. According to the scattering formula, AN, is inversely proportional to form. The results agree well

Jz,

and the

Ji

= (Ij2 Mvg)2.

So AN, is inversely propor-

tional to vi. In Table 13.2 are given the experimental results in dimensionless with formula.

13.14 Rutherford scattering formula TABLE

13.1 Scattering of Alpha Particles From Gold Foil

401

Scintillations in Unit Time

- 1 sin4 0/2

AN, x sin4 0/2

150 135 120 105 75 60 45 37.5 30 22.5 15

33.1 43.0 51.9 69.5 211 477 1435 3300 7800 27,300 132,000 --.TABLE 1 3.2

1.15 1.38 1.79 2.53 7.25 16.0 46.6 93.7 223 690 3445
L

28.8 31.2 29.0 27.5 29.1 29.8 30.8 35.3 35.0 39.6 38.4

Vclriation of Scattering with Velocity

Range of Alpha Particles

Relative Values of 1 /vi

Number of Scintillations in Unit Time AN,

AN, x vi

5.5 4.76 4.05 3.32 2.51 1.84 1.04

L

1.0 1.21 1.50 1.91 2.84 4.32 9.22

24.7 29.0 33.4 44 81 101 255

25 24 22 23 28 23 28

In another set of experiments, performed by Chadlwick

in 1920, copper, silver

and platinum foils were used with as of fixed energy and at fixed scattering angles 0, with carefully measured geometrical factors AA/L, in an attempt to determine the values of Z for these elements. The results are given in Table 13.3. TABLE
I 13.3 Nuclear Charges Determined by

u-Particle Scattering ---I

Element

Nuclear Charge Ze 29.3e 46.3e 77.4e

Atomic Number Z 29 47 78

cu
Ag Pt

These results agree, within the experimental error, with the Rutherford scattering formula, and are additional evidence for the extremely small size of the nucleus.

402

h&in9 the nuckus

1 3 . 1 5 P A R T I C L E ACCELERATCIRS
The experiments discussed in this chapter employed occurring radioactive elements. cr particles from naturally

While these were useful for the pioneering

scattering experiments in nuclear physics, for a detailed investigation of nuclear forces it is desirable to have a wide range of different types of particles available, with variable energies which go much higher than the 8 MeV a v a i l a b l e i n n a t u r a l a particles. Therefore, a number of methods have been developed for accelerating obtaining the most a particles high in the of laboratory. potential The earlier two efforts and were aimed at difference of between It points, letting charged methods

particles accelerate between the two points. The Van de Graaff generator was successful these accelerators. utilizes electrostatic induction to obtain the high voltages. However, it is limited to energies only slightly higher than the 8 MeV spaced points, at cr particles, due to difficulties in insulating between even widelyseveral million volts potential difference.

An accelerator called the cyclotron, which overcame these difficulties, was developed by E. 0. Lawrence around 1932. In this machine, lower potential differences are used, but the particles move through the potential differences many times, eventually picking up a large energy. This is accomplished by injecting the charged particles into a magnetic field with lines of force oriented perpendicular ure 13.14, to inside the particle velocities. The resulting force causes the particles to conductors called dees. An alternating move in circular orbits. The particles move as shown by the dashed line in Fighollow semicircular voltage is applied between the dees, circular motion and synchronized with a frequency equal to that of the

with the passage of the particles across the

gap between the dees, in such a way that every time a particle crosses the gap, it is accelerated by the electric field in the gap and gains an energy corresponding to the maximum value of the alternating voltage. One may easily calculate the necessary frequency. If the particle has charge the magnitude of the magnetic force is: F = qd = qrd So ( 13.37) (I 3.38) (I 3.36) q, speed v and mass m, and moves in a magnetic field 8 with a radius r and angular frequency w = v/r, then

This equals the mass times the centripetal acceleration, wr. mwr or w = qB/m = qrwB

The frequency is then u = w/2~. This result is independent of radius if relativistic changes of mass with speed can be neglected. This is very desirable, since as the particles pick up energy, their radius increases until they eventually get to the edge of the dees, where they are extracted to give the particle beam. The limitation on the energy of particles accelerated by a fixed-frequency cyclotron occurs primarily because of the relativistic increase of mass as energy increases. Since the frequency w is inversely proportional to mass, the particles tend to get

J3.15 Hollow dees made of metal

Particle

accelerators

403

Figure 13.14. of the figure. out of phase

Diagram of a cyclotron. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane

with

the

applied

alternating

potential

at

higher

energy,

and

cease

to be accelerated. One way to overcome the relativistic effect is to make the magnetic field increase with radius, so that B/m is constant. However, this tends to make the particle motion along the magnetic field lines unstable, so that particles are lost by hitting the dees. This may be cured for energies up to a few hundred MeV, the the circular way particles path. of in overcoming bunches, the relativistic the increase of of the mass effect is to accelerate decreasing synchrowith frequency applied potential if the particles are nuclei, by making the magnetic field vary periodically around One

as the bunch of particles gains energy. Such machines are called cyclofrons. new bunch is introduced.

W h e n o n e b u n c h g a i n s Imaximum e n e r g y a n d l e a v e s t h e m a c h i n e , a

In modern high-energy machines in the billion electron volt energy region or higher, the charged particles travel in evacuated circular tubes which may be comparable to a mile in diameter. Carefully designed magnetic fields keep the particles in the proper path. Electrons are more difficult to acc:elerate for high energies than more massive particles, because for a given kinetic energy, they tend to lose more energy in the form of radiation when they undergo centripetal acceleration. Therefore, electrons are ordinarily accelerated to very high energies in a linear accelerator.

404

Probing the nucleus

T h e e l e c t r o n b e a m m o v e s d o w n t h e center of a straight line of cylindrical metal segments. The length of each segment is such that an electron spends the same time inside each segment. Thus, if an alternating potential with period equal to twice that time is applied between segments, the particle can go through the maximum potential change every time it crosses a gap between segments. To obtain electron energies in excess of 10 billion electron volts, the linear accelerator has to be several miles long.

a PARTICLES
Some radioactive heavy elements emit a particles with energies of the order of 4 to 8 MeV. T h e y h a v e ~a charge Q = 2 proton mass. They have Ibeen 1e 1 and a mass nearly four times the identified as helium nuclei.

SCATTERING

CROSS-SECTION dc
fo; scattering into a given range of

An infinitesimal scattering cross-section

angles dR is the number of particles scattered into df2 per scattering particle, divided by the number of particles incident per unit area. Hence effective area of the scatterer for scattering into dQ. T h e q u a n t i t y , called the differenfiol

do

is the is

da,/dQ,

cross-section.

If the scatterer is a thin foil of thickness t Ida, by and is the the number

containing n scattering centers total number of particles

per unit volume, then the fraction of incident per scattering particle, divided

particles scattered into dD is nfdc. The totol cross-section is scattered incident per unit area.

It

is the total effective area of the scatterer. The unit of

scattering cross-section is t h e b a r n : 1 b a r n = 10m2*m2.

DENSITY OF SCATTElilERS
The density of scatterers n per m3 is given by n = pN,,/W N, i s A v o g o d r o s molecular weight. numloer, 6.02 where p is the density,

x 10z3 p e r / g m - m o l e , a n d W i s t h e g r a m

RUTHERFORD SCATTERING
The differential cross-section da/d12 for u particle scattering from nuclei of

charge Z is given by: da -= da 2 1 sin e/2

Problems

405

NUCLEAR SIZES
Experiments with high-energy electron scattering show that nuclei are roughly spherical, and have radii given by is the atomic weight of the element.

R = R,W3, w h e r e R, = 1 .l fermis and W

1.

The cross-section for interaction of neutrinos with nuclei is approximately lo- barns, What thickness of iron could cause 1 *?N of the neutrinos in o neutrino beam to interact? For iron, p = 7.9 g/cm3. Answer: 1.2 x 1015 meters, or around 10.7 million miles or about 0.1 light years. (13.10), calculate the Using the value of the nuclear radius IX given in Eclucttion average density of nuclear matter. Answer: Answer:

3 x 1 0 kg/m3. 2.7 x lo4 joules.

>> h/a, argue why this

Calculate the rest energy of one cubic Angstrom of pure nuclear matter. Scattering of particles with the wavelength h/p by on obstacle is essentially a diffraction effect. If the obstacle is a hard sphere of radius a and p that the total cross-section should be greater than ~a. approaches 2aa. might be. As cross-section. 5. A beam of electrons with 102 electrons per second per square meter is incident on a gcs. The scattering cross-section due to a gas atom is 10~9mZ. How many electrons ore scattered per second by CI gets atom? Answer: 100. In going the infinitesimal length dx out of N The cross-section increases as As

- z the cross-section Explain

decreases.

+ 0 the cross-sedion

approaches 47~1 2,

four times the geometrical

6.

A solid has n atoms per unit volume. A beam of gamma rays incident on the solid sees a scattering cross-section of r~. after going the distance x? Answer: Nnadx, e-00X. photons, how many are scattered? What fraction of the gamma rays are unscattered

7.

An alpha particle with a speed of lO*m/sec moves in CI circle perpendicular to a magnetic field of 2 weber/m2. Find the frequency of rotation and the radius of the circle. Answer: 1.5 x 1 O7 rototions/sec; 1.03 cm.

8.

Calculate the distance of closest approach to a silver nucleus (Z = 47) of 12 MeV deutrons with charge ) e ) and mctss about twice that of ct proton. Answer: 5.6 fermis.

9.

An alpha particle of speed 1.55 x lo7 m/set is scattered through an angle of 25 from a silver nucleus. What was the impact parameter? Answer: 61 fermis.

10.

What is the distance of closest approach of o 6 MeV CY particle to a uranium (Z = 92) nucleus? Answer: 44 fermis.

11.

A beam of 8.3 MeV cy particles is incident on aluminum foil, and significant devi-

406

Probing the nucleus otions from the Rutherford scattering formula are observed for scattering angles

greater than 60. Assume the cy particle has ct radius 1.1 the radius of the oluminum nucleus. Answer: 12. 4.6 fermis.

x fifermis,

and estimate

Suppose cr beam of spherical particles of radius r is incident on a material consisting of fixed spherical particles of radius R. If the scattering is the same OS that of elastic collisions of hard spherical particles following classical mechanics, show that the infinitesimal cross-section for scattering angle 0 is du = n(r + R) sin !/z 0 cos % 0 = % x(r t

R)'

sin 0 dR

What is the differential cross-section ? Integrate to show that the total cross-section i s n(r + R). 13. A plane wave e rkr momentum: representing ct beam of particles with momentum p = each x direction, can be expressed OS a sum of wovefunctions,

Ak

in the

with definite angular

where Al is a constant depending on the angular momentum quantum number, t , and 0 is the angle relative to the x axis with r the radial distance (x = r cos 0). The scattering can then be found for the individual $xs, and the combination gives the total scattering. If a scattering center gives scattering out to radius R and none for greater radii, argue that there will be negligible scattering for a $4 when & >> kR. As the momentum goes to zero, argue that we need to consider only $~c. 14. Compute the differerltial Assume Coulomb forces. Answer: 94 bornsjstereradians. of 6.5 MeV kinetic energy. The incident flux of 15. A silver foil of thickness 10e5 mm and area 4 mm2 is used as a target in on (Y particle scattering experiment with cys into the detector of area 1 cm2, Answer: 16. 3 x 10m6 per minute. particles is 25 per mm2 per minute. How many as per minute should be scattered placed at 45 relative to the incident beam a distance 5 cm away from the target? For silver, p = 10.5 g/cm3. For a certain type of scattering process, particles are scattered uniformly in all directions. Then how should do depend on angle? 17. Alpha particles from polonium (Velocity = 1.6 x 10 m/set) are directed normally against a gold foil of thickness 4 x lo- cm. The density of gold is 19.32 g/cm3. What fraction of the olpha particles are scattered through angles greater than 135? Answer: 5 . 9 x 10-6. 18. What fraction of 5.7 MeV (Y particles incident on copper foil, p = 8.929 g/cm3, of thickness lo- mm, will be scattered through angles greater than 90? Answer: 1 . 4 x lo-. and assume that Ac 2 1 19. For the series in Problem 13, take ic/c(r, 0) = (sin kr)/kr, of the plane wcrve, scattering cross-section da/dQ for scattering of protons off gold nuclei into ihe angles near 45 , if the incident proton energy is 4 MeV.

with the other At negligible. If ct hard sphere of radius R were placed in the path the wavefunction would then be ~S~+~(r, 0) with the consin (kr + 6) stant Bc the only one of appreciable size. For the t = 0 case, It/h = -~. kr Show that to satisfy the boundary condition at r = R, --6 = kR. Now sin (kr) =

Problems
y2 ;(ek _ e-

407

) and sin (kr -t 6) = !/2 i(eikr+i6 - e-ir--a). Since the time dependence re-

is e -jut, the terms in parentheses correspond to oultgoing and incoming waves

spectively. Thus, for the incoming waves to be the same with and without the sphere, -lr ,Q; = -By ly2 ; e--* - e . Find 6,. If we say that the number of incident particles p e r u n i t orea per unit time is proportional to 1eikx ) , a r g u e t h a t t h e n u m b e r scattered per unit area per unit time is proportional to 1/(2kr) 1 ezi6 - 1 / 2 for sin2 kR k - 0, and thus the differential cross-section is L(2 -- 2 cos 2kR) = - + k=O 4k2 k2 Show that for k + 0, the total cross-section is 47rR2.

R2

14 nuclear structure
The experiments on (Y particle scattering give direct evidence that the force between llr2, a nucleus and ton cv particle is a Coulomb force, proportional to meters). Later nuclear volume down to distances of the order of several fermis. Hence the size of the nucleus has to be of this order of magnitude (1 fermi = lo- lished that the matter in the nucleus is distributed throughout the

experiments with other types of incident particles from accelerators have estabwith nearly constant density, and that the radius R of a nucleus of an element of atomic mass W (in amu) m a y b e e x p r e s s e d b y : R = r,W3, w h e r e r,, E 1.1 fermis. Nuclei are thus seen to be extremely small, compared to the size of the a t o m . I n f a c t , i n a n ordin,Dry piece of lead, 99.978% of the mass is contained in about 0.000 000 000 000 000 04% of the volume. It is the aim of nuclear physics to understand the internal structure of these tiny objects-how they are held together, what they are made of, and how they interact with each other. This study is very active at present, and there are a great many unsolved problems. In contrast to atomic physics, where the basic principles of wave mechanics are well understood and where these principles have almost invariably led to o quantitatively precise explanation of atomic phenomena, in nuclear physics the basic principles are only qualitatively understood and accurate numerical calculations are extremely difficult. We shall begin by looking at some of the simplest experimental data. Then we shall discuss the properties of stable nuclei and some models by which we can understand qualitatively the gross features of nuclear structure.

14.1

NUCLEAR

MASSES

Over a thousand different kinds of nuclei are now known to exist. Two nuclei are different in kind if their charges or masses are different. The charge Ze on a nucleus can be determined in a number of ways-by particle scattering, by x-ray production, or simply by chemical or spectral identification of the element whose atoms are formed by electrons surrounding the given nucleus. Nuclei with about 100 different values of Z are found in nature. All nuclei having equal values of Z are called isotopes. For example, the element calcium (Z = 20) is f o u n d i n n a t u r e w i t h 6 clifferent nuclear masses which are stable, and others which 408 are not stable. Therefore, calcium has six different stable isotopes.

74.7

Nuclear

m a s s e s 409

Some nuclei are stable, while others are unstable and emit radiations in the form of cy particles, high-speed electrons or positron!s, photons, or other particles. In this chapter we shall be primarily concerned with the stable nuclei, those which do not emit radiations. In Appendix 3 are given the measured values of the atomic masses of the stable nuclei and a few of the more interesting unstable ones. These masses are based on the assignment of exactly 12 units of mass to the most common carbon isotope, which is then used as the standard of mass. (NOTE:

These are not nuclear masses, but masses of the entire electrically neutral

atom.) The reason atomic masses are given, rather than nuclear masses, is that it is atomic masses which are usually measured directly. For example, the mass of 22.4 liters of helium, containing IV0 particles, could be directly measured and the atomic mass, or mass of one atcsm, could be derived from the measurement. Another way atomic masses are measured is by ionizing an atom (removing one or more electrons) and then accelerating the atom through an electric field, thus giving it a known energy. The charged ion is then allowed to pass through a magnetic field. By measuring the deflection of the ion in the magnetic field, the ions momentum can be determined. If both momelntum using electric and magnetic fields for determining and kinetic energy are masses has been known, the ion mass and then the atomic mass may be determined. The art of atomic developed to a high degree. If the atomic mass is known, then to find the mass of the nucleus by itself, one should subtract the masses of the electrons in amu from the atomic mass:

me = 9 . 1 0 8 x 10m3 k g = 0.000549amu Strictly speaking, the mass of an slightly less than the electrons rest electron bound to a nucleus is effectively mass, because the electron has more negative

potential energy than it has kinetic energy. However, these binding energies are only a small fraction of the electrons rest energy and can be neglected when using atomic mass tables. A common notation is to denote the value of Z as a subscript to the left of the symbol of the element. Thus, iron (Z = 26) is denoted b y 26Fe. O x y g e n , w i t h Z = 8 , w o u l d b e d e n o t e d b y the nuclear mass zM is given to sufficient accuracy by: ,NI = zMot - Z m , (14.1) 80. If zM,,+ is the atomic mass of a nucleus having charge Z, and if m, is the electrons rest mass, then

From the table of atomic masse!,, it is seen that the atomic masses are nearly integers, when the masses are measured in atomic mass units (amu). The integer nearest to the atomic mass W is called the mass number and is denoted by A. Thus the mass number of the isotope of zirconium (Z = 40), with an atomic mass W = 91.9046 amu, is A = 92. For a nucleus of a given Z and A, in addition to writing Z as a subscript to the left, the valule of A is written as a superscript to the right: ZMA. be denoted by .,0Zr92. Imp/e From the table in Appendix 3, the atomic mass of 53127 is 126.90435 amu. T h e Thus the Zirconium nucleus mentioned above would

mass of one electron is the mass of a proton, 1.0078 amu, d i v i d e d b y t h e r a t i o

4 10

Nuclear sfrocture
of proton to electron mass, 1836, or m, = .000549 electrons in 5sl27 is (0.00055)(53) of 531 lz7 i s 1 2 6 . 9 0 4 4 = 0.0292 amu. amu. - 0.0292 = 126.8752 amu; so the mass of the

Therefore, the nuclear mass

14.2 NEUTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS

The fact that the nuclear masses are so nearly integral multiples of a basic unit suggests that a nucleus of mass number A is built out of A smaller particles of equal or nearly equal masses. It is now known that nuclei are basically composed of protons and neutrons. Neutrons are electrically neutral particles having a mass n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h e protcn m a s s . H o w e v e r , f o r a t i m e i t w a s t h o u g h t t h a t a nucleus of mass number A might be composed of A protons plus a number of electrons which resided in the nucleus, thus canceling o u t a p a r t o f t h e protonic charge. nuclei exists We based inside shall on the consider a two of the most important reasons why this cannot be an accurate picture of the nucleus, and shall then discuss the properties of proton-neutron then the composition. magnitude of the uncertainty in position of the A nucleus has a very small size, several fermis in diameter. If an electron nucleus, electron will be roughly A:( - lo-l5 m. For such a small uncertainty in position, the momentum uncertainty will be very large; the average momentum will be of the order of magnitude of the uncertainty in momentum, and from this the average kinetic energy of the electron in the nucleus can be estimated. For an uncertainty average Ax, the uncertainty woulcl in momentum will be Ap E

h/(4aAx).

The

momentum

then be roughly x 10e2 kg-m/set = 1 0 0 *

C

h, 6 . 6 x 1O-34 - = 5
= (12.6)(10m15)

For an electron with rest energy of about 0.5 MeV, this is an extreme relativistic momentum, so the energy is E = Thus, from the z/(pc) + (moc2)2 E p c if an electron is = 1OOMeV confined to a region around

uncertainty

principle,

a fermi in size, it will have a very large kinetic energy. In order for the electron to remain in the nucleus, it must be bound by an even greater negative potential energy. a few Since MeV, the negative potential and energy due of to Coulomb entirely attraction new is at best is that would mean that there would have to exist a between proton electron some very strong type. There

attractive and

force

no other independent evidsence proton. magnetic moments.

in nature for such a strong force between electron

Also, the proton-electron model of the nucleus does not give good values for nuclear An electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment, eIi/2m = 1 Bohr magneton. If there were an odd number of electrons inside the nucleus, then the unpairecl Bohr magneton. Instead, electron should give rise to a nuclear moment of 1 nuclear moments are more nearly of the order of

74.3 Properties of neufron and proton w h e r e M, is the proton mass. In Bohr magnetons, e%/2M, =

411

eW2M pI

0 . 0 0 0 5 4 eh/2m. When the neutron was discovered by Chadwick in 1932, Heisenberg immediately suggested that nuclei must be composed of neutrons and protons. Chadwick had found that when (Y particles are incident on nuclei of 4Be9, a very penetrating radiation is given off. Since this radiation leaves nlo visible tracks in a cloud chamber, it is uncharged. Also, the radiation has the property that when passing through any material containing a large proportion of hydrogen, protons are k n o c k e d o u t w i t h a b o u t 5 MeV of kinetic energy. Clhadwick tion consisted of uncharged particles called neutrons, having a showed that these mass nearly equal and other similar experiments could be understood by assuming that the radiato the mass of the proton. The neutrons mass has been determined to be 1.0086652 amu. The neutron is denoted by the symbol on, w h i c h m e a n s t h e mass number:of the neutron is one. Neutrons have been found to take part in a number neutrons of nuclear Z reactions. then be considered to be composed of N with N + Z = A (14.2) A nucleus of mass number A ccln and protons,

The number of neutrons in a nucleus, N, is called the neutron number. The different kinds of stable nuclei may be characterized numbers N, Z and A. Since, from Equation (14.2), by giving them the there is one equation connect-

ing N, Z and A, it is necessary to give only two (any two) of these three numbers. Knowing the two numbers Z and A corresponds to knowing the charge and mass of the nucleus in questioll. The N and Z values of all the stable nuclei are given in Figure 14.1. In this table the neutron number is plotted vertically a n d t h e p r o t o n n u m b e r horizontaliiy. A dot at a certain point with coordinates (Z, N) represents a stable nucleus, which exists with .Z protons and N neutrons. We see from Figure 14.1 that the stable nucleus 2OCa46 nucleus 92U23* does not exist. soSn. Nuclei One way to exists, but that the stable

We also see, for example, that there are ten stable isotopes of having equal numbers of neutrons in the nucleus are called isotones. remember which is which: isotopes: isotones: equal numbers of protons equal numbers of neutrons

As an example, Figure 14.1 shows that there are three stable N = 14 isotones. Since are nuclei also are constituted nucleons. of protons and neutrons, ,these fundamental particles called

.3 PROPERTIES OF THE NEUTRON AND PROTON

In attempting to understand the properties of large Inuclei containing up to 240 nucleons, we need to know first what the fundamental properties of the nucleons

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

9c

Proton Number Z Figure 14.1. Neutron number versus proton number for the stable nuclides.

14.3 Properties of neutron and proton themselves are. So far, we have discussed charge and mass. In addition, it has been found that neutrons and protons both have intrinsic spin angular momenta characterized by spin quantum numbers of % . Nucllear spin quantum numbers

413

are denoted by I, and for both neutron and proton, I = % . These spin angular momenta obey the same rules we have discussed several times for electron spin and orbital angular momenta. For example, the eigenvalue of the square of the spin angular momentum of a nucleus would be given, in terms of I, by I2 = A2 /(/ + 1) Since a nucleus may contain several nucleons, I may in general be different from % . Specifically for nucleons, however, since I = % , (14.4)

Nuclear spin angular momenta are associated with the presence of magnetic moments. There is a simple relation between magnetic moment p a n d s p i n I , which is customarily written:

,G&l P

(14.5)

w h e r e M, is the proton mass. The quantity eh/2M, is a unit called the nuclear magneton. It is /,,,, of a Bohr magneton. Most nuclear magnetic moments are of the order of a few nuclear magnetons. When writing the magnetic moment a s i n E q u a t i o n (14.~7, the factor !g--simply mentally. In Equation (14.5), called the g factor-is a pure adolpted that the mass of the number of the order of magnitude -5 to +5, which must be determined experithe (convention is proton, rather than the neutron or some other particle, is used in the unit eh/2M,. Then g has some value that cannot be predicted accurately; at present, there is no acceptable theory of nuclear moments. chosen z direction, then the number of differThe relation between p and I is such that, if the nuclear spin can have 21 + 1 different L components along some e n t v a l u e s o f pL, is also 21 + 1. Thus, if a nuclear spin is placed in a magnetic field, the energy E = -p * B, has 121 + 1 different vaolues. Hence, in a magnetic field, isolated protons and neutrons have two different energy states. The g factors of various nuclei can be measured by observing the frequencies of the photons which are absorbed as absorb electromagnetic radiation

the
of

nuclei make transitions between different protons a frequency 2.13 x lo7 cps in making

states in a magnetic field. For exarnple, in a magnetic field of 0.5 w/m2, transition from the spin-down to the spin-up state. Here, factor is hu = ( 6 . 6 2 x 10-34)(2.13 x 107) = 5 58

AE = hv = 2~8.

W i t h eh/2M, = 5 . 0 5 1 x 10ez7 ioule/(weber/m) a n d I = % , t h e p r o t o n s g

!h [2(eh/2M,)

61 = -

(5.05

x l0-~~)(0.5)

4 14

Nuclear

structure

In the case of the sLi nucleus, I = /, and the measured value of g is 2.1688. Therefore, the maximum component in any direction of the nuclear magnetic moment of sLi is /z (2.1688) = 3.25 nuclear magnetons. Table 14.1 is a brief summary of the numerical values of the constants characterizing nucleons.
TABLEi

14.1

Properties of Neutron and Proton on

1P

Charge Mass (amu) Spin g factor Magnetic (nuclear moment magnetons)

0
1.008665 H -3.8256 -1.9128

1.007276 M +5.5856 +2.7928

lel

14.4 THE DEUTERON ( ,H:I

The simplest nucleus which contains more than one particle consists of one proton and one neutron, and is called a deuteron. The Z of a deuteron is one. Since the deuteron has a charge + 1e ) and a mass number A = 2, it is an isotope of hydrogen. Since the nuclear mass is different from that of ordinary hydrogen, the hydrogen-like atomic energy levels will be shifted slightly away from the values they have in hydrogen. These energy shifts can be used to measure the deuterons mass AId in terms of the proton mass M,. The experimental values of the Rydberg constants in cm- for ,H and ,H2 are: RH = RI, = 109,677.581 c m - , f o r ,H f o r ,H2

109,707.419cm-,

The ratio of these two numbers is just the ratio of the reduced masses, so:

2 = (1 + ;)/(I + $) = (I + : - :)/(I + $)
or
Md

(14.6)

M, =

(14.7)

From this we can calculate the ratio of mass of the deuteron to mass of the proton. With m,/M, = /,836, we obtain: & - = 1.9985 4 Then, in amu, the deuteron mass is 2.013. This illustrates how information about nuclei can be obtained by studying the interaction of nuclei with electrons. More accurate mass values for the deuteron may be obtained by observing the

14.4 The deuteron deflections of deuterons in electric and magnetic fields, or by observing the behavior of deuterons in nuclear reactions. The value of the deuterons mass, from Appendix 3, is: ,Mz, - m, = 2.01410:2 - 0 . 0 0 0 5 4 9 = 2.013553amu

415

The deuterons mass is not equal to the sum of the neutron and proton masses, which is: M , = 1 . 0 0 7 2 7 6 amu + MN = 1.008665 -___ = 2 . 0 1 5 9 4 1 amu

Thus, the total rest mass of the deuteron is less than the sum of the rest masses of its constituent particles. This means that the system is bound. This is due to an attractive force between neutron and proton, and a negative potential energy of interaction. If the system is bouncl, then it is necessary to add energy to the and place them at rest infinitely distant The binding energy of a bound system to separate it into its component parts. The amount of energy needed to separate the system into its constitlJents system is always positive. + M, = 2.015941 amu; the rest from each other is called the binding energy, Eb.

The binding energy of the deuteron may be computed as follows: The rest mass after separating the nucleus into parts = M, difference between these masses is (due m a s s b e f o r e s e p a r a t i n g t h e n u c l e u s i n t o p a r t s = Md = 2 . 0 1 3 5 5 3 amu; t h e to the addition of energy, in this case an amu; s i n c e 1 energies. for the deuterons binding energy amu i s e q u i v a l e n t t o Eb = 2.224 MeV. This amount equal to the binding energy; therefore, the binding energy will be given b y WC = M , + M , - Md = 0 . 0 0 2 3 8 8 931.48 MeV, is extremely we find that the large compared to atomic bincling e n e r g y i n MeV i s binding

The existence of a large value, Z!.224 MeV,

indicates the presence of a strong, attractive force between neutron and proton. The deuteron can be made to disintegrate by irradiating it with a beam of high energy y-ray photons. If the energy of a photon is greater than the binding energy, the deuteron can absorb the photon and be dissociated into a proton and a neutron than the with some kinetic 2.224 energy. This process the is called photodisintegration y energy is and is observed experimentally to occur, providecl greater minimum MceV, called the incident energy.

threshold

The spin and magnetic moment of the deuteron are also of interest. The nuclear force between nucleons i s (Found to depend very strongly on the relative orientation of the spins; for a neutron and a proton,, the state of lowest energy is one in which the nuclear spins are lined up. The spin quantum numbers of both n and p are % If the spins are parallel, then assuming there is no orbital angular momentum, the spin quantum number of the deuteron should be ID = 1. It is found experimentally that this is the spin quantum number of the deuteron. In contrast to the hydrogen atom, which has infinitely many bound states, the deuteron has only this one bound slate with spins parallel. let us next consider the magnetic moment of the deuteron. From Table 14.1,

416

N u c l e a r sfructure the magnetic moment of the neutron is antiparallel to its spin. The magnetic moment of the proton is, on the other hand, parallel to its spin. So if the spins of n and p are parallel, the two magnetic moments should therefore be in opposite directions, or antiparallel. If this is the case, then we might expect that the magnetic moment of the deuteron would be equal to the difference between the magnetic moments of proton and neutron. This difference is

62 - ~1. = 2 . 7 9 2 8 - 1 . 9 1 2 8 = 0 . 8 8 0 0 n u c l e a r m a g n e t o n s The actually measured value of the moment of the deuteron is +0.8574 nuclear magnetons. of 0.0226 This agrees quite well with has the not above yet result, been but there is a difference nuclear magnetons, which explained.

14.5 NUCLEAR FORCES

In order for a neutron and a proton to form a bound state, it has been said that a strong attractive force must exist between the two particles, and that the force will be spin-dependent. Although from experimental studies of the scattering of nucleons off nucleons, semi-quantitative statements can be made about such strong interactions, the basic force law is not completely known. One way to study the interaction i s by scattering neutrons off proton targets. A way to interpret the data is to assume the potential energy of interaction between the particles is a certain motlhemotical tions agree with experimlent, function, then solve the SchrSdinger equation to find what the scattering cross-section should be for that potential. If the predicthis would be evidence that the assumed potential is correct. Thus we do not deal directly with a force, but rather with a potential energy in nuclear physics. In Figure 14.2 is given a potential energy as a function of distance r between neutron and proton, MeV which explains the scattering data for incident neutron energies up to 10 or so. The potential varies somewhat,

depending on the relative spins of the two particles. The interaction potential is

Figure

14.2.

Neutron-proton interaction potential.

14.5

Ndeor

forces

417

essentially zero until the particles come to within :2 fermis of each other, and then drops down to a very low value, about -22 MeV. S u c h a f u n c t i o n i s c a l l e d a pofential we//. The exact shape of the well is not itoo important; in fact, one could draw several other curves which have the same general shape as that in the figure, and which explain the data equally well. They might differ in details, such as in the sharpness of the bend upwards at r = 2 fermis, in whether the bottom of the well slants a little, and so forth. One of the most important features of this potential is that it is of very short range and goes to zero at a range of about 2 fermis. In proton-proton scattering experiments, as contrasted with neutron-proton scattering, it is to be expected that if the distance of closest approach is greater than the proton diameter, the potential energy of interaction should be just a Coulomb potential. It is found that #If the incident protons kinetic energy is large enough for the protons to penetraie the repulsive Coulomb potential and come within a few fermis of each other, then the potential energy of interaction becomes large of and negative. is This conclusion in is reached 14.3. by interpreting from the the scattering data in a fashion similar to that used for neutron-proton scattering. The potential interaction plotted Figure Apart Coulomb

Figure

14.3.

Proton-proton

interoctiorl

potential.

repulsion of protons, the interaction between two protons is essentially the same as that between a neutron and proton. That is, the nulclear part of the potential is the same in both cases. Experimerlts on neutron-neutron scattering also indicate that the neutron-neutron potential is the same as the neutron-proton potential. Thus, the nuclear that part is, of the interaction potential between between two two nucleons nucleons is chargedoes not independent; the nuclear

depend appreciably on the charge:; of the nucleons. The internuclear potential between any two nucleons is of the form of a potential well. The range of the potential is approximately 2 fermis, and the well depth is about 22 MeV. While the description of low-energy interactions of two nucleons may be explained by a simple potential moclel, when many nucleons interact the theory becomes much more difficult. One relight expect that with the two-body potential discussed above, each of the nucleons in a nucleus would be attracted by every

418
other nucleon, and all would be within about 2 fermis of each other. This contradicts the fact that the observed radii of nuclei increase as W3, so that the nuclear density is approximately constant. Thus, the nucleons in a nucleus actually tend to stay a distance apart about equal to the range-2 fermis-of the interaction. If all nucleons in the nucleus stay an average distance from their n e a r e s t n e i g h b o r s w h i c h i s e 2 fermis, and the range of the force is 2 fermis, a g i v e n n u c l e o n c a n interacct with only a few other nucleons at any given instant. This is partially, but not completely,. accounted for by the exclusion principle, which tends to prevent identical spin ks particles from being at the same position with the same spin. Also, nucleon-nucleon scattering data at higher incident kinetic energies reveals .that at even shorter distances, less than N 1 fermi, staying too close together. the nucleon-nucleon potential becomes repulsive rather than attractive; this also tends to keep nucleons in a nucleus from

14.6

YUKAWA FORCES
In 1935, H. Yukawa proposed that

tlhe

nuclear force was produced by emission

and absorption of particles. The following mechanical analogy might make this seem reasonable: Imagine two people standing on carts and throwing bricks at each other, as in Figure 14.4. When one throws a brick, . -a ,I he acquires a net

Figure

14.4.

A repulsive force between two objects is generated by a mass thrust back

and forth. momentum in the backward direction. When the other catches the brick, he also acquires a momentum in the backward direction. If they throw and catch many bricks, there will tend to be a net Irepulsive force between them. In order for there to be an attractive force, rather than a repulsive one, they must not throw bricks away, but they must pull bricks awoy from each other; in other words, the force between a man on a cart and a brick must be attractive. Similarly, if nucleons interact by exchanging particles, as indicated in Figure 14.5, an attractive force could be produced. We can make some rough order-ofmagnitude estimates, based on the uncertainty principle, for the mass of the exchanged particle. Suppose we have two 2f, nucleons, so the about 2 fermis in apart, interacting by emitting and absorbing particles. There will be an uncertainty in position of an emitted particle i\x uncertainty momentum

14.6 Yukowo forces

419

Figure 14.5.

Nucleons are attracted by exchange of particles pulled back and forth.

will be given by the uncertainty principle, in momentum, so p - h/Ax.

ApAx

-. ft. W e m a y a s s u m e t h a t for the momentum to

the order of magnitude of the momentum is roughly the same as t h e u n c e r t a i n t y We can use this estimlate estimate the mass, if we make some reasonable assumption about the speed. The s p e e d c a n a p p r o a c h % c or so without the particles mass changing much from its rest mass. So assume the particles momentum is just p - M C , w h e r e M i s the rest mass. Then, combining p - fi/Ax and

M C , we obtain for the mass: (14.8)

This estimate should only be good tct within a factor of ten or so. Let us calculate the rest mass in terms of the rest moss of the electron:

M 6 1o-34 ---= __-_ me CAxm, ( 3 x 10)(2 x

By making slightly different assumptions

IO-~)(,IO-~~)
the speed

z 160 or about Ax, this

about

estimate can be made to vary by a factor of 2 or so. That is, the theory predicts a rest mass of the order of magnitude h/cAx, force. Thus, a new particle is preclicted times that of the electron. A particle of mass about 206m,, called a p m e s o n , w a s l a t e r d i s c o v e r e d , a n d whose existence was spend a great deal i t w a s t h o u g h t a t f i r s t t h a t t h e p meson was the palrticle because the p was not attracted stronglyto nuclei; it where Ax is the range of the that has a rest mass a few hundred

predicted by Yukawa. However, there were difficulties with this interpretation, could of time inside a nucleus, as in a p-mesic atom, without being absorbed. It was

not until some time later that the particle responsible for the strong nuclear interaction was discovered. In fact, three different types of these so-called P mesons have been found: two charged and one neutral. Some of their properties are listed in Table 14.2.

TABLE 14.2

Ziome

Properties of r Mesons

Figure

14.6.

S u c c e s s i v e d e c a y o f t h e K m e s o n , a + fi -+ e . ( C o u r t e s y P . H . F o w l e r . )

Figure 14.7.

Photographs

of

the

disintegration

of

light

elements

carbon,

nitrogen

or

o x y g e n b y t h e n u c l e a r c a p t u r e o f T- p a r t i c l e s . ( C o u r t e s y P . H . F o w l e r . )

14.7 Mode/s of the nucleus The fact that these * mesons have zero spin allows them to be emitted and absorbed readily by nucleons without any difficulties involving conservation of angular momentum. The p meson on the other hand be emitted alone from a nucleon without causing the lhas s p i n /2 and could not nucleon to change its spin

421

to an integral value. However, all nucleons have spin 5. A x+ meson tends to be repellecl by a nucleus due to its charge, so a free 7r+ of low kinetic energy does not come near the nucleus, but decays into a p meson and a neutrino in around 10e8 seconds; the ~.r, in turn, decays into an electron and two kinds of neutrinos in around 10e6 seconds. A typical K- /J + e decay is shown in Figure 14.6. A ?r meson ordinarily decays into 2 y rays. If a rr- meson does not enter a nucleus, then it decays into a /.- a n d a neutrino. However, a rmeson is attracted to a nucleus and can be absorbed by it, giving up all its rest energy to the nucleus and causing it to disintegrate. Such an event is shown in Figure 14.7. We shall discuss such decays in more detail later. The discovery of the new particle predicted by Yukawa was a great triumph of theory. With this theory, Yukawa was also able to write an approximate where expression for the internucleon potential energy of the form -Ce-O/r, C and a are constants and r i s t h e i n t e r n u c l e a r distamce.

This potential can be

used to explain the low energy scattering data, just aIs well as the potential of Figure 14.2. This potential is thus an approximation to the true nuclear potential, and is called a Yukawa potential. If the range of the nuclear interaction is about 2 fermis, then one would expect that in the Yukawa potential, a E 2 fermis

7 MODELS OF THE NUCLEUS

Because our present knowledge of the internal structure of the nucleus and of the forces between nucleons is incomplete, many models of the nucleus have been constructed to explain particular nuclear properties. A model is a mathematical construct which supposedly contains all the features essential to explain some physical phenomenon. Each of the models of the nucleus which has been considered is useful in explaining a certain portion of the existing experimental data on nuclei, but no one of them can be used to explain all of the data. In this section we shall consider some of the nuclear mlodels which have been at least partially successful.

1 Liquid Drop Model The facts that nuclei have constant densities and moderately well-defined surfaces, and interact with short range forces, suggest that nuclei might be similar in structure to solids or liquids. If one considers a nucleus to be a crystalline aggregate of nucleons, then it turns out that the zero-point vibrations of the nucleons about their equilibrium positions are much too large for the nucleus to

422

Nuclear

structure

remain bound together. So a nucleus cannot resemble a crystalline solid. However, we can think of the nucleus as similar to a drop of liquid in which the particles are able to move about inside the drop, but are prevented from leaving the nucleus by an effective surface tension. This model can be used to explain qualitatively the observed binding energies of the stable nuclei. let us first see how the binding energies are calculated. The binding energy of a bound system is the energy required to break the r#ystem into its constituents and place them at rest infinitely distant from each other. For a nucleus of N neutrons and Z protons, of rest masses M, and M, respectively, the rest mass of the nucleus after it is broken into its constituent parts will be NM. + ZM,. If the rest mass of the o r i g i n a l n u c l e u s i s zM , t h e n A =: N + Z , a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n r e s t m a s s between the constituents and the nucleus will be proportional to the binding energy Eb. T h e r e f o r e , 6, - =
C2

NMn +

Z M ,

- zMA

(14.9)

This

formula

is

not

very

convenient

for

calculation,

because

the

binding

energy

is expressed in terms of nuclear masses, whereas tables such as that in Appendix 3 contain atomic masses. To a sufficient approximation, neglecting electronic binding energies, and using m, for the electrons rest mass, ZMA := zM$ - Z m , Similarly, in terms of the rest mass of a hydrogen atom, M, and therefore, ZM, =z Z,ML, - Z m , (14.12) .= ,MA, - m, (14.11) (14.10)

Substituting for ZMA and A M , and simplifying, we get 6, - =

C2

N M ,

Z ,M;,

- zM$,

(14.13)

Thus, due to the cancellation of all the electron rest masses, the atomic masses of the given element and of hydrogen can be used in calculating the binding energy.
example

For iron 26Fe 56, Z = 26, A = 56, N = 30. So we use

30M,, = 3 0 x ( 1 . 1 3 0 8 6 6 5 ) 26(,MA,) = 26 x (1.007825)

amu = 3 0 . 2 5 9 9 5 amu amu = 2 6 . 2 0 3 4 5 sum = 56.46340

24::

amu amu

5 5 . 9 3 4 9 3 amu amu = 9 3 1 . 4 8 MeV,

Thus, NM, + Z

,M:,

- - zMt,

= 0 . 5 2 8 4 7 amu.

Since 1

the binding energy of the 26Fe 56 nuc:leus

is 492.3 MeV.

74.7 Models of the nucleus

423

The binding energy per particle of a nucleus is

tlhe

average binding energy

o f o n e p a r t i c l e a n d i s j u s t d e f i n e d a s Eb/A. S o f r o m t h e e x a m p l e f o r 26Fe56, t h e b i n d i n g e n e r g y p e r p a r t i c l e i s 492.3/56 = 8.79 MeV. L i k e w i s e t h e b i n d i n g energy per particle for sOI6 is 7.97 MeV. The binding energy per particle can be computed in a like manner for all the stable nuclei. The results are shown in Figure 14.8. A fairly smooth curve is found,

20

40

60

80

100

150

200

250

Mass Number (Al Figure 14.8. The average binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass.

which has a maximum at about the position of iron, but there are a number of peaks at lower values of A. From around A = 20 on up to A = 200, the curve i s n e a r l y a c o n s t a n t a t a v a l u e o f Eb/A e q u a l t o a b o u t 8 MeV per particle.

This constancy of the binding energy per particle is very similar to that of a l i q u i d . F o r e x a m p l e , t o b o i l w a t e r r e q u i r e s 8 0 kilocal/kg, a constant value.

However, nuclei do not contain 10z3 particles, but more like 250 particles at most. Hence there will be important surface effects. If a nucleus held a very large number of particles, then because of the short range of nuclear forces and because of the constant density of nuclei, one nucleon in the interior would interact w i t h o n l y a f e w o t h e r s a n d w o u l d h a v e a b o u t 8 MeV b i n d i n g e n e r g y . Nucleons near the surface would, however, not interact with so many others and would have less binding energy. The amount by which the binding energy will be less than 8 MeV should be proportional to the number of lnucleons near the surface.

S i n c e n u c l e a r d e n s i t i e s a r e c o n s t a n t , t h e n u m b e r o f nucleons n e a r t h e s u r f a c e should be proportional to the surface area. Because nuclear radii are proport i o n a l t o W3 o r (A3), the correction to the total1 binding energy from the

p r e s e n c e o f t h e s u r f a c e s h o u l d b e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o A23. T h e n t h e c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e b i n d i n g e n e r g y p e r p a r t i c l e shrould to the binding energy will be negative. b e proportional t o A-3. The correction

424

Nocleor

structure

For

smaller

values

of

A,

where

the

surface-to-volume

ratio

is

larger,

this

effect

should be more important. In fact, as A + m, this correction approaches zero, w h i l e a s A + 0, it becomes very large. This explains why the binding energy per particle becomes small at low A. At large A, the binding energy per particle again gets small, principally due to Coulomb repulsion of protons in the nucleus. Since a nucleus has Z protons, which are on the average distributed uniformly throughout the nucleus, these protons tend to repel each other and make the n u c l e u s f l y a p a r t . T h i s i s a n u n b i n d i n g effect. Thus, there will be a negative correction to the binding energy per particle, which is proportional to the electrostatic self-energy of a spherical charge of magnitude Ze. This energy is /s (Ze)/R. S i n c e

i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o A3, t h e c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e b i n d i n g This Coulomb repulsion does

energy per particle will be proportional to Z2/A43.

not occur for neutrons. This means that heavy nuclei can consistently contain more neutrons than protons without the unbinding Coulomb repulsion which tends to make the nucleus unstable. For example, 82Pb20* has a Z of 82 and an N of 126. For small nuclei, the Coulomb conltribution particle. Hence it is not Ipossible of the Coulomb repulsion between is small, but for large nuclei, it is large. In fact, as Z + co, this term becomes larger in magnitude than 8 MeV/ to have bound nuclei for Z too large, because the protons in the nucleus. The binding energy

per particle should then be given by the sum of three terms:

(14.14)

w h e r e C, and C2 are constants. The curve in Figure 14.8 con be fit reasonably well by these three terms. The three separate contributions, and their sum, are shown in Figure 14.9.

15 t

Volume energy per nucleon __~~----~--_-~_-__-~--------~~----~~----~--~~

Mass

Number

_____- ---------_ c2 = 0 . 7 7 MeV - - - - - - - - - - Coulomb repulsion energy per nucleon energy per nucleon

-10

, I

Surface

- 1 5 Figure 14.9.

I Ia function

B i n d i n g e n e r g y p e r n u c l e o n i n o n a t o m i c n u c l e u s CIS

of a t o m i c

number.

74.7 Models of fhe nucleus

425

7.2 Alpha

Particle Mode/

Inspection of the binding energy curve, Figure 14.8, shows sharp relative peaks at the positions of sHe4, heavy nuclei emit c~ ,Bes, 6C2, s 016, and ,oNe2o. This, and the fact that some particles, suggests that pairs of neutrons and protons become

associated together inside the nuc:leus, as (Y particles. The binding energy per particle of 2He4 is about 7 MeV. T h u s , i f n u c l e i con!sisted of cc particles, about 87% of the binding energy would be accounted for. Presumably, then, the remaining energy should be due to relatively weak bsinding between a particles. However, this model has not been very successful. For example, in scattering of LY particles off (Y particles, the data cannot be satisfactorily explained in terms of an interaction between two LY particles. Rather, it seems necessary to assume that the two LY particles combine into a larger nucleus, and then break up into two new crs. Thus, the cy particle model has a very limited range of application.

7.3 She// Model In describing the electronic structure of atoms, it was seen how a great deal of data could be explained on the basis of a set of electronic shells and subshells. The electrons had spin % and obeyed the Paulii exclusion principle, so that into any state such as a 1 S, only two electrons could go with their spins antiparallel. There is considerable evidence that a shell structure exists in nuclei. For example, the numbers 2, 8, 210, significance in nuclear structure. 50, 82 and 126 appear to have special 14.1), a n u n u s u a l l y l a r g e We only mention part of the evidence here.

Calcium (Z = 20) has six stable isotopes (see Figure largest group of stable isotones clccurs are: Pb2s and Bilo9 (N = 126) (Z = 82, N = 126)

number. Sn (Z = 50) has ten stable isotopes, more than any other element. The at N = 82. The heaviest stable nuclei

The numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126 are called m a g i c numbers, because to earlier investigators their significance was so puzzling. by assuming that nucleons. a principal In the shell model, this and similar data may be ulnderstood

each nucleon moves, nearly independently of other individual nuclei, inside a spherically symmetric potential well which is due to all the other Then a nucleon moving in this potential will have states described by quantum number n, orbital angular momentum (S,

P,

D, F , . . .) and total angular

momentum i. This is very similar to the situation in atoms. In nuclei the spin-orbit interaction is very large, and when the spin-orbit interaction is included, this leads to the sequence of single-particle states of increasing energy shown in Table 14.3, which are grouped into shells and subshells matching the experimental magic numbers.

426

Nuclear

structure TABLE 14.3 An (Ordering of Subshell States Which leads to the Observed Magic Numbers

Spectroscopic

Configuration

us1,2)2
(2P3,d4(2P1,2)
(4f7,z)

2 2
.l

2 8 20 50 82 126

6 12 O 30 32 4 4

(3ds,2)6(3d,,,)4(2s,,2!

*(4f5,2)6(3P3,2)4(3P,,2)2(5g~,2)

(5g7/2)*(4ds,2)6(4d2,2)4(3s,,2)2(6h,,,2)12 (6h~,~)0(~f7,~)8(5fs,2l6(4p~,2)4(~1p,,2)2(7~,~,2)4

When using the information in Table 14.3, one should remember that both protons and neutrons have spin %. Hence they are both fermions and obey the exclusion principle. However, protons are distinguishable from neutrons. Thus, two protons could go into the ls,,* s,tate. Likewise, two neutrons could go into t h a t s t a t e . W h e n t h e ls,,? state contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the shell is filled up. This corresponds to an LY particle. When the l~,,~, 2p,,,, a n d 2p,,, levels are all filled up with both 8016. of 2He4 and *O16. In applying these ideas to the explanation of the properties of stable nuclei, it would at first appear that, on the average, the number of neutrons in a nucleus should be about equal to the number of protons in a nucleus. However, from Figure 14.1 it is seen that there are more neutrons than protons in heavy nuclei. As mentioned previously, this is because of the Coulomb repulsion between protons: since protons clre charged whereas neutrons are not, the potential neultrons and protons, the resulting nucleus is Notice the peak of the binding energy curve, Figure 14.8, at the positions

energy of an extra proton added to a nucleus would be greater than that of an added neutron, other things being equal. Therefore, in the shell model, the potential well used to calculate the neutron energy states will be deeper than that used for the protons. Hence the neutron energy levels will generally lie lower than those of the protons. The shell model can also be used to explain many features of the s p i n a n d magnetic moments of stable nuclei. If a nucleus had two protons in a Is,,? state, t h e t o t a l a n g u l a r momen,tum s h o u l d b e z e r o . I f a n u c l e u s h a d a n y e v e n n u m b e r of protons, it is not unreasonable to suppose that these would be paired off, two in each state, so that the total spin should be zero. Then the contribution to the total magnetic moment from these paired protons, provided their net orbital angular momentum is zero, should be zero. This is found to be the case. Similarly for a nucleus with even N, the spin and magnetic moment are zero, because the neutrons are paired off with opposite spins in each pair. A nucleus with even Z and even N is called an even-even nucleus. In Table 14.4 are given the numbers of stable nuclides (nuclei) as a function of whether Z and N are even or odd.

Summary TABLE Z even even odd odd 14.4 Effect of Evenness and Oddness of Z and N on Stability of Nuclides N --_ Number of Stable 160 56 52 4 Nuclides

427

even odd even odd

It appears that nuclei have greater stability when bath protons and neutrons a r e p a i r e d , t h e n i f t h e r e i s a n u n p a i r e d n e u t r o n 01 p r o t o n o r b o t h . T h e o n l y examples of stable odd-odd nuclides are the lightest possible odd-odd ones, w h i c h a r e ,H2, 3Li6, sB lo and ,N 14. A n u c l e u s w i t h e v e n Z , o d d N o r o d d Z , even N, has an odd number of mcleons, and therefore should have values of net angular momentum of % )I, % tl, s/s )I, r/z ti, . . . . Usually, only the lower values of the net angular momentum quantum numbers actually occur in nature; this is evidence for the pairing of like nucleons within the nucleus. T h e l i g h t e s t o d d Z , e v e n N , n u c l e u s i s ,H3. One would expect the neutrons to be paired with opposite spins in an s state, and the proton in the s state then g i v e s t h e n u c l e u s s p i n % . The magnetic moment should be about that of the proton, 2.79 nuclear magnetons. Experimentally, it ils nucleus would be that of the neutron, experimental value is -2.13. An odd-odd 2.98 nuclear magnetons. Likewise, an estimate of the magnetic moment of the even Z, odd N, 2He3 p, = - 1.91 nuclear magnetons. The nucleus Ihas one unpaired neutron,

one unpaired proton. The lightest example of this is the deuteron, where the nuclear forces are such that the :spins of the n and p l i n e u p , t h e n e t s p i n being 1. In general, for an odd-ocld nucleus the net angular momentum should be integral. The actually observed ,ralues of spin quantum numbers for odd-odd nuclei are: ,H2 - 1 ; 3Li6 + 1 ; sB --* 3 ; TN14 --) 1 .

We shall not pursue the discussion of nuclear modlels

any further. So far, we

have just scratched the surface in discussing the types of experimental data which are observed. Some of this will be discussed in the next chapter. We have not mentioned all the different models which are used to explain different types of data such as scattering and absorption of incident particles, and excited states due to overall rotation of the nucleus.

NUCLEAR MASSES AND BINDING ENERGIES

The nuclear mass of a given nucleus, L MA, is obtained by subtracting from the

atomic mass the rest mass of Z electrons. The nucleus consists of Z protons and

428

Nuclear

structure

N = A -- Z neutrons. Nuclei having equal Z are called isotopes; those having equal N are called isotones. The mass number, A, is the integer nearest to the atomic mass. The bincling energy Iof a nucleus is defined as the energy which must be added to the nuc:leus in order to separate it into its constituent neutrons and protons, and place them at rest infinitely distant from each other. The binding energy Eb is given by

- =
C 2

N M ,

Z,M:, - +I:,

w h e r e M, i s t h e n e u t r o n m a s s , ,MA, ,Mt,

is the atomic mass of hydrogen, and

is the atomic mass of the nucleus in question.

MAGNETIC MOMENTS
The magnetic moments of nuclei are measured in nuclear mognetons. 1 nuclear magneton = eii/2M, = 5.051

1Cl~27

joule

(weber/m2)-, w h e r e

M, i s t h e I, where I

proton mass. Nuclear moments are written in the form p = g eti/2M, is the spin (total angular Imomentum)

of the nucleus. The magnetic moments vary

from about -5 to +5 nuc:lear magnetons, and must be measured experimentally.

NUCLEAR

FORCES

The forces between nucleons are short range and strongly attractive. A nucleon in a nucleus interacts with only a few others at a time and stays about 2 fermis away from the other nucleons. For many purposes, the interaction potential between two nucleons mcly be treatecl depth of 22 MeV. as a potential well of range about 2f and Yukawa proposed that nuclear forces were due to the ex-

change of particles called ?r m e s o n s , a n d p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e x rest mass should be a few hundred times the electron rest mass.

LIQUID DROP MODEL

The liquid drop model can be usecl t o e x p l a i n q u a l i t a t i v e l y t h e b e h a v i o r o f binding energy as o function of A. Due to nuclear saturation, a nucleon in the interior of a nucleus interzcts with only o few others and has a constant binding near the surface do not energy formula is: energy per nucleon, due t o the nuclear forces. Nucleons which decreases the binding energy. The resulting binding

i n t e r a c t w i t h OS many other nucleons, and hence there is a surface correction

for the binding energy per particle, where C,,, C,

and C,

are constants.

Problems SHELL MODEL In the shell model the nucleons symmetric potential well, which is are treated as througlh they move in a spherically cleeper for neutrons than for protons. This gives n, C, and the total

429

rise to a set of energy levels described by quantum Inumbers

angular momentum j. Neutrons and protons are both fermions, and satisfy the exclusion principle; hence only two neutrons and twmo protons can go into each orbital state. Filled levels are more stable configurations and this leads to exceptional preference in nature for nuclei with N or Z equal to 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126. Nuclei with even Z have their protons paired off with opposite spins, and there is no net contribution to spin or magnetic moment from these particles. Similarly for nuclei with even N. There are more stable even-even nuclei in nature than any other type. Nuclei with both odd N and odd Z are rare, and have spins 1 or 3. Even-odd and odd-even nuclei have at least one unpaired particle and have spins /* , % , % , % , . . .

In

nuclear

magnetic

resonance

experiments,

nuclear

magnetic

moments

in

strong

magnetic field, with energy

-/.L *B, are caused to go from a state with one spin energy, by absorption of

orientation to a state with a different spin orientation (and

rodio frequency photons. The following three problems are based on this. 1. In a field of 0.2 webers/m*, what photon frequency will cause a proton to go from

a state with spin component % irl the direction of the field to one of spin component - %? Answer: 2. 8.5 1 x 1 O6 cycles/set. If hydrogen fluoride has an 18-megacycle electromagnetic field applied to it, by how much must the strong appliecl static magnetic field be changed to go from absorption of photons by fluorine to the absorption b,y hydrogen? Use Appendix 3. Answer: 0.0266 webers/m. at what frequency is there photon absorption by 3. In a field of 0.35 webers/m,

the s B nucleus, corresponding io the s, = % to /2 transition? Use Appendix 3 and note that the maximum magnetic moment listed correr,ponds to s, = /? Answer: 4. 5. Answer: Answer:

4.78 x 1 O6 cycles/s,ec.
1.4039. 58.9184 amu. + MP). According to the data in this chapter,

What is the g factor of the ssBr 79 nucleus? Use Appendix 3. Find the nuclear mass of 27C059 from Appendix 3.

6. Treat the deuteron as if it were a particle in a cubic box of side t and mass equal to the reduced mass M,M,/(M, how for is the deuteron energy above the potential energy of interaction? Let this be equal to the ground state energy of the particle in the three dimensional box to get &, and thus a rough estimate of the nuclear diameter.

430

Nuclear

structure

7.

meson decays into two gamma rays. If the

KO

is at rest, what is the energy of

each gamma ray?

Answer:
8.

6 7 . 5 MeV. pt m e s o n i s the neutrina mr a n d t h a t o f a energy for a K+ r is m,, at find rest. the The kinetic neutrina

If the mass of the energy of the has zero rest

/.L+, a n d mass. ( m ,

decaying

Answer:
9.

- m,12c2/2m,;

(mz

- mi)c2/2m,.

Find the binding energy per nucleon of chlorine 35 from Appendix 3.

Answer: 10.
Find is the likely to

8.5

MeV. energies more per nucleon f o r F, F19 a n d F2 from Appendix 3. Which

binding be the

stable? MeV; 7 . 7 1 3, decide MeV. of the following should be the more

Answer: 11.
From the

7.63 data in

MeV; 7 . 7 8 Appendix

which

s t a b l e : 7N7 ; 807; 9F7.

Answer: 12.
From Compare

80.
3, with calculate the the energy to necessary one to remove and one also proton with from 7N14. energy rlemove neutron the average

Appendix this

binding energy per nucleon. Why are these different?

Answer: 13.

7.54

MeV; 1 0 . 5 5

MeV; 7 . 4 7

MeV.

Find the energy necessary to remove the least tightly bound nucleon from the followi n g s t o b l e n u c l e i : loNe O; A with that for 9F19; 80; 8017; nuclei of odd A, 8016; and ,N15. explain Compare this energy for even in terms of filling proton

neighboring

and neutron levels.

Answer: 14.
By build 3/S up a

6.9

MeV; 8 . 0 bringirlg sphere in of

MeV; 8 . 1 infinitesimal charge that to

MeV; 4 . 1 spherical

MeV; 1 2 . 1 shells of

MeV; 1 0 . 2 from

MeV. infinity to

considering

charge

total

e and radius R, show that the work necessary is bring into superposition Z uniformly charged

e2/4atoR.

Thus,

show

spheres of radius R, the work is/,

Z(Z - 1)

e2/4atoR.

Use the relationship between - 1) drop no A3 MeV. Cam-

the nuclear radius and A to show that this energy is 0.79 Z(Z pare this 0.79 of A with the = of the constant C2 in the discussion explain of the liquid

model. stable nuclei of

15. 16. 17. 18.

In A On

terms = 5 the or

alpha.~particle 8. the stlell m o d e l

model,

why

there

are

basis

levels

in

Table

14.3,

explain

why

6C2

and

~0~

should both have spin zero. On the basis of the shell model levels in Table 14.3, explain why it is reasonable that
7N l4

should

have

nuclear

spin

of

1.

O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s h e l l m o d e l , e x p l a i n w h y y o u m i g h t e x p e c t 3Li7 t o h a v e a n u c l e a r spin of /z a n d a n u c l e a r m a g n e t i c m o m e n t n e a r 3 n u c l e a r m a g n e t o n s .

5 transformation of the nucleus

Of the approximately 1200 different nuclides knowrl to exist, only about 270 are stable; the remainder decay sportaneously into lighter fragments. Further, some nuclei may be induced to undergo such decomposition by irradiating them with beams of particles of various types. Under certain cmonditions, two or more nuclei may combine to form a heavier nucleus. The study of such processes is of great importance in attempting to understand the structure of nuclei and of the elementary particles, and has led to a wide variety of applications in other scientific fields. W e s h a l l s t u d y h e r e o n l y s o m e o f t h e m o r e Iimportant processes and their applications. features of these

5.1 LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

The spontaneous decay of a nucleus into lighter particles is called natural radio-

activity. An example of this process is the emission of alpha particles by the uranium nucleus, 92Uz38. A given (unstable nucleus may decay in more than one way; for example, 83Bi212 of discrete energies. All of may emit either an alpha particle or an electron; this these piocesses are fundamentally statistical in nature. latter process is called beta d e c a y . Nuclei may also emit gamma rays (photons) That is, it is impossible to predict when any one given nucleus will decay, and the process must be described in terms of a probability of decay per unit time, or a transition rate. Consider a sample of N nuclei of a given type, where N is sufficiently large that statistical variations in the decay rate will average out. Suppose we count the number of decays in a small time interval df, starting with N nuclei, and study nluclei during d t . If dN is the the number of decays as dt and N are varied. Let us describe the number of decays in terms of the change in the number of increase in N in the time d t , then the number of decays is - d N . The number dN is negative because N is decreasing due to the decays. When --dN is observed experimentally, then over short time intervals the sample is observed to decay at a constant rate. That is, if in dt a certain number of decays are observed, then,

431

432

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e nuclew on the average, in 2dt twice as many decays will be observed, and so we may conclude that -dN is proportional to dt. Another observed fact is that nuclei in atoms decay independently of each other; the proximity of one atom to crnother rate. Thus, if starting with N nuclei, -dN does not affect the nuclear decay were observed in df, then decays

w i t h 5N nuclei, the number of decays in dt should be increased by a factor of five. Thus, on the average, - d N i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o b o t h d t a n d t o N . T h e s e f a c t s may be expressed in the elquation,

- d N = XNdt

(15.1)

w h e r e X is a proportionality constant, called the decay constant or disintegration c o n s t a n t . T h e q u a n t i y X is independent of particular type of decay. X 10 atoms, of 92U238 (one milligram), 740 a particles t and N, and depends only on the

e x a m p l e If, in a sample of 2.52

are produced per minute, what is the decay constant in set-?

SO/~~;O~

X =

-AN/NAt = =

740/1,2.52 x 4 . 9

lOs)(60

set)

x lo-s sec.

Equation (15.1) is a differential equation which expresses the rate of change of N with time. We can solve the differential equation to find N as a function of time as follows: divide by N to obtain

dN -= N
from a constant of integration, = Also,

- Xdt

(15.2)

In this form, we can integrate each side separately and equate the results. Apart

InN

(15.3)

j-Xdt

-At +

(15.4)

where C is some constant of integration. Therefore, In N == ~ Xt + C (15.5)

We take exponentials of both sides of this equation to obtain the number of particles: N = ce- (15.6)

w h e r e C = ecI S a constant. Lastly, we may express the constant C in terms of the number of nuclei N, w h i c h a r e p r e s e n t a t t h e i n i t i a l i n s t a n t t = 0 . I f N Xt, = N, at t = 0, then N, = Ce or C = N,. Hence, in terms of N,3 and the number of particles remaining undecayed at time t will be given by: N :z No emAt (15.7)

15.3 Unstable daughter nuclei

This is the fundamental equation describing the average way in which samples of radioactive nuclei decay.

433

5.2 HALF-LIFE Decay rates are usually given in ierms of the decay constant A, or else in terms of a closely related number called the ha/f-life and denoted by T,:, The half-life is defined as the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample to decay. Thus, if we set t =

J,,,

in Equation

(15.7),

this would correspond to setting N =

/2 N,.

We then find a relation between half-life and decay constant:

%

N,

N,

Ed

or e

iTI,

(15.8)

We can solve Equation (15.8) for r,,, in terms of sides of the equation. Using the identities

X by taking logarithms of both

In 2 = 3.693, we get 7 rip/e If X = 4.90 x lo-* sect, as 0.693 ~ h

In e := x

i2
in

:=

(15.9)

the

previous

example,

and

if

year

3.15 x lo7 sec., then measured in yeurs,

J I,2

0.693 x [(4.9 = 4.49 x

0.693 10m*)(3.15 X lOsec/yr)]

x lo9 y e a r s

This is the number of years it would take until only half the original nuclei were left. The decay of the remainder of the nuclei is still described by the same statistical law. Hence, it takes an additional half-life, or a total of 8.98 x years, to reduce the number of nuclei to
Y4

10

the original number.

5.3 LAW OF DECAY FOR UNSTABLE DAUGHTER NUCLEI When a nucleus such as 92U 238 emits an a particle, a resultant nucleus of thorium is left , 90Th234. In this case, the uranium is called the parent nucleus and the thorium is called the daughter. For every U nucleus which decays, one daughter is formed. So if at time t, N = N, Ed* uranium nuclei remain, N, - N u r a n i u m nuclei have decayed, and so N 0 - N new daughter nuclei have formed. In terms of the time, from Equation (15.7) tile number N, of new daughters is Nd = NO(l e--) (15.10)

Figure 15.1 shows a graph of number of remaining parents as a function of time, and Figure 15.2 is a similar graph of the total number of daughters formed as a function of time.

434

Transformation of the nucleui

Tgn

ZTVZ

TICI

zrvl

Figure 15.1. Figure 15.2.

Radioactive decoy low; decoy of the parent nucleus. Rcldiooctive decoy low; growth of o stable daughter.

If the daughter is stable, then the actual number of daughter nuclei is equal to the number formed by the parents decay. However, if the daughter is itself unstable, the actual number of daughter nuclei will be less than that given by Equation (15.10). In this c:ase, we have to reconsider the rate of change of the number N,, o f d a u g h t e r n u c l e i . S u p p o s e t h e d a u g h t e r i s u n s t a b l e a n d h a s a d e c a y c o n s t a n t Xd. Then f N,, is the number of daughter nuclei at a particular time, in a time dt the number which decay will be X,, N,, dt. This will contribute to the rate of decrease of N,. increase in number dN,, But daughters are continually being formed by decay of the parent; the number formed in time dt is X, N, dt. Therefore, the total of daughter atoms WIII be dNd = A, N, d t - iid Nd d t T h e n u m b e r o f p a r e n t a t o m s i s N, = N, em~AP, differential equation for the rate of change of (15.11)

so we obtain the following atoms: (15.12)

daughter

dN, =

(--N, )\, +

X, No emhp)dt

This differential equation can be soked after some manipulation. It is easily verified that the solution is:

-hd -Apt Nd = A&-:-%- ) A, -- x,j

c h o i c e s , X, = 2 . 0 set-,

(15.13) is

To give some feeling for the behavior p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 1 5 . 3 f o r t h e partilcular

of this solution, the ratio N,/N,

X, = 1 . O

set -. From the plot, it may be seen that after a long time has elapsed, N,, a p proaches zero. This is bec.ause a l l o f t h e p a r e n t w i l l h a v e d e c a y e d , a n d a l l t h e previously formed daughter nuclei will also decay. The form of the above result depends on both X, and X,. One interesting case, which occurs often in nature, is that in which the parent decays much more s l o w l y t h a n t h e d a u g h t e r . T h e n X, is much smaller than hd, a n d X, - X,, is -A f a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t o --A,. Also, e?mhp is much larger than e d for large t. Thus, under these assumpiions, Equation (15.13) simplifies to:

15.3 Unstable daughter nuclei

435

1
TIME

2
iN SEC~POFDS

Figure

15.3.

Radioactive decay law, growth and decay of an unstable daughter, for

decay constants given by Xp = 2.0 set , /\d = 1 .O set-. Since the number of parent nuclei is after a long time, h,N, = X,N, (15.14) N, e -A(+ = N,, the equotion states that

Physically, this means that the rate of production of daughter nuclei is equal to their rate of decay. Hence, the net increase dN, will be zero. Thus, if the decay constant of the daughter nuclei is much larger than the decay constant of the parent nuclei, at first the number of daughter nuclei will increase, because initially no daughter nuclei are present; the formation process dominates. After a long time has elapsed, the number of daughter nuclei will have increased to the point where they decay as fast as they are formed. The result could also have been obtained from Equation (15.1 1) by setting dN, = 0. When this situation halfapplies, the daughter is said to be in equilibrium with its parent. One application of this result is to the determination of extremely long lives. Equation (15.14) can also be written _ in terms of half-lives: (15.15)

Nd (Jw b

N,

(Jvzh

Thus the relative numbers of atoms of the two types will be directly proportional to #p/e their respective half-lives. emitting an alpha particle, and

A n u c l e u s o f 92U XJ* d e c a y s i n t o 90Th234 b y

wTh s4 is also unstable, emitting an electron with a half-life of 24.1 days. If is found in rocks containing uranium, with the number of thorium atoms PoTh24 equal to only 1.47 x 10~9% of the number of uranium atoms, what is the halflife of p2U238 in years?

= 4.47 x lo9 years.

436

Transformation

of

the

ndeur

15.4 RADIOACTIVE SERIES

The naturally occurring radioactive elements with Z > 82 have been found to has

fall into three series. Within a given series, the nuclides decay into each other a n d e v e n t u a l l y e n d a s s o m e i s o t o p e (of lead. There is a fourth series, whic:h either alphas (helium nuclei) or betas (electrons). by 2 On emission of an alpha, been produced in the laboratory. In all of these series, the decay particles are

Z declreases

N decreases by 2 A decreases by 4 By conservation of charge, the change in Z of a nucleus on emission of an electron in beta decay by the nucleus, is + 1. The change in A is zero. Thus, in all decays within a single series, A either decreases by 4 or else does not change. Hence, if n is some integer, all members of a series have mass numbers given by: A=4n,4n+1,4n+2, o These series are namec,, respectively, 15.4. p2U238 d e c a y s b y a emission to the r
4nf3

thorium

series,

neptunium

series,

uranium series and actirium series. The properties of the series are given in Tables 15.1, 15.2, 15.3and Consider first the 4n i- 2, or uranium series.

90Th234, c a l l e d u r a n i u m X , . T h e T h nrJcleus d e c a y s , i n t u r n , b y b e t a d e c a y i n t o either uranium X2 or uranium Z; each of these has the same Z and A, and is a nucleus of the element 9,Pa234. U r a n i u m Z m a y b e f o r m e d w h e n u r a n i u m X2 emits a gamma ray. Hence, uranium Z and uranium X2 are two different states of the same nucleus, called isomers. From the last column of Table 15.3 one may predict the energy of the gamma ray emitted. It is I--l = 2 . 3 1 ~- 0 . 5 = 1 . 8 1 MeV (15.16)

If the earth was formed in some process which took place a long time ago, and if the naturally radioactive elements were formed at the same time, then the fact that not all of these elements have decayed yet should give some indication of the age of the earth. The neptunium series, for example, is not found in nature. Since the longest half-life of any member of the neptunium series is 2.2 x lo6 years, this means the earth must be rmany times as old as 2.2 x lo6 years. On the other hand, the other three series are found in nature. The longest half-lives found in these other series are between about 10 a n d 10 years roughly. This indicates roughly that the age of the earth may be a few billion years. In addition to these series, there are 01 f e w o t h e r n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g r a d i o a c t i v e nuclides which have been found, with Z < 82. There are possibly others whose decay rates are so small that they have not yet been detected. Table 15.5 gives a list of these known unstable elements. Decay by electron capture from an atomic level by the nucleus is indicated by

EC.

TABLE 15.1 Thorium (4n) Series Particle Emitted CY P P a (Y (Y a, ? P a

a, P

Nuclide PoTh232 r,8Ra228 g9AC2*8 9oTh22*

Common Thorium

Name

Tl/Z
1 . 3 9 x 1Oyr. 6 . 7 yr. 6.13 hr. 1.90 yr. 3.64 days 5 4 . 5 set 0 . 1 6 set 10.64 hr. 0 . 3 x 10m3 set

E* (MeV)

3.99,3.93 < 0.02 1.11,0.45 5.42, 5.34 - 2.18

i Mesothorium, i Mesothorium, 1 Radiothorium 1 Thorium i Thoron X

ss Ra**
WJEm 220\

5.68,5.44 6.28, a6.77 0.34, 7.79 p2.25; ~16.05, 6 . 0 9 8.78 1.79, 1.28 0.58 5.75

84 Po216 82 Pb** 85At216

83 Bl.212

60.5 min 3 x lo-see 3.1 min

*$Poz2 a1 Tl** Thorium D

ir B Stable

82 Pb*
*The

energies given ore those of the most important alpha-particle groups, or those of the most energetic beta particles.

TABLE 15.2 Neptunium

(4n + 1 ) S e r i e s

Nuclide
237

Common Name

Particle Emitted

Tl/Z
2 . 2 x lo6 yr. 27.4 days 1 . 6 2 x 105yr. 7 3 0 0 yr. i 4.8 days 10 days 4.8 min. 1 . 8 x lo-set 47 min.

E* (MeV)

93N~

4.79, 4.52 - 4 . 8 7 0.26, 0 . 1 4 , 0 . 5 7 4.82, 4 . 7 8 , 4 . 7 3 4.85, 4.94, 5.02 ^ ,.A .JL 5.80 6.30, 6 . 0 7

92u

91 Paz33 233

9oTh229 88 fk? s9ACZZ5 221 8, Fr s5At2 ssBi23 2 % + \ *, Tlzo9 /P 0 23 84 I98% P a

7.02
81.39; a5.90 1.8, 2.3

2.2 min. 4 . 0 x 10m6 3.3 hr. sec.

8.34 0.62

i \s2Pbzo9
83 Bi209
*The

P
Stable

energies given ore those of the most important alpha-particle groups or those of the most energetic beta particles.

Nuclide 238 92u qoTh234 9,Pa

234

Common Uranium I

Name

Particle Emitted

T l/2 4.51 x 1Oyr. 4.18

E* (MeV)

Uranium X1 Uranium X2 $ 0.15% 99.85%

p P
P

24.1 days 1.18 min.

0.19,O.lO 2.31

9lPa

234

Uranium \ Z Uranium II lonium Radium Radon Radium A 1 99.97% adium 6 ) Astatine e 1 adium C 0.04% 1 99.96% 0.03%

6.66 hr. 2.50 x lo5 1620 yr. 3.825 days 3.05 min. yr.

0.5 4.76 4.68, 4.61 4.78,4.59 5.48 ~~6.00 0.7 6.63 cY5.5-10.5 pl.6, 3.17 7.68 1.9 0.02 81 .17; cu4.94 1.51 5.30

92 u

234

qoTh230

8.0 x lo4 yr.

ss Ra 226
oeEmZ22
84

PO 218

82 Pb214 218 85 At 83 Bi214

B a

26.8 min. 1.3 sec. 19.7 min. 1.6 x 10 4 sec. 1.32 min. 20 yr. 5.0 days

84

PO

214

8, T12 s2Pbz s3 Bi *, T1206

84 PO 210

Radium C e Radium C 1 Radium D Radium E v 5 x 1om5%

P a
* I

4.2 min 138 days

s2Pb206

Radium G/

Stable

*The energies given ore those of the most important alpha-particle groups or those of the most energetic beto particles.

TABLE 15.4 Actinium (4n + 3) Series Nuclide Common Name Particle Emitted 7 . 1 x 10ayr. 25.6 hr. a a, 6 98.8% P a a a a, 13 5 x J 1om4% P a a, P 0.32% B a Stable 4.78 0.52 min. sec. 36.1 min. 1 x lo- sec. 2.15 min. 1.4,0.5 a.00 po.35; ~6.62, 6 . 2 7 1.45 7.43 22 min. 1 a.2 days 11.6 days 3.97 1 . 8 sec.
x IO-~S~C.

E* (MeV) 4.40,4.58 0.09,0.30,0.22 5.0, 0.046 1.0,1.3 5.97, 5.65-6.03 4.64-5.05

92u 235

Actinouranium Uranium Y Protoactinium Actinium 1 1 . 2 % \ Actinium K ( \ Radioactinium

9,,Th23
91Pa 231 89Q27

3 . 4 x lo4 y r . 22 yr.

s,Fr223 9c,Th227 .ssRa n,Em

84 PO

223 215
219

Actinium : Actinon Actinium A 1 / A c t i n i u m B1 Astatine i + Actinium C 4 99.68% ctinium

5.70-5.68 6.82, 7.36 6.56

82Pb2 8sAt2i5 S3Bl.211 *, Tlzo7 211

84 PO

C J r Actinium C 1 Actinium D

82Pb207

, , <:L ^

*The energies given ore those of the most important alpha-particle groups or those of the most energetic beta particles.

15.5 Alpha-particle decay TABLE 15.5 Element

19K

441

-~

Naturally Occurring Unstable Nuclides Not Found in Series Abundance % 0.0119 Type of Activity S-, EC Half-life Years 1.2 x 10

40
50

23V
49ln 5710 5&e

37Rb a7

115
138 142

0.25 27.85 95.77 0.089

11.07

EC PAC
a

4 x lOI 6 . 2 x 10 6 x 1014
1.0 x 10

60Nd 44
62Sm 7lLU 147 176 187 192

23.87
15.07

a pPa -~ ___-.

5 x lOI 3 x 10
1.2 x 10

75
-

Re

7apt

2.60 62.93 0.78

4 x 1oO 4 x lOI .- 105 -_____

There are, in addition, a few radioactive elements continually being formed near later. the earths surface due to cosmic ray bombardment. These will be discussed

5.5

ALPHA-PARTICLE In order for a

DECAY to decay spontaneously, the process must be energetically

nucleus

feasible. Since the decay products come off with kinetic energy, the necessary energy must be supplied at the expense of energy of some other form. This can b e d e s c r i b e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y i n terms of a net loss of rest mass of the resulting particles. If the parent nucleus is, initially at rest, when the alpha is emitted the remaining daughter nucleus will have to carry off some kinetic energy in order to conserve momentum. So to account for all energy, we must consider the motion of both alpha and daughter. Let us call zMt The net decrease in rest energy in the process, and will be given by the rest mass of the parent,

zm2Mim4 t h e m a s s o f t h e d a u g h t e r , a n d 2M& t h e r e s t m a s s o f t h e a l p h a .
which is also the total kinetic energy of the a particle and the daughter nucleus, is called the Q of the decay,

Q A 4 - = zAAp - z-zM,A-~ - 2M~e

C2

(15.17)

Suppose we wish to compute Z using a table of atomic masses. In terms of the atomic mass ,Mt,,,,, we have (115.18) and similarly for the masses of the alpha and the daughter. However, since -Zm, terms + ( Z - 2)m, + 2m, i s z e r o , t h e Q o f t h e d e c a y m a y b e w r i t t e n i n of atomic masses:

442

Jransformafion of the nucleus Using the table in Appendix 3, we shall compute Q for the case where the parent nucleus is 92U238 and the daughter is 9,,Th234 zm~zM$,,rf = 2,4,j;,,,,, sum zM,A,,,, Sum of final rest masses From the table, 234.043583

= _ 4.002603 = = = 238.046186 238.050770 238.046186 0 . 0 0 4 5 8 amu

Q/c'
so

difference =

1 amu =: 9 3 1 . 4 8 MeV Q = 4 . 2 7 MeV (15.>!0)

T h i s Q i s g r e a t e r thal t h e o b s e r v e d a l p h a - p a r t i c l e e n e r g y o f 4 . 1 8 MeV, because the daughter also carries off some kinetic energy. The final kinetic energy of the decay products are in the nonrelativistic region, so Newtonian mechanics may be used to calculate the fraction of energy carried off by the alpha. Let v, be the final speed of the alpha, and vd be the final speed of the daughter. We assume that the parent nucleus is in tially at rest, and take the masses of the N particle and residual nucleus to be proportional to their rest masses, approximately 4 and A - 4 amu respectively. Then, from conservation of momentum, 4v, = ( A - 4)vd, o r -zz
vd

v0

(A - 4) ~4

(15.2!1)

Then the ratio of the kinetic energies of the alpha and the daughter nucleus is T, Td = [ fi (4)(v% j% ( A

)I
(15.212)

- 4)(v;)]

(A - 4) =-4 Then Q = T, +- Td = 7, $ & = A A Q = 4 4.27 T,

(15L!3)

For the pzU 238 [ ( A - 4)/A]Q served a-particle

- 90Th234 energy]

decay, 4.18 MeV.

we

saw

that

MeV.

Then

J,

= (234)(4.28)/238

= 4 . 1 9 MeV.

Thi!s a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e o b -

example The nucleus of lo (or 90Th230) emits What is Q?

dhOll

an o( particle of kinetic energy 4.73 MeV.

Q = AJ,,/(A - 4) = 230(4.73)/225 = 4.81

MeV.

75.6 Theory of alpha decoy

443

pie

p0Th22

emits an CY particle of 4.05 MeV. 232(4.05)/228 = 4 . 1 2 MeV.

What is the Q of the decoly?

ti~n Q =

i.6 THEORY OF ALPHA DECAY

The potential energy of interactilon of the alpha particle and the daughter

nucleus, of charge (Z - 2)e and mass number A -. 4, is frequently approximated by a constant nuclear interaction potential energy out to the nuclear radius r,,, and by a coulomb potential energy for radii greater than rO. T h e e x pression for this coulomb potential energy in terms of r a n d Z - 2 is
v =

2(Z

2)e2

47rc,r

(I 5.24)

This potential energy is shown in Figure 15.4. The actual energy, Q, is indicated by a dashed horizontal line on the diagram. If the alpha particle is initially at a Energy

-Potential

Energy

Figure 15.4.

Potential energy curve f,Pr on alpha particle emitted by on unstable nucleus; have o finite probability of tunneling

alphas initially inside the well, at radii r < rO, out of the well and escaping.

position inside the well, then it is seen that in classical mechanics the alpha particle could not escape with this model for the potential. However, in quantum mechanics it may escape by tunneling. In MeV, the potential coulomb energy

may be expressed as 2.88(2 - 2)/ r, w i t h r i n f e r m i s . I t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t a g o o d c h o i c e f o r r0 f o r a e m i s s i o n i s 1.4(A - 4)3 f e r m i s ( a s c o m p o r e d w i t h 1 .1A3 mentioned in Chapter 13). Then, in terms of A and Z, the coulomb energy in MeV a t r = r. is V, = 2.06(2 - 2)(A 4))3 MeV (15.25) MeV. Note

For A = 230 and Z = 90 (PoTh230)

this peak coulomb energy is 29.8

that this is large compared to Q, which is usually several MeV. Because Q is less than the maximum of the potential barrier, classically the alpha particle could not get out. However, the quantum mechanical wave function is not quite zero outside the barrier, so there is a small probability of finding the alpha particle outside. To find the relative sizes of the wavefunctions Schrodinger

on the two sides of the potential barrier, we will deviate from our main discussion
to develop an approximate method of solving a one dimensional

444

Transformation of the nucle~~s

equation. The

approximcte

result is given in Equation (15.31). The reader

rray

skip directly there if he is not interested in the mathematical details. We shall suppose that the alpha particles are emitted symmetrically in all directions; this corresponds tlz a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e w a v e f u n c t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o n l y of the radial distance r, a n d t h a t t h e r e i s n o a n g u l a r d e p e n d e n c e . T h e n t h e SchrSdinger equation for the alpha-daughter system is: (15.:26)

$ P it(r) + VW(r) = QW
the reaction energy, ano p, is the radial component of momentum. reduced mass, given approximately /L by m,(A - 4 ) E .~~ A

Here, if the parent nucleus is initially 3t rest, the total energy of the system is Q, p is ,the

m,,M,t _ _ = _ m,, + Ni

(1 5X27)

The operator corresponding to p, w a s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 8 , a n d i t w a s s e e n there that the free particle eigenfunctions of pr, corresponding to outgoing waves, were of the form ( l/r)e. Herce, if the potential varies sufficiently slowly

w i t h r , w e w o u l d e x p e c t t3--___ find solutis>ns of this form with k = 42c((Q - V),fi2 w h e n Q > V , a n d k = ib2p(V - 13)/A2 w h e n Q < V . I n t h i s p r o b l e m , h o w ever, V cannot be treated as a constallt. If V changes very slowly as r changes, then the change in the phase of .the wavefunction, V5,JQ as r varies from r to r + Ar, should be just k(r)Ar = - V(rjjp A r. A further change in r to r + 2Ar should result in an - V(r + Ar)]/h .Ir.

additional change of phase

k(r + Ar)Ar = d2p[Q

Hence, by adding a large number of such contributions in passing over a finite distance up to r, , we might expect the phase of the wavefunction to change by a finite amount given by -Iphase = l i m C b (r,)ilr, = A,, -0 , /^ drk(r) = J (15.28) This would, of course, be exact if V were constant. Thus we expect an approximate solution of the form: (15.29) That this is an approximate solution may be checked by substituting Equation (15.29) into (15.26). Then evaluating the first term, we have / d rvF[Q - V(r)],%

15.6 Theory of alpha decoy

445

If V(r) is sufficiently slowly-varying that radial derivatives of L Q ~ V c a n b e neglected, this becomes approximcltely:

Equation (15.26) is then obviously satisfied. Hence (15.29) is an approximate - - - -~~ solution if dd/Q - - V/dr is negligible in comparison to z/Q - V/r. lo a p p l y t h i s t o t h e p r e s e n t p r o b l e m , i n t h e r e g i o n b e t w e e n rO a n d r,, V :> Q, so

~ i s' dr fip(QIi -3= ~ ' dr L/2~(vIi - 67is then of the form: from a small radiating source.

(15.30)

The wavefunction $(r)

(.15.31)

The factor of r - in Equation (15.31) gives rise to a probability density which is proportional to pendence of intensity

1 $ 1 ,

l/r, corresponding to the inverse squared radial de-

We can now use this wavefunction to estimate the number of alpha particles which penetrate the Coulomb barrier and are emitted. The speed of the alphas hitting the inside of the barrier is not too different from the speed of the alphas escaping from the other side of the barrier. Therefore, the fraction of particles escaping will be approximately eciual to the ratio of probabilities of finding (YS in equal volumes at the points rc, a n d r, i n F i g u r e 1 5 . 4 . T h e .total number of alpha particles in a range of radii dr is proportional to ( $(r) / 2.4~r2dr,

because the volume element corresponding to dr is a spherical shell of area 47rr and thickness dr. Hence in terms of a(r) = r+(r), the number of particles in dr is proportional to 4x 1 a(r) i dr. T h e ratio of the number of particles in dr at r,, to the number of particles in an equal d r a t rO, Equation (15.34), the fraction of particles 1@(r, ) 1 2dr ) Q(rO) 1 dr = exp with should be just that fraction of alpha particles hitting the inside of the barrier which get ovt. Hence, from which get out should be

47r 4x

(15.32)

Let us call this ratio em

/E2
0

2p(V - Q)dr ?fFl

(15.33)

446

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f ihe nucleus Since the potential between r,, and r, in Figure 15.4 is given by the integral which has ta be done is Equation (15.:2 1 ),

This is a standard integral that can be found in mast integral tables. Let Q/[2(Z - 2)e2/4~t,r,], The result is then

7 =

the ratio of reaction energy ta barrier peak energy.

I(1 5.34) with Q in MeV. The factor 2.53 arises from the factors 4e2 -\/iin,/(4rtc,A), Q t a MeV. The from use of the reduced mass, given in Equation SchrGdinger of equation particles

w i t h m,, the mass of the N particle, and from the conversion of factor d(A (15.27). Let us summarize what has been done. By salving the approximately, an expression has been derived far the fraction - 4)/A carries

alpha

which actually penetrate and escape if they hit the barrier. This fraction is approximately e- where I clepends an the available energy Q, an the mass number is A, and an the nuclear charge Ze. Because of the exponential dependence, e-~ an extremely sensitive function of Q and Z. example It was found in a previous example that 4.82 MeV. Also, the peak of the pa.,ential T h u s , y = 4.82/29.8 Q far the alpha decay of (15.33), - d(O.1617)(0.8383) --} P,,Th23 is

barrier was found ta be 29.8 MeV.

= 0 . 1 6 1 7 , and f r o m Equatiarl

0.1617/0.8383) __

:= 1 0 0 . 6 ; - 0 . 4 1 4 .:= 7 9 . 4 S i m i l ar l y, we fo und that f ar the alpha d ec ay of 90Th232, Q = 4.12 MeV. from the peak potential expression 0.1 Equation (15.25), at 29.7 MeV. T h e n y = 13.1387 nential e- and I = 91.6. Also,

the peak of the barrier is

T h e s e r e s u l t s c a n b e u s e d t a p r e d i c t q u a n t i t a t i v e l y s a m e h a l f - l i v e s . T h e expais the ratio of the number of particles getting out per unit time ta the number inside hitting the barrier per unit time. If we think of the LY p a r t i c l e a s bouncing back and forth inside the nucleus, the number of times it hits the barrier per unit time is comparable ta the much), and the radius, ro, as 1 N particles speed divided by the nuclear .4 x 10. 15(A -4)13 z 8 x lo-l5 far A radius. If we estimate its speed at about c/10 (the exact speed does not matter

around 230, the number of times thi? alpha particle hits the barrier per second

15.7 Beto decay is comparable to 10 per second. Then the fraction of particles coming to 10z2e- = 1022-o.434. This would to 1 O.434 m22. for 90Th230. The predicted half-life out

447

per

second is comparable

be the decay constant.

The half-life in seconds is then comparable nple In the last example is then about 1 we found that

I := 79.4

I(0 434,p 4) - 221 1 .10 -- TiiTx 10 set/year == 1 91.b, x lo5 years the predicted half-life and is about 1.4
x

Likewise years.

for 90Th232, with The experimental

I =

2 x 10 10 years,

values

are

80,000

years

respectively. The various agreement factors in this exampIs is somewhat fortuitous, since exists we dropped

multiplying em whic.h were comparable a more accurate

to unity.

Also, one should in the nucleus,

take into account the fraction the width and so forth. This theory and was considered quantitative exponent, gave prediction

of the time the alpha particle given by G. Gamow Note that

of the energy levels,

solution for the wavefunction, and E. U. Condon, since it was the first I appears in the 9oTh230 and 9oTh232

was originally for nuclear

a great triumph

for quantum mechanics, theory.

because

the small changes

in A and Q between the elements

an enormous

half-life ratio. part of the dependence of this estimated decay constant 1. Thus, if we computed1 log X = -log(T,,,/O.693),

The most important is on l/v% we would

in the exponent,

find that as far as the energy is concerned, A log x = -- B(Z - 2) z/Q (15.35)

where

A and B are slowly varying l a w , series.

functions

of A, Z and Q. This law, called the on energy

Geiger-Nuttall

is well verifiecl

experimentally in its dependence

for a given radioactive

i.7

BETA

DECAY nuclei which an electron have and an excess of neutrons--that of N versus called nucleus, an another The particle is, whose Z-tend positions lie to decay by which is of the

Unstable emitting extremely neutron:

generally above hard When

the stability line on a plot to detect. a neutron

antineufrino,

simplest such proces!s to the process: + e+F

is the beta decay it is unstable

is not irlside some

and decays

with a half-life of 12.8 min, according (a) The esymbol represents F represents the electron,

,n+,p

the antineutrino, which which has a charge

has zero

charge.

The symbol nuclei lying

- 1 e 1 . Similarly,

448

Transformation of the nucletrs

well below the stability litle may decoy by emitting a positron (or, in other words, a /-I) and a neutrino. Arl example of this is the $ decay of the ,N nucleus: ( b ) TN2 m+6C2 + e+ t v

The positron, designated by e+, h a s the same rest mass and spin as the electron but a charge of + 1e 1 . O n t h e N - - Z d i a g r a m ini Figure 15.5 the positions of

Figure

15.5.

N-Z diagranl,

showing that under beta decay, nuclei lying generally above

the stability line tend to decay by /I- emission (A); nuclei lying below the stability line tend to decay by /f emission (6). two unstable nuclei are shown at the points A, B undergoes /3 satisfied, as B. A undergoes fi- d e c a y ,

decay. The crosses indicate the final positions of the nuclei. as some new ones. For example, angular momentum and

In these processes, all the conservation laws we have discussed up to now are well mass-energy are conserved. Conservation of charge is expressed by equolity of the sum of subscripts, together with electron or positron charges on both sides of reactions like (al a n d ( b ) . I n r e a c t i o n ( a ) , t h e t o t a l c h a r g e t o s t a r t w i t h is Z = 0, because the neutron is uncharged. The charge finally is that of a proton plus that of an electron, or again zero. In reaction (b), the total charge finolly i s be + le = 7e, a g r e e i n g w i t h the initial charge. The antineutrino and neutrino both have charge zero. In beta decay, the mass number of the nucleus does not change; this is expressed by equality of the sum of superscripts on both sides of (a) and (b). This means physically that during a beta decay, the number of neutrons plus the number (of protons, or N + Z , d o e s n o t c h a n g e . T h u s i n b e t a d e c a y t h e r e i s a n e w c o n s e r v a t i o n law: The total number of nucleons conserved. Now let us consider mass-energy cm3nservation in /Y decay. Any mass decrease, due to both the change of nuclear mass and the creation of a fi particle, goes into kinetic energy of ttie final pariicles. Because of the small masses of the diselectron and neutrino compared to nuclear masses, most of this kinetic energy goes to them and little goes to the daughter nucleus. As in alpha decay is

15.7 Beta decoy

449

c u s s e d a b o v e , w e s h a l l d e s i g n a t e the energy corresponding to loss of rest mass by Q. We shall call the electron rest mass me, the initial or parent atomic mass M,, and the final or daughter atomic mass Md. We assume for the present that the neutrino rest mass is zero. We shall see evidence for the validity of this assumption Likewise, later. if an Recall electron that is atomic, emitted, not the nuclear, masses are given in the tables; daughter nucleus has one more proton, so thus, if the parent atom has Z electrons, the nuclear mass is close to M, - Zm,. its mass is Md - (Z + l)m,. Then mass energy conservation is expressed by: (M, Zm,) := Md --(Z + l)m, -t m, + 0
C2

(15.36)

The electron masses cancel, so the equation is (15.37) In order for 8 decay to be possible with an electron given off, Q must be positive, so the parent nucleus must have greater mass than the daughter nucleus. It is found that whenever the half-life this is condition so large is that satisfied, other bdecay decay does occur, are although in somecases processes more important.

lple F o r t h e d e c a y

,N16 - a016 -1 ~8.

+ V, f r o m A p p e n d i x 3 t h e r e s t m a s s o f amu, s o Q ( l amu =: 9 3 1 MeV) is

7N6 i s 1 6 . 0 0 6 1 0 3 amu, a n d t h a t o f sOI6 i s l e s s a t 1 5 . 9 9 4 9 1 5 amu. T h u s Q i s positive. The change in mass is 0.01 118 10.4 MeV. T w o o t h e r c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w s t h a t s h o u l d b e s a t i s f i e d i n B- decay are conservation of momentum and conservntion of angular momentum. These two laws lead to the necessity for a neutrino or antineutrino t o be present among the /J d e c a y p r o d u c t s , e v e n t h o u g h f o r Imany years it was impossible to detect these particles directly. For example, consider conservation of angular momentum in connection with the reaction:

T h e n e u t r o n a n d p r o t o n e a c h h a v e s p i n % The electron also has spin % . Therefore, if there were no neutrino, arlgular momentum could not be conserved, because the spin of the end product; would be integral, and could not equal the initial spin of % . Thus, if angular momentum is to be conserved, there must be at least one more unobserved particle. If there is only one particle, it must have half-integral spin. Experiments show that the neutrino indeed has spin Yz Now let us consider the effects of momentum cons,ervation a l o n g w i t h energymass conservation. If there were just two end product particles, , p a n d e-, in the center of mass system the two particles would have to have momenta of the same magnitude but opposite in clirection, because in the center of mass system the initial momentum is zero. Also, the sum of the kinetic energies equals Q. This gives sufficient information to determine the individual particle energies. Then the electron energies observed should be discrete, just as alpha decay results in discrete alpha-particle ene*gies. However, experimentally it is found that

450

Tronsformotion

of the nucleus
enersly distribution from 0 to Q. This indicates protoln and

t h e e l e c t r o n s h a v e a continumous t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e a t least neutron, given off in the clecay.

one more particle, in addition to the

15.8 PHASE SPACE AND THE THEORY OF BETA DECAY

Experimentally observed values of the number of electrons, per unit energy

interval, versus electron kinetic energy for the /j decoy of qpln4 a r e s h o w n i n Figure 15.6. Similar results ore founcl in other beta decays. Let us see if we can make some simple arguments to expltlin the shape of the curve formed by these points. We shall assume f rst that one particle, an antineutrino of zero rest mass, is given off in addition to the daughter nucleus and the electron. Then the relationship between the energy E, and the F momentum p,, E = T of the antineutrino is: (1 5.:38)

just as for a photon. Likewise, if the kinetic energy, momentum and rest mass of the electron are these three T,, p. a n d m , , is (1 5.:39) Now we make o probability argument. As in statistical mechanics, we assume thot the probability of finding the particles in a given range of momenta in the final state, is determined Drily their probability for is by the availability of final states. Hence we assume to the corresponding probability volume be in momentum to: momentum space here consists of three the will proportional proportional particle. r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e r e l a t i v i s t i c e q u a t i o n relating quantities

space. Since two particles come off, coordinates each Therefore,

d I = (dpx dp, dpz)u (dpx dp, dpz 1.

Thirdly, we make the assumption that there is no correlation in direction

(1 5.40) between

the electron and antineutrino. This allows us to use spherical coordinates in momentum space, and to ignore the angular dependence of the distribution of decay products. Then the volume in momentum space becomes d1 = (47rp;dpU)(47rpfdpe) (15.41)

From Equations (15.38) and (15.39). in terms of energies E,, dE,, J, a n d dJ,, the volume in momentum space is

@; + 2
The antineutrino energy E,<cannot sum this expression over all allowecl

J,

m,

c2 lJe

+ mc=c2)dJe

(1 5.42)

be measured directly, so we would like to values for

E, for a given J,, to find the

probability of emitting an electron with kinetic energy J,. The conservation of energy and momentum equations lead to an approximate relationship between

1 .o Energy (MeV) Figure 15.6. probability Beta decay spectrum far ,,91n14, argument.

2.0

showing fit obtained by phase space

452

Transformation of the nuckas

E,, a n d T,. In order to ccnserve momentum, the nucleus, in general, recoils with a rnomentum it comparable will have in magnitude to that of the Thus electron the and antineutrino. and antiB u t t h e n , b e c a u s e t h e nljclear particles, of energy, E, = Q - T, (15.43) t h e antimass is large compared to those of the other kinetic energy. electron

negligible

neutrino kinetic energies must add to approximately Q. Hence by conservation

For a given infinitesimal range of electron kinetic energies near T,, neutrino energies are closNely groupeo

about the value given by Equation (15.43).

The factor dE, m a y t h e n b e a b s o r b e d i n t o a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t multrplying the factors in dI w h i c h d e p e n d o n 7,. The number of electrons emitted per unit energy interval, n,, i s dropping multiplicative proportional constants, we to the probability (15.42) and divided (15.43), by dre. Then, gathering together the results of Esquation have: we see that

n,a(Q - T$z/~j

+ 2Jem,c2(1,

+ m,c2)

(15.44)

For the p decay of 49 ln14, Q = 1.09 MeV.

The expression in Equation (15.44)

is plotted as the solid curte in Figure 15.6, using this value of Q a n d m u l t i p l y i n g by the proper constant to make the peak of the curve match the experimental peak. The excellence of the fit indicates strongly that only one additional particle, the antineutrino, is emitted. The dependence on (Q - T,)2 arose from the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e ant:neutrino re:,t mass is zero. The good fit near T,? = Q indicates that this assumption is correct. Thus we conclude that the additional particle emitted in fi decay (antineutrino or neutrino) has zero charge, zero Irest mass, and a spin of % . Ii also has no magnetic moment. Because of these properties, it interacts very little, with matter and is very difficult to detect. It was first detected directly by Reines and Cowan in 1953. They used a large antineutrino flux from a reactor and a very large liquid i+,p detec:tor. The reaction used was +on + et, and the resulting positron was detected.

While a good fit was obtained to the data of Figure 15.6, many B decays give a curve of different slope. This has been explained in detail by the presence of tion correlations we in the no mornenta such of electron and antineutrino; in the above derivaassumed correlations existed.

15.9 ENERGY IN B DECAY

Let us now consider the condition cn parent and daughter atomic masses imposed by energy-mass conservation for rest mass of the positron (the same as, kinetic energy of the dec:ay equation: (Me - ilm,) = [M, - (Z - l)m,] + m, + Q
C2

/j decay, where a positron is emitted. b e M, a n d Md, w i t h m, t h e - 1. Then if the that of the electron). If the charge number

Again let the masses of parent and daughter atoms8

of the parent nucleus is Z, that of the daughter nucleus is Z

products is Q, energy-mass balance is given by the

(15.45)

15.10 Electron copfure Cancellation of Zm, on both sides leads to: M, lp/e = M, + 2m, + 0
C2

453

Which of the following nuclei coLlld each decay: ,pK.lO,

disintegrate by ,$ d e c a y ? F i n d t h e Q of ,Be7, s71a38

lion F r o m A p p e n d i x 3 , M a s s o f I9 K4 = 3 9 . 9 6 4 0 0 0 amu M a s s o f 18 A4 = 3 9 . 9 6 2 3 8 4 amu Difference = b.001616 2m, amu = 0 . 0 0 1 0 9 8 amu --~__ D i f f e r e n c e = b.000518 amu > 0 Thus the reaction may take place. C ? = (931)(0.000516) For,Be7 + 3Li7 + e+ = 0 . 4 8 MeV

+ v, t h e m a s s d i f f e r e n c e i s - 0 . 0 0 0 1 7 3 amu, w h i c h i s m+ 56Ba38 + so the reaction takes place. = 0 . 7 5 MeV alnnihilates with an electron,

less than zero, and so the reaction does not take place. For 57La38 e+ + v, the mass difference is 0.00081 amu, Q = (931)1:0.00081) The positron given off in /j dtzcay

eventually

giving off two gamma rays. For a short time before the annihilation, the electron and positron may be bound together to form a systeln called positronium, someenergies. points in the direction what similar to a hydrogen atom. Since the reduced mass, m,m,/(m, + m.), is

% me ,
except

the in

binding one

energies the

are spin

one-half of the

the

hydrogen

The neutrino given off in 0 respect:

decay has the same properties as the antineutrino antineutrino always

of its motion, and that of the neutrino is always opposite to the direction of the motion. This, together with conservation of angular momentum, leads to the fact that the spins of the electrons or positrons emitted can be lined up, which can be detected experimentally.

IO ELECTRON CAPTURE
A reaction somewhat similar to /Y d e c a y i s t h a t i n w h i c h a n a t o m i c o r b i t a l electron is absorbed by the nucleus, with a neutrino being given off. Since the electrons in the K shell spend more .time near the nucleus than the other electrons, it is generally a K electron that is captured. The general reaction can be written:

The

energy-mass

balance

equation

here

is:

me + [M, -

Zm,] = [M,

~ (Z -~

l)m.]

0
C2

454

Trunsformation
or

of fhe nucleus

M, = M, - 0
C2

( 15.48)

In this case, there are cnly t w o

pal,titles coming out of the reaction, so their

energies should be discrete. Careful measurements, of the recoil energy of the daughter nucleus show that this is the case and that the energy is of the corl-ect mugnitude.

15.11 GAMMA DECAY AND INTERNAL CONVERSION

If a nucleus is bombarded by particles, it may be excited to higher energy levels, just as electrons in atoms can be rather than in the grouncl ex:ited by collisions with particles. Also, if (Y or /j decay takes place, the daugh-er nucleus may be left in an excited state above he/E = a b o u t

state. Ther the nucleus can emit a photon to return to MeV photon emitted is X = x lo-l3 m , o r

the ground state. These excited state: are typically on the order of an MeV t h e g r o u n d s t a t e . T h e w a v e l e n g t h 0.1 a 1 ( 6 . 6 3 x 10-34)(3 x 10)/(1.6 x -10~13 ioules) =: 1 2

a hundredth of an Angstrom. Such high-energy photons are called gamma rays. T h e i n t e r a c t i o n t h a t l e a d s t o Y-ray emission is electromagnetic in origin. Thus, since the interaction potential energies are known, quantum mechanical transition probability theory may be used to estimate the half-life for the transition. The result is that if there are no selection rules prevenlting occur in about lo-l4 the transition, it should seconds. If there are selection rules preventing a r e a d y

transition, the half-life mzy be quite large, possibly on the order of days. When there is a long half-life, say greater tlan 10m6 seconds, the various energy states of the nucleus are called isomers. An alternate reaction that may take place to reduce the nucleus to its ground state is interaction with external electrons. Again the K-shell electrons are most important because they spend the most time near the nucleus. In this process of internal c o n v e r s i o n , the external orbital electron i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e nuclecls minus the electrons original and flies out of the atom, carrying an amount of binding energy. kinetic energy corresporlding to the energy difference between nuclear levels, Measurement of y-ray energy levels. energies and conversion electron energies, along with

the half-lives, gives information about the spacing and symmetries of nuclear

15.12 LOW-ENERGY NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Since there are well over 1200 different known nuclides, or types of nuclei, there are many different ways in which these particles can combine and react. We shall consider here only the simplest type of nuclear reaction, involving two incoming and two outgoing particles of low kiletic energies. By low energy here we mean that the kinetic energies are smaller than about 50 MeV. particle (the proton) has a rest ener(Jy of about 938 MeV. The lightest nuclear Therefore, the kinetic

15. I2 Low-energy nuclear reactions

energy is small compared to the rest energy, v/c particle reaction is as follows: + ,N1 + (pF8) + ,H + sO7 ~3: 1 , a n d s o w e c a n u s e non-

455

relativistic mechanics in describinca the motion of such a particle. A typical two-

*He4

In this reaction, a beam of alpha particles might be allowed to fall on a nitrogen target at rest in the lab. An (Y particle may combine temporarily with a nitrogen nucleus to form a compound nucleus, in this case a nucleus of fluorine, which is highly unstable and which decays into two new particles. From a study of such reactions, much information can be obtained about the energy levels of the comp o u n d n u c l e u s a n d a b o u t n u c l e a r i n t e r a c t i o n s . Thme particles rest energy minus the firial Q of a nuclear reaction is Q is the initial defined as the negative of the change in rest energy, that is,

particles rest energy. Let us express Q for a

two-particle reaction in terms of atomic masses of the incoming and outgoing particles. Assume there are two particles initially of nuclear masses m, M, with M at rest. Let m be incident witti velocity v or kinetic energy T = % mv2. T h e initial rest energy is (m + M)c2. If the final particles have masses m,M, the final rest energy is (m + M)c2. lherefore the Q of the reaction is given by Q = (rr + M - m - M)c2 (15.49)

These are nuclear masses. However, atomic masses from the tables may be used in this formula, because the electron masses cancel out. Since total energy is conserved in the reaction, if T,,, a n d T,.. are the final kinetic energies of the outcoming masses, we have: T + ( m + M)c2 = (m + M)c + T,,, + T,,, (15.50)

Therefore, in terms of kinetic energies,

Q = 7,, + J,., - T
This gives another way to define Q: the particles during the reaction. ,He4 + ,1\114 m* (,F18)
l

(15.51)

Q equals the increase in kinetic energy of

Jmple Calculate in MeV, t h e Q of the reaction,

, H + sO7,

using the atomic mass table of Appendix 3. hJlron M a s s o f ,He4 = 4 . 0 0 2 6 0 1 3 1 amu Mass of ,N14 = 14.00307.44 amu S u m = 1 8 . 0 0 5 6 7 7 5 amu M a s s oi: , l-l = Mass of *CI17 = 1 . 0 0 7 8 2 5 amu

1 6 . 9 9 9 1 3 3 amu ~-__ S u m = 1 8 . 0 0 6 9 5 8 amu

1 8 . 0 0 5 6 7 7 amu ---__ D i f f e r e n c e = 0 . 0 0 1 2 8 1 amu Q = (931)(-0.001281) = -1.19MeV

456

Tronsformotion

of the nucleus

The fact that Q is negative in the above example means that excess rest mass is created energy
example

in is

the

reaction, are

and

that

some

kinetic

energy

disappears.

Such

reactions

are called endothermic. F!eac:tions i n w h i c h produced, called exothermic.

Q > 0, or in which excess kinetic

C a l c u l a t e t h e Q o f t h e r e a c t i o n , 3Li7 + , H - (.,Bes) + ,He4 + ,He4 Mass of 3 Li7 = 7 . 0 1 6 0 0 4 amu

SOlUfiOll

M a s s o f , H = ~___1 . 0 0 7 8 2 5 amu S u m = 8 . 0 2 3 8 2 9 amu M a s s *of t w o 2He4 = 8 . 0 0 5 2 0 6 amu D i f f e r e n c e = 0 . 0 1 8 6 2 3 amu This is an exothermic reaction with = 1 7 . 3 MeV.

Q =: (931)(0.018623)

15.13 THRESHOLD ENERGY

In an endothermic reaction, excess kiretic energy must be supplied in order for the process to be allowed by energy conservation; if the kinetic energy T of the incident particle falls below / Q 1 , the reaction cannot take place. For the remust be supplied to conserve moaction to take place, not only must the initial kinetic energy be greater than 1 Q / , but enough additional kinetic @energy mentum because the final particles are not created at rest. In classical mechanics, it is shown that the total kinetic energy of a system of particles may be written

BE F O R E

AF T E R

*---. -0
m M
Figure 15.7. as u sum of two positive

8
the is

M m

Thre!,hold conditions for an endothermic nuclear reaction. contributions: kinetic energy of center-of-mass

motion, plus kinetic energy of the motion relative to the center of mass. The contribution from the center 0.: muss motion is % (m + M)V, conserved, Therefore, the kinetic energy where V is the speed of the center of mass. This speed V is not zero, because for momentum to be mv = (,n + due to = the M ) V motion (15.52)

center-of-mass 7

T
t

c.m.

(15.53)

The reaction will not take place unless the incident kinetic energy 7 supplies

1 + Tc.m s a t t h e v e r y m i n i m u m . I f r = 1 Q 1+ T,,,,, there can be no motion

15.14

Nuclear fission and fusion

457

of the final particles relative to the center of mass, and the final particles travel along together with speed V. The equation for an endothermic reaction, (15.54)

T= lQ/+T,,,
can be solved for T. The solution is: T = Tth = ~~

= -Q+--m7
m + M

m+M m + M -- m

(15.55)

Since this is the minimum possible incident kinetic energy which allows the reaction to take place, it is called the threshold energy. Hence the subscript, th, is placed on T.
Imp/e

Calculate the threshold energy for the reaction , H + 807.

2He4

+ rN4

+ (9F8)

ution T h e m a s s e s a n d Q a r e g i v e n i n t h e n e x t t o l a s t e x a m p l e , Q = - 1 . 1 9 MeV. m + M 2 1 8 amu; m + M m 2 1 4 amu, a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e t a r g e t 7N4 1 .19) == 1.53 MeV. nucleus is initially at rest. Then Tth = il8/14)( The threshold energies we have There is, of course, no threshold Ibeen energy

discussing are for endothermic reactions. necessary for an exothermic reaction.

15.14 NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

Another very important type of nuclear reaction occurs when a heavy nucleus, f a r o u t o n t h e b i n d i n g e n e r g y c u r v e , d i v i d e s i n t o Tao lighter nuclei which themselves have larger binding energies per particle. A typical example of this is: on + 92U 235 -+ (92UZ36) + 56!3a4 -t 36Kr92 + 30n (15.56)

This is called fission. Since the overall binding energy per particle increases, kinetic energy is liberated in this process. The Q of the a b o u t 2 0 0 MeV. tonium with isotopes light undergo fission. Again with looking heavier at the U235 fission reaction is energy the curve, binding Atomic bombs utilize this energy release when uranium or plubinding near

Figure 14.8, it may be seen that if a reaction could be made to occur starting very particles and ending particles Fe56, energy per particle would increase and therefore kinetic energy would be liberated. Such reactions are called fLlsion reactions, and are used in devices such as the hydrogen bomb. Such reactions are also responsible for the energy output of the sun. A typical sequence of fusion reactions which occur in the sun, is the proton-proton cycle: Starting with pure hydrogen, H H He3 + H --* Hz + 8 + v

+ HZ -

He3 + y + 2H (15.57)

+ He3 m+ He4

Thus, the net result is that 4 protons are burned to produce He4, w i t h B a n d neutrino particles also appearing. About 25 MeV of energy is released. Such

458

Transformation of the nucleus cycles of nuclear fusion reactions can be used to explain the genesis of heavier elements from hydrogen land the large energy output from the sun. Reactions moss e v e r y lo9 years. They such as these burn up about 1% of the suns rest trinos/cm2 set measured at the earths surface.

also give rise to a large flux of neutrinos. From the sun, this flux is about 10 neu-

15.15

RADIOACTIVE CARBON DATING

Some radioactive materials are continually being produced by collisions of

high-energy, cosmic ray particles, with nuclei of the earths atmospheric constituents. An important example of this is the production of radioactive aC4, b y collisions of cosmic ray nelltrons 0n with nitrogen, in the reaction: + ,p (15.58) $ emission with a half-life

+ 7N4 + sC4

The carbon nuclei formed in this reaction decay by of 5568 years, according to the reaction: ir + i -14 - TN4 + 6 (In a relatively short time, this radioactive

(15.59) thoroughly mixed with

carbon

becomes

the ordinary

sC2 atoms in the #consists

atmo:;phere

and near the earths crust, and is

i n g e s t e d b y l i v i n g organislns. Thus a certain fraction of the carbon in the structure of a living organism o f r a d i o a c t i v e aC4; t h e a m o u n t

corresponds

to an activity of about 15 disintegrations per minute per gram of fresh carbon. After the death of the organism, the exchange of carbon with the environment ceases and the radioactive carbon atoms decay-the fraction of 6C4 atoms decreasing by half in one half-life of 5568 years. By measurement of the carbon activity of an ancient archeological object such as wood or bone, the fraction of the remaining aC4, and hence the age of the obiect, can be determined. This method of dating organic remains works well if the age of the object is no more than five or six half-lives, or roughly 30,000 years. Beyond that, the fraction of 6C4 atoms has decayed to an undetectable level. This method of dating is called radiocarbon dating, and was invented by W. F. Libby in 1952.

LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

In general, the decay rate for nuclei with decay constant X is given by dN/dt = -XN. Of a sample of N,, nuclei at iime t = 0 w h i c h u n d e r g o e s s p o n t a n e o u s f there will remain N = N,,emX nuclei. The half-li,Fe radioactive decay, at time

T,,, is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample to decay, and is given by 1 ,,2 = 0.693/X

Summary If there are N, p a r e n t n u c l e i h a v i n g a d e c a y c o n s t a n t X,, i n r a d i o a c t i v e equilibrium with N, daughter nuclei of decay constant &,, then the rate at which parent atoms decay is equal to the rate at which daughter atoms decay, and

459

h,N, = X,N, RADIOACTIVE SERIES

R a d i o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s w i t h Z :> 82 fall into four series; within each series the nucleon numbers A differ by 4. Tllese series are normed the Thorium (A = 4n), N e p t u n i u m ( A = 4 n + l), U r a n i u m ( A = 4 n + 2 ) a n d A c t i n i u m ( A = 4 n + 3 ) series. The nuclei in these series decay by a or /I emission, and ultimately end as stable isotopes of lead or bismuth.

ALPHA-PARTICLE
Alpha-particle decay

DECAY
is a two-particle decay, in which the atomic number of the

parent nucleus decreases by 2 ancl the nucleon number decreases by 4. An alpha particle is given off with discrete energy. The Q of the decay is the net decrease in rest energy of the particles, and is given in terms of atomic masses by Q/c2 = ,M,A A-4 Zm2Md .- ?M:e

The discrete kinetic energy of the outcoming alpha particle in terms of the nucleon number A of the parent is approximately: A 4

J,, =

AQ

A relation between the half-life, Q and Z can be obtained approximately on the basis of an alpha-particle model of the nucleus, assuming the alpha particle is bound by a potential energy V(r) which is the positive repulsive Coulomb p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y f o r r > rO, b u t r e g a t i v e f o r r < rO, w h e r e rO = 1.4(A - 4)3 fermis. The alpha-particle wavefunction outside the potential barrier is given approximately by dr -\/2m(V(r) - Q Ii The potential energy for r > r,, is V = life: 2(Z - 2)e2/4xtor. )

This leads to a

half-

J,,, 2 10.434-22
where

460

Tronsformotion

of fhe nuc/eUs

with y the ratio of Q to the barrier peak energy,

This

result

may

also

be

expressed

in

the

form

(the

Geiger-Nuttall

law):

A - B(Z - 2) l o g A = ___-~

VQ

where A and B are slowly varying functions of A, Z and Q.

BETA DECAY
In beta decay, electrons are given of: with a continuous range of energies, indi-

cating that in order to conserve energy, momentum and angular momentum, o third particle must also tie given off. This third particle has zero rest mass, zero c h a r g e , a n d s p i n q u a n t u m n u m b e r /2 ; it is called an ontineutrino. T h e Q o f a beta decay is given in terms of atomic masses by

c2

:=

M,

M,

The number of electrons per unit energy interval which come off in a beta decay process is approximately proportional to:

where being:

7, is the electrons kinetic energy.

I n p decay, a positron and a neutrino are given off, the Q of the reaction

C2

=z

M,

.~

Md

-~

pm,
the stability line on an N -Z

This

occurs

for

nuclei

lying

generally

below

diagram. In electron capture, an atomic orbital electron is captured and a neutrino is emitted with a discrete energy.

GAMMA

DECAY
states of a nucleus may occur with the emission or 1 Om6

Transitions between excitl:d

absorption of an energetic photon, called a gamma ray. Typical half-lives for such processes are -lo-l4 sec. Nuclear states with half-lives longer than set are called isomers.

Problems

461

TWO-PARTICLE

NUCLEAR

REACTIONS

T h e Q of a nuclear reaction is defined as the negative of the change in rest energy. In terms of the initial masses m, M and final masses m, M: Q = (m + M - m - M)c. Q is also the increase in kinetic energy of the particles. In an endothermic reaction, Q < Cl; for an exothermic reaction, Q > 0. If Q < 0 the reaction will not take place unless the incident particle has a minimum kinetic energy: J,, = .-m m + M + M m 0

In a fission reaction, heavy nuclei increase their binding energy by dividing into lighter nuclei which lie closer to the peak of the bindilng peak of the binding energy curve. energy curve. In a fusion r e a c t i o n , l i g h t p a r t i c l e s a r e burrled to produce heavier particles nearer the

1. In the actinium series, the parent nucleus U235 U 235

h a s o half-life of 8.8 x 10 years,

much longer than the half-lives irl any of the succeeding generations. If 1 gram of is in radioactive equilibrium with its decay products (14 generations), what (as and ps) of the sample? the daughter = would be the total number of decay particles per second

Answer: 8.96 x lO/sec.

2. A parent nucleus decays into a daughter with decay constant X1; decays into a stable granddaughter with decay constant X2. N, N, and N3 of parent, daughter pnd A2 >> X1, N3 = 0 i n i t i a l l y . S h o w t h a t i f elapsed. N,h, = N2X2 Find the numbers

granddaughter nuclei if N, = No, N2

after a long time has

Answer:

N1 = Noe +,N2

=: A, Note

-A, (A2 -A,!

- e -

-h-j A,)

N, 3.

= No

2e

)42

XI - A,

Calculate the average lifetime of a radioactive substance in terms of its half-life T,,2. Answer: 1.44T,,,.

4. One curie is defined as an activity of 3.7 x 10 disintegrations per second. Calculate the activity in curies of 1 gram of radium, which has a half-life of J,,,

I 1622 years. Answer: original Answer:

0.98 curies.

5 . u233 has a half-life of 1.62 x lo5 years. How long will it take for 98% of the U233 atoms to decay? 9.1 x 10yeors.

4 6 2

Transformation

of

fhe

nucleus

6.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the atomic mass tables.

Y p a r t i c l e a r i s i n g f r o m (I d e c a y o f

p2U234

using

Answer: 4.76 MeV.

7. C a l c u l a t e t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t e d s o l e l y b y (Y d e c a y o f 1 k g o f r a d i u m o f h a l f - l i f e 1622 years.

Answer: 0.028 watls.

8. F r o m T a b l e 1 5 . 3 , c a l c u l a t e t h e Q f o r N d e c a y o f ssAt!8.

Answer:
9..

6 . 8 1 MeV.

W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o u l d d e c a y lby (Y d e c a y ? U s e t h e a t o m i c m a s s t a b l e . 4 Be, 22Ti48, 92 U235. .I cpproximatiorl, t h e G ( x ) 2 (const/V%)exp (./o K d x ) w i t h K = h2 d2$ h2 SchrGdinger e q u a t i o n , ~- 1 + - K2 ( x ) 4 = 0 , 2m dx 2m

1 0..

Substitute -\/?m(V -

t h e WKB E)/ri, Into

to see what the error is in this approximation. Show that this error is small if (dK/dx)/Kand good (d2K/dx2)/K3 a r e s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o o n e . N e a r K = 0 t h i s i s nc#t a

approximation.

1 1 , , A p a r t i c l e i s i n a o n e d i m e n s i o n a l boK betwt2n x = 0 a n d x = f, I n s i d e t h e b o x , i t s
p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y i s V = V,x/[ of the particle. Thus K c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e WKB == , w h e r e V,, i s s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o t h e l o w e s t e n e r g y __-ifin(V - E)/h i s p u r e l y i m a g i n a r y . U s e a l i n e a r for positive and negative K to find the

approxirrations

e n e r g y l e v e l s , E, t o s e c o n d o r d e r i n A n s w e r : n27r2ii2 ___ 2mt with

V,, ( S e e P r o b l e m 1 0 ) vi; the emission n == of 1,2,3 an a ,.... particle, of energy x 1 8.78 13--7

12.

F r o m T a b l e 1 5 . 1 , Po212 d e c a y s MeV.

E s t i m a t e i t s h a l f - l i f e u s i n g E q u a t i o n (I 5.13),

and compare with the 3

set v a l u e g i v e n i n t h e table. A n s w e r : 4 x 1O-7 sec. IS 2 . 5 x lo5 y e a r s . B y t r i a l a n d error

13.

F r o m T a b l e 1 5 . 3 , t h e h a l f - l i f e o f (,2U234 u s i n g E q u a t i o n (15.13), C o m p a r e w i t h 4 . 7 6 MeV,

estimate the a-particle energy that gives this half-life.

OS

given in the table.

Answer: 14. 15.

Answer: Suppose the

4 . 7 2 MeV. o f a t o m i c mass lQ7.9059 amu.

F i n d t h e Q f o r 8- d e c a y o f 4,Ag08, 1 . 6 4 MeV. antineutrino had a

small

rest

mass

m,.

Assuming

no

directional

correla-

tion between electron and antineutrino momenta, show that the be proportional to: t/iQ where - T,)(Q---T,--;-%;;? Q is the maxinum i s small. electror l/T,(T,+2m,c2)(Q -

b- s p e c t r u m s h o u l d

T. + m,c)(T,

m,c2) T,

kinetic energy. Sketch this spectrum for

n e a r Q , w h e n muc2

16.

The cross-section for

ttle i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n n u c l e i a n d n e u t r i n o s i s

approximately

lo-* b a r n s . A s s u m e tllat a t o m s a r e a f e w A n g s t r o m s a p a r t i n t h e e a r t h , s o t h a t t h e r e a r e a b o u t 10 aioms p e r c u b i c m e t e r . W h a t f r a c t i o n o f t h e n e u t r i n o s f r o m t h e sun, hitting perpendicular to the surface of the earth, are absorbed by the earth?

Answer: 17.

1 . 3

x 10~

F i n d t h e Q f o r G d e c a y o f 47Ag lo*, 3f a t o m i c m a s s 1 0 7 . 9 0 5 9 amu.

Answer: 0.90 MeV.

Problems
18. 19. Find the Q for K capture in ,9K4. Answer: 1 Sl MeV. 43 Tc has on atomic mass of 97.9071 amu. Can it wIdergo a fi- decay; o p+decay; a K capture? Answer: 20. 2 1 . All are possible. a K capture; a /II decay? ,sP29 has an atomic moss of 28.9818. Can it undergo Answer: Both are possible. ShowthatforthereactionB+

463

zPA+Z..lDA

et,M, = Md +

2m, + Q/c2.

Is it possible to have this reaction if Q is negative? 2 2 . 6C14, the radioactive isotope of carbon, has Q half-life of 5568 years, decaying b y @- emission. The ratio of gC14 to ,sC I2 in the earths atmosphere is nearly a constant in time, as gC I4 is produced at a constant rate by cosmic rays. If the fraction of *C l4 in a sample of wood from an archeological excavation only has 0.30 of the normal fraction of radioactive Answer: 9,700 years. carbon, what is the age of the sample?

2 3 . 83 Bi I2 decays by n-particle emission, with LY particles of kinetic energies 5.60, 5.62, 5.76, 6.07, and 6.1 1 MeV. Some y rays observed following the decay have energies of 0.164, 0.452, 0.492, 0.144, 0.432, 0.472, 0.288, 0.328, 0.040 MeV. Construct an energy level diagram showing the various LY and y transitions, and calculate the difference in mass between the 83Bi22 nucleus and the 8, TIzo8 Answer: 4.0081 amu. nucleus.

24. Calculate the energy of the y ray produced by using thermal neutrons, of negligible kinetic energy, in the n - 2 reactions: on + ,H + ,H2 +

hu;29Cu65 +

,,n - 29Cu6 + hu.

Answer: 25.

2.23 MeV; 7.06 MeJ.

Calculate the y energy of the electron capture reaction: ,Be + e- + (3Li7) Answer: 0.870 MeV. particles - 3Li7 + hv.

26. 5 MeV

a particles are absorbed in several centimeters of air; 5 MeV /?I

are absorbed in several meters of air. The absorption coefficient of 5 MeV y rays in air is 0.35 x 1 Om4/cm. Answer: 658 meters. In what distance would 90% of these y rays be absorbed?

27. In an internal conversion process, electrons of energies 30.95 keV and 46.10 keV are ejected, followed by x rays of energies 16.3 keV and 1.0 keV, respectively. The nucleus also ccln emit a y ray as an alternate way of going from its excited to its ground state. What is the energy of the y? Answer: 47.2 keV. 28. Calculate the Q of the U234
138 56

fission reaction in which a neutron is absorbed, and

and 36Kr84 plus some nelJtrons are produced. Ba Answer: 1050 MeV.

29. Calculate the energy given off during o proton-proton cycle in which four protons are burned to form helium. Answer: 25.7 MeV.

16 ellementary particles
When the kinetic energies of two colliding particles are made sufficiently high, a variety of particles having new and in,teresting decades, ties for attempts chapter will be been the to poured into and them of newly The construction study and of of properties can be created out of particle accelerator particles, We successful quantum the and in shall faciliinto this the available kinetic energy. An enormous amount of effort has, in the past few high-energy so-called their production classify the schemes, these of elementary properties. The and are laws

understand these

present

results

some

investigations: schemes

particlle numbelrs of

classification

discovered

conservation

discussed.

broadest

clas,;ification

groupings

particles into different classes, numbers are assigned to .the in tirne. Similar conservaticn

s u c h a s t h e b a r y o n s a n d l e p f o n s . Quantuln

baryons in such a way that the total number of laws hold for leptons.

baryons involved in any reaction among elementary particles remains constant

1 6 . 1 LEPTONS
Let us first consider the class of particles called leptons. This class includes th#e eleciron, p o s i t r o n , n e u t r i n o s , antineutrinos and the p mesons, or muons. All of the leptons have spin % . In general, for each particle of a given rest mass, charge, and spin within this group there also exists a particle of equal rest mass, opposite charge and the same spin, called an antiparticle. This terminologly arises comses because of the annihilation process which can occur when a particle and its antiparticle combine and disappear in a burst of energy-usually this energy out in the form of gamma ray photons. The positron is the antiparticle of the electron. Some neubral particle:, may be their own antiparticles, as is the case for the K meson to De discussed in Section 16.2. However, in the case of the neutral leptons, such CIS the neutrino, the antiparticles are different from the pariicles. It has been found that there are two distinct types of neutrinos; one type is associated with the appeclrance or disappearance of electrons in weak decays, while the other type is associated with the appearance or disappearance of muons. The latter type is c:alled a mu neutrino and is denoted by u,,. T h e a n t i particle is frequently indicated AlsoN, 464 v,, by putting a bar over the symbol for the particle. The bar changes the sign of the charge; for example, Kf and Km are the same. cr refer to the mu neutrino and the mu antineutrino, respectively.

76.7

Lepfons

465

Examples of the decay of T mesons into muons have been discussed in Chapter 14. A typical decay reaction is: .F+ -* P+ + up (16.1)

Here uli is the mu neutrino associated with the appearance of the muon. The /I+ is the antiparticle of the pm. The masses of /I+ a n d rest energy of 105.66 MeV, as compared to 0.51 IO MeV positron. The ratio of muon mass to electron mass is 206.8. It has been found experimentally that when leptons are involved in interactions, both the e l e c t r o n i c l e p t o n n u m b e r and the muonic lepton number are conserved. By electronic lepton number here we mean that the electron and neutrino are each counted as plus one electronic lepton, and the corresponding antiparticles-the positron and the antineutrino-are counted as minus one electronic lepton each. Likewise, the /.- and mu neutrino each count as one muonic l e p t o n , a n d t h e p+ and the mu antineutrino each count as minus one muonic lepton. The total lepton numbers are then found by adding algebraically the lepton numbers of the individual particles appearing on one side of a reaction equation. For example, in the decay reaction (16.1), the muonic lepton number on the lefthand side of the reaction is zero, because no leptons are present. and + 1 On the righthand side, the total muonic lepton number is - 1 for the CL+ side. Thus, if in o reaction an electron is created, eitl-rer the same time. Using this conservation law and another electronic lepton of charge, one may must have been destroyed or an electronic antileptan must have been created at conservation deduce the reaction for the beta decay of the /.- meson: p- + e+u,+v (16.2) pL- correspond to a for the electron and

for the mu neutrino; the total is - 1 + (+ 1) = 0, the same value as on the left

The muonic lepton number on each side is + 1 and the total electronic lepton number on each side is zero. The mean life for

thils decay is 2.20 x

10m6 sec.

A similar decay involving the antiparticles occurs with the same mean life: p+ + e + +v,+u (16.3)

The mu neutrino and the neutrino are distinctly (different particles. In difficult experiments with mu neutrinos from a meson decay, it has been shown that mu neutrinos do not interact with nuclei to form electrons, whereas the creation of electrons from similar nuclear interactions with neutrinos does occur. Charged leptons interact with nuclei primarily through electromagnetic forces, i.e. Coulomb interactions. They do not interact through shortrange strong nuclear forces. The uncharged, zero rer,t mass leptons cannot interact by means of electromagnetic potentials. Their interaction with thle charged leptons is through forces which are very small and are called, appropriately, weak interactions. Because of the smallness of such interactions, neutrinos go through matter almost as freely as through a vacuum.

466 16.2

Elementary

particles

MESONS
As was discussed in Chapter 14, the cmxistence Yukowa to explain nuclear forces in tevms of the x meson was predicted by

of particle exchange. By an uncertainty

p r i n c i p l e a r g u m e n t , t h e 7r m a s s w a s p r e d i c t e d t o b e s e v e r a l h u n d r e d e l e c t r o n masses. Two charged x mesons exist, denoted by x+ and r-, of 139.58 MeV. A l s o , t h e r e i s a neutral of 134.98 MeV. T h e corr,:sponding masses s m e s o n , ?y, with rest energies

which has a rest energy

are around 270 times the electron

rest mass. The H is its own antiparticle. The antiparticle for the H+ is the r-. The x mesons have spin zero and, th JS, the (other obey Bose-Einstein statistics. They and

mesons to be discussed are therefore often called bosons.

I f t w o nucleons c o l l i d e w i t h sufficient i n i t i a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y , t h e y c a n c r e a t e a x meson. Thus, if two prot,Dns collide, some possible reactions are:

IF
1p

+ IP - 1P + ,p
+ IP - IP

a0 (16.4)

+ o n + 7r+

Since the rest energy of the kinetic energy in the center

?r + is 139.58 MeV,

this is the minimum initial

of momentum system needed to create a X meson.

Some reactions that might occur for a oroton, neutron collision are:
11" -t

0 -. ,p + on + 7r

,p + 0 + 0 + on + 7r+
,p The occurrence of processes + on such as ,p + ,p + K (16.5)

(16.4) a n d ( 1 6 . 5 ) s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s n o

conservation law for meson number. C)ne d e c a y m o d e o f a c h a r g e d ?r m e s o n i s t h e r e a c t i o n g i v e n i n ( 1 6 . 1 ) . m e a n l i f e f o r s u c h a d e c a y i s 2 . 5 5 x lOma Tile

sec. Another decay mode which

occurs only in a very small fraction of i.he decays is ir+ -+e+ Thesse + v ( 16.6)

involve neutral leptons and thus weak interactions. Note that both of these

decays have lepton numbers of zero on each side of the equation. Since electromagnetic interactions are much stronger than weak interactions, the most likely

declay mode of the A meson is 7r -+ y + y lo-l6 (116.7) sec. No leptons

-two gomma rays. The mean life here is about 2 x are necessary in the decay of the ?y,

since no charged particles are needed to

conserve c h a r g e . A l s o , t h e K c a n n o t d e c a y i n t o o n l y o n e p h o t o n b e c a u s e t h e n mornentum could not be conserved. In fact, in all these decays at least two particles must result in order to conserve momentum. The meson exchange theory of nuclear forces is thought to be essentially correct. However, many other mesons have been found which could affect nuclear f o r c e s . T h e s e m e s o n s a l l h a v e i n t e g r a l s p i n a n d a r e t h u s bosons,. For

16.3 Baryons
instance, the K+ a n d K m e s o n s h a v e s p i n z e r o a n d d e c a y i n a r o u n d 1Om8 Their antiparticles are designated K--, or p, a n d K. [When sec.

467

discussing the class

of particles called mesons, the muon (g meson) is not included. The muon is a l e p t o n a n d h a s s p i n % .] Table 16.1 summarizes the kinds of mesons that fit into the patterns which will be discussed later, along with their rest energies and spins. All of these particles are uristable and decay. For instance, a K

meson

c a n d e c a y i n t o p+ + u,, or into two or three s m e s o n s , e t c . I t c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , decay into 4 P mesons, because It does not have enough rest energy to form f o u r rs. TABLE 16. 1 Rest Masses and Spin Quantum Numbers of Some of the Mesons

___-

Rer,t Energy ( MeV) __-

Spin 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

x* 7r
K* K, K t n P+r PO w K* _ K*, K*

K** , o** K
f f

,K**

139.58 134.97 493.8 497.8 548.8 958.3 -. 765 783 891 -. 897 1019 -1315 - 1405 1264 1515 __-

1.3

BARYONS
There is another class of particles whose number is conserved, called baryons, w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e p r o t o n a n d n e u t r o n , and their antiparticles. These particles a l l h a v e h a l f - o d d - i n t e g r a l s p i n , a n d a l l e x c e p t t h e plpoton-the b a r y o n w i t h t h e least mass-are unstable. The baryons interact by electromagnetic and range nuclear forces, as do mesons. The combined :;et t h a t c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h n u c l e a r fcrces is called p r e v e n t e d e a r l y d i s c o v e r y o f t h e LDnger-lived enough neutron energy were to produce by antiprotons, several was of hadrons. shortof mesons and baryons The only thing that

baryons was the lack of particle after the bevatron, with the antiproton The and antishort-lived baryons

beams with energy sufficient to produce them. Soo~n completed, detected teams

experimenters.

are more difficult to detect. Table 16.2 lists some of the baryons that fit into the classification patterns to be discussed later, along with

their rest energies and spins. The bars aver

symbols indicate antiparticles. The antiparticle always has the opposite sign of

468

Elementary

particles

TABLE Baryon Pf P n. n

16.:!

Rest Energies and Spins of Some of the Baryons Rest Einergy ( MeV) 938.26 939.55 1115.6 1189.4 1192.5 1197.3 1315 1321 Spin

l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2

3/2 312 3/2 3/2 3/2 312 312 312 312 3/2

f-C

, N++* N+*

N+*, No*,

_I 1236
1382 -1385 1388 1529 1534 1672
plusses on the

NV-

N-,v +* + Yl ,y1* 0 , 0 Yl ,r1* r;*,v;* -0, z T ,L s-

x-*,

n-,3=

charge from the particle. The two 1 :2e / .

N++ * indicate a charge of

I n a n y r e a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g b a r y o n s , t h e t o t a l b a r y o n n u m b e r i s a l w a y s c.onselrved. I n c a l c u l a t i n g 6, the total baryon number, the antiparticles are assigned - 1 and the particles are assigned -t 1. Then the algebraic sum of the numbers of the baryons or ontitbaryons appearing on one side of a reaction equation must be the same as the number appearing on the other side. Thus in the react i o n 2 + A + y, t h e i n i t i a l a n d f i n a l b a r y o n n u m b e r s a r e E? = + l . I n t h e reloction n + -6 + e + i- u, the initial and final baryon numbers are 6 = - 1 . In the reaction n + n + 27, the initial and final baryon numbers are 6 = 0.

16.4

CONSERVATION

LAWS
that are conserved in a particle interaction, it are predominant in causing the reaction. number,5 of go b y w e a k i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d t h e

In discussing various qLlantities For example, /3 decay processes electronic leptons

is useful to note what kinds of forccms

and muonic leptons are conserved. It has been found that there

ex.ist q u a n t i t i e s t h a t a r e c o n s e r v e d i? nuclear interactions, in which mesons are produced, which might not be conserved for other forces. The four kinds of forces that are known ore nuclear or strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational. For particles with nucleon masses, on the order of one fermi apart, the relative Strong: sizes of these forces are approximately: Gravitational: = 1: 10m2: 10m7: 1Om39 (16.8)

Electromagnetic:

Weak:

7 6 . 4 Conservafion
Clearly, in reactions where only a few particles are involved, gravitational

lows
effects

469

can be ignored. Also, weak forces, where leptons are involved, are important o n l y w h e n a r e a c t i o n b y n u c l e a r cr electromagnetic interactions is very unlikely. A conservation law that holds for CIII these interactions is conservation of baryon number 6. I . 7 /sotopic S p i n Another quantity, which is conserved in strong or nuclear interactions but which is not conserved in electromagnetic or weak interactions, is isotopic spin. This new quantum number is closely arlalogous to ordinolry spin. It arises from considering that the neutron and the proton are practically identical particles. Nuclear forces are charge independent; the neutron and the proton exhibit the same nuclear forces. They also hclve nearly the same mass. The only essential difference is that the proton has a charge. As a first approximation, then, one can think of the proton and neutron as different states of the same particle, distinguished only by an internal property (charge), which is described by assigning appropriate internal q u a n t u m numbers to the neutron and proton. % is assigned to the proton numbers are very closely

Since there are two particles in this case, a n i n t e r n a l q u a n t u m n u m b e r h a v i n g t w o p o s s i b l e v a l u e s i s n e e d e d . I f t h e v a l u e TX = a n d T3 = - % i s a s s i g n e d t o t h e n e u t r o n , these

analogous to the z components of spin of a particle of spin quantum number T = /2, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e 2T + 1 = 2 possible states. There are found among the elementary particles numerous exomples of such groups of particles, which can be described as isotopic spin mulfiplefs, different states described by 2

+ 1

different values of J3 for the isotcpic s p i n q u a n t u m n u m b e r isotopic spin. In general, number j.

J.

In the case of

the proton and neutron, the similarity to ordinary spin % is clear; thus the name,

J3

is analogous to the azimuthal quantum number

m,, or the z component of spin, and J i s a n a l o g o u s t o t h e t o t a l s p i n q u a n t u m The general utility of the concept of isotopic spin Irests o n t h e f a c t t h a t w h e n several particles are present, the isotopic spin of the system may be obtained by adding isotopic spins just like #ordinary spins, leading to the same possible values for the total T and states is T3, as for the analogous j a n d m . The number of 2; + 1 for ordinary spin. The highest T3 is assigned

2J

+ 1, similar to

to the most positive particle in a group of the same J. For example, from Table 16.2 there are 3 B particles. If this number, 3, is

2J

+ 1,then

J=
Also, J3 for each of the three particles is

(16.9)

B+,
For the cascade

J3

1;

X0,

T3

0;

Z-,

;r3

-1

(16.10)

particles E,

J=;

(16.1 1)

470

E l e m e n t a r y parficles and the values of Ts ore: T3 .:or 3 = -~ 1; 2 &for EC := +; (116.12)

For 2, w h i c h h a s z e r o charge, T I n 011 = 0; Ts = 0 l(16.13)

cases, the antiparticles woulc K having Ts

hove the some T and opposite signs for m e s o n s h o v e T = %, w i t h

Ts. T h e t h r e e 7r m e s o n s h a v e T = 1 a n d t h e K

K'.,

= + % , -l/z respectively.

Let us consider which of the following reactions do not violote any conservotion lows discussed so fat,: ( 0 ) ( c ) z+ A K + p + y (b) Km + p - 7 n - ;+ rr by strong interaction by weak interaction. low is satisfied. Also in 011 reactions, + xp + c

(d) A (e) A +

I n oli reactions, the charge

conservation

totol s p i n % m a y o c c u r o n e a c h s i d e , s o t h e r e i s n o difftculty momentum conservation. Also, the boryon equations. No leptons Ioccur i r r e l e v a n t . I n ( a ) , y indifcotes in the reactions,

with angular is

number is + 1 on each side of the s o c o n s e r v a t i o n o f lepton!;

on electromagnetic interaction where T need not conservation of isotopic spin is violated. := 0 wseok

be conserved; so this reclction appears possible. In reaction (b), the total Ts i s 0 on the left but % on the right, on the left and interaction. interactions. 76.4.2 Hyperchorge Another quantity to that is conserved in strong and For electromagnetic example, in the interactions, reaction, l(16.14) It was found that o reaction but -%
SC

In (c), Ts = 0 on both sides; so this appears possible. Likewise in (d), Ts Equotion (e) is possible since T, Ts are not conserved in

on the right. Thus, this reaction cannot occur by strong

not necessarily in weak interactions, is strangeness, S. This number wos originally introduced explain associated production.

p+r'-,K++Z+
t h e K+ such
OS

a n d Z+ occur together, or cre associated. n+r++Z+

i n w h i c h t h e Z+ w o u l d o c c u r n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a K+,

and which does not

v i o l a t e p r e v i o u s l y know11 c o n s e r v a t i o n l a w s , does not occur in nature. Later it seemed more useful to introduce a number Y, colled hyperchorge, in place of S, with Y=S+B l(16.15)

1 6 . 4 Conservation hws 4 7 1
The law of conservation of strangeness is a combination of conservation of hyper-

charge and conservation of baryon number. We will use hypercharge, Y, in the rest of this chapter, rather tharl S. One of the reasons for introducing hyperXs, t h e Z:j a n d t h e .I decay in a time charge is to explain why two of the istic of strong interactions, - 10mz3 the reaction *+ z does not occur by strong interactions, -+p + 7r the value of Y (16.16) or hypercharge of

characteristic of weak interactions, -- lo- set, rather than in a time charactersec. (The decay time is, roughly, inversely proportional to the square of the strength of the interaction.) We may then say that

because

t h e 8 i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f p p l u s t h a t o f x0. T h e v a l u e s o f Y f o r a l l of the elementary particles may be determined from considerations similar to those we shall now discuss. The zero for Y and the spacing between Y numbers may be chosen arbitrarily. The reaction, 20 --, takes place in less than lo-l4 A + y (16.17)

seconds, and is an electromagnetic interaction

b e c a u s e a y ray is produced. Since y rays occur in a wide variety of reactions where hypercharge does not enter, and Y is conserved in electromagnetic interactions, we should take Y = 0 for photons. Then we see that Y for the Z is equal to that of A. Therefore, we may take Y = 0 for the A Also, since the value of To define the spacing of to be Y = 1. The reaction, particle 2. and

T3 i s t h e q u a n t u m n u m b e r t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e t w e e n Y numbers, the hypercharge of the proton is taken

different B particles, Y is the same for the different Zs. T h e n Y = 0 for B * also.

p+p-+p+p+7r
takes place by strong interactiolls. Therefore, reaction, Y for the

(16.18) 7~ meson is zero. The

K-+p+A+a

(16.19)

takes place through strong interactions. Thus we can say that the Y for K- a n d Y for the proton have the same magnitude but opposite signs; or for the

Km,

Y = - 1. The Y for an antiparticle is negative to that of the particle. Therefore we conclude that the hypercharge of the K+ is + 1, as for the proton. The reaction,

K- +

p-K+ +

,-

(16.20)

takes place by strong interactions. The total hypercharge on the left is zero, while on the right the hypercharge of the K+ is + 1. Therefore, the , particle must have a hypercharge of -1. Table 16.3 lists the Y and isotopic spin T for some of the particles in Tables 16.1 and 16.2.

4 7 2 E l e m e n t a r y particles

TABLE 16.3
Particles 7r+, lr 0

Hypercharge

and Isotopic Spins of Some Hadrons

Y 0
1 -1 1 -1 0 0 -1 1 1 0 -1
- 2

1
1

K+, 5
Km, K

l/2 l/2 l/2 l/2 0

1

l/2 l/2
3/2

l/2 0

Thle 62- particle has actions. In the reaction,

Y =:

- 2 and T = 0. It does not decay by strong inter-

Q--K-

+ p

(16.21) (2- is not great 1 e / , its hypeI,-

all quantities are conserved satisfactorily, but the mass of the enough to produce a K and a A relationship between .ihe charge 0 of a hadron charge Y, and its isotopic slain number T,, is in units of

3. This reaction is therefore impossible.

o=T,+;y
Thus, for the proton, Q = 1, T3 = /2 and Y = 1. Hence, the satisfied.

(16.22) equation is

There are other conservation properties associated with strong and electromagnetic interactions, related to time inversion, space inversion (parity) and charge conjugation (change of particles into antiparticles mathematically). We shall not discuss these in detail.

16.5 DETECTION OF PARTICLES

Thus, we have the following particles which are stable under strong and electromagnetic interactions: p, n, A, Z, ,-, z, a-, K+, K, 7r+ and their corresponding antiparticles. These particles last long enough so that their path length is of reasonable size in a bubble chamber, and they can be detected by this means. The 7r, Z a n d 77 decay rapidly by electromagnetic interaction. All the other particles listed in Tables 16.1 and 16.2 decay by strong interactions in a time comparable to 1Om23 seconds. could move is about 1O-23 c =: 3 x In this time, the maximum distance a particle 1OY5 m = 3 fermi, about the size of nuclei.

16.6 Hyperchorge-isofopic This distance is not detectable on photographic plates. Thus, these

spin plots must

473

particles

be detected indirectly. In the discussion of @ d e c a y , w e u s e d a p h a s e s p a c e argument to find the energy distribution of the electrons. The result was a smooth curve of number of electrons versus energy. Any sharp peak on the curve would indicate the presence of other particles. Similarly, in nuclear scattering experiments one can look for peaks In phase space plots to find these short-lived particles. This is the primary method used to discover them. Statistical analyses of this kind necessitate detailed study of hundreds of thousands of photographs of decay products.

16.6

HYPERCHARGE-ISOTOPIC

SPIN

PLOTS

S u p p o s e w e p l o t p o i n t s o n a g r a p h o f Y v e r s u s T3, for hadrons of the s a m e s p i n . Then some interesting Y symmetries become apparent. Two such plots for the

N' *

$'

1 1.

r3

;*I; I --, -L 2

+-

-1 4 .

- 2

t-

!!

igure 16.1. aryon octet.

Hypercharge-isotopic spin plot of the

Figure 16.2. The baryon decuplet on a hypercharge-isotopic spin plot.

Figure 16.3.

Hypercharge-isotopic spin plot of meson octet for spin zero.

474

Elementory particles baryons of Table 16.2 are shown in Figures 16.1 and 16.2. Figure 16.3 shows

a s i m i l a r p l o t o f m e s o n s i n T a b l e 1 6 . 1 . T h e f p a r t i c l e , w h i c h h a s Y = 0 , T3 =: 0, for reasons of symmetry which will not be discussed here, should be in a diagram by itself. The spin 1 mesons form a similar set of diograms, with

K*'s,

replacing K's, various

ps

replacing TS, combinations

@ of

replacing 1, a n d quantum numbers

w replaciny can be shown

71. to

Likewise for spin 2, K + K**, These symmetrical

x m+ A:,, 17 + f, 7 - f .

occ ur n o t ur al l y i n c ertain groups In group theory. Group theory is a branch . of mathematics which is useful for systematically finding the physical consequences of symmetries. An alternate simple way of getting these same combinotions of quantum numbers is by means of the following model. In atomic physics, the regularities in the periodic table cre connected with the fact that combinotionss of electrons lead to chemical properties. In nuclei, the various reguInriti,es in isotopes, isotones, etc. are due to the fact that nuclei are composed of neutrons and protons. This suggest:, still more fundamental by analogy that the hadrons might be composed of Also, high-energy electron scattering experiparticles.

ments show that there is internal structure-shells of charge-within the proton and neutron, giving further evidence that they might be composed of other particles. While the charge density is positive in the proton, it varies irregularly with radius. The neutron aopears to have and negative density further out. a positive charge density at the center

16.7 QUARKS

All

of

the

diagrams

of

Figures

16.1,

16.2 and 16.3 have at least threefold

symmetry about the origiri. This suggests that we should consider that each (of the hadrons is composed aof possibly three fundamental particles. Let us denote these three particles by n, p, A . T h e y h a v e b e e n c a l l e d q u a r k s . Consider the least symmetric of the diaclrams , E*s, exhibiting threefold rather than sixfold symmetry Y a n d T3 to be associated Iof 1 3Y,, = - t h e o n e i n v o l v i n g t h e s p i n /, N*s, i n F i g u r e 1 6 . 2 . T h i s c o n t a i n s t h e N*s,
Y*S

a n d Q . Further, to find the values of that

w i t h t h e q u a r k s , w e assume o r Y,, =

N-* is made of three n quarks, N++ *

t h r e e p q u a r k s , a n d (I- o f t h r e e iL q u a r k s . T h e n , f o r t h e N-*, N+~* and (I- give us:

%. F o r t h e n q u a r k , 3T, = --/, o r TX = - % . S i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s f o r

J 3, = 0

16.7 Quarks

475

Figure 16.4.

y-7, plot for the three quarks. Y - Ts plot in Figure 16.4. Again, there is If Q = Ts + Yz Y, f o r t h e q u a r k s , a s

These three quarks are shown on a i n E q u a t i o n (16.22), - % , respectively.

threefold symmetry about the origin. the charges of n,

p,

1i i n u n i t s o f 1 e 1a r e -

13, V3,

Since three quarks can give rise to an ordinary intrinsic spin quantum number of /, I the spin of each quark should be %. quark. A careful search has been made Also, since combinations of three
%

quarks should always give a baryon number of 1, we take 6 = for particles of

for each charge

fractional

- % ( e / , 2/3 / e / , but none have yet been definitely identified. The reason could be that quark masses are so large that present machines cannot produce them. (Another possibility is that quarks do not really exist.) Now let us see if the other baryons can be explained as combinations of three quarks. Consider a baryon made up of two n quarks, and a

p.

The resulting

particle has Q = 0, Y = 1, T3 = - /? . These agree with the numbers for n a n d No*. T h e t h r e e b a r y o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f a n n , a p a n d a ~1 a r e t h e r\, 8 a n d Y*. Similarly, it can be verified that all possible combinations of quarks taken three at a time correspond to baryons. This quark scheme was worked out before the 12- particle had been observed. The theory predicted the charge, isotopic spin and hypercharge of the 12 -, along with an estimate of its mass, and showed that because of the associated cons e r v a t i o n l a w s , t h e f2 s h o u l d d e c a y b y w e a k i n t e r a c t i o n s . H e n c e i t w o u l d l e a v e a n o b s e r v a b l e t r a c k i n a b u b b l e ( c h a m b e r . A n explerimental first observation of the 12 -, shown in Figure 16.5. TABLE 16.4 Quantum Numbers for then, p and Ii Quarks search yielded the

~~~~~~~~~

It is possible that more than one baryon can correspond to a given combination of quarks. We might, for example, take the wavefunction of N- * t o

Figure 16.5. Discovery of the c2- pariicle. Measurements on track 4 indicate thott it must be a K~. The decay of the E was previously well-established; analysis of the track and decay of particle 3 indicates that it must be the a- particle, predicted by the theory leading to Figure 16.2. (Courtesy 13rookhaven National Laboratories.)

16.8 Mesons in terms of quarks

477

be a product of three quark wavefunctions (labeled *N * = Likewise, = we might take for the

1, 2, 3),

as follows: (16.23)

* (1) 9,(2) q,,(3) of Y-* the combination:

wavefunction

*Y *

2 [q,,(l) *a(2) \II.,,(3) +

*n,(1)

*Y(2) C,(3) (16.24)

+ @.,,(I) q,(2) q,(3)]

Both of these wavefunctions are symmetric under exchange of any two quarks. QYO. would be a symmetric combination of the six products under interchange of 1, 2, 3 in the products of the form: *,(I 1 3,,(2) \lr,,(3) Since there are three independent product functions making up qY +, there are

two other independent linear combinations which could represent Y = 0, T3 = -1 baryons. One of these is the 8.. The other belongs to another group of eight particles-an octet similar to that containing tile n , p and Z-. A l s o , t h e r e are six linear combinations that give Y = 0, T3 = 0 iparticles. Three of these are the y*, A and 8. Two belong to the second octet of particles just mentioned. The sixth forms a singlet, a group containing only one particle. Particles have been found experimentally which fit into all these various sets. Some of the properties of the particles in the second octet are still not known experimentally. The total number of these baryons is a group of 10 (containing N-*, 12-, etc.),

one group of eight (containing p, n, etc.) and another group of eight plus one of 1 = 27 baryons. This corresponds to three quarks making up each particle, with three possibilities for each quark. The total number of possibilities is then 3 x 3 x 3 = 27. All these baryons have antibaryons, presumably made of antiquarks.

.8

MESONS

IN

TERMS

OF

QUARKS

To form mesons with integral spin from spin % quarks, it is necessary to use an even number of quarks. We shall assume that combinations of two quarks form the mesons. Since the baryon number of a meson is zero, we need one quark Y, TX and Q for all the comand one antiquark for each meson. The values of

binations of a quark with an antiquark are given in Table 16.5.

TABLE 16.5

Formation of Mesons From Quarks

478 Elementary particles

For the spin zero mesons, combinations of nn, p p , spectively. Also, np forms C, n;i forms K, pli lii2 form 7r, 77, 77, re-

forms K, etc.

Higher-spin

mesons can be considered to consist of similar combinations of quarks in excited states, with some additional (orbital) angular momentum. Since one quark and anI a n t i q u a r k a r e needecl to create a meson, whereas an odd number of quarks are required to create a boryon, one can understand both baryon conservation and non-conservation of mesons iI1 terms of conservation of quark baryon numbers. O n e c a n b e l i e v e e i t h e r t h a t t h e q(Jarks correspond to actual particles or are simply a convenient way of seeing regularities in hadrons. In the former way of looking at the elementary particles, the only thing special about the proton anid neutron is that they have the lowest masses of all the baryons, so that nuclei composed of other types of baryons would eventually decay into nuclei composed of protons and neutrons.

LEPTONS
The leptons are the electron, positron, neutrino, antineutrino, positive and negat i v e p mesons, a n d t h e /.L meson neutrino and antineutrino. If the electronic lepton number for the electron and neutrino is taken as + 1, and that for the other electronic leptons is - 1, in reactions the sum of the electronic lepton numbers is conserved. A similar conserva+on law holds for the muonic lepton number. All the leptons have spin % . The neutrinos have zero rest mass. The p meson has a mass of about 207 timces the electron mass, and decays in 2.2 x 1O-6 sec. The neutral leptons, the neutleinos, can interact only through weak interactions.

MESONS
Thle mesons (not including the /.L) h a v e i n t e g r a l s p i n , a n d c a n i n t e r a c t t h r o u g h strong or nuclear interactions. The nThle mesons typically decay in Some decay in a much :shorter 10-s most easily observed mesons are the 7r, ,r, w i t h m a s s 2 7 0 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e e l e c t r o n , a n d t h e - lo-

K+, Km, K, z

set to other mesons or leptons, by

weak interactions, or in a shorter time to y rays by electromagnetic interactions. time by strong interactions. Exchange of mesons by nuclei is thought to be the source of the interaction forces between the nuclei.

BARYONS
Particles of proton mass magnetic, nuclear and and above, with half-integral spin, and with electrointeractions, are called baryons. If a baryon numlber

weak

Problems

479

of + 1 is assigned to the particle,; baryons with various

a n d - 1 to antiparticles, it is found that the of mesons and leptons. The proton and

sum of baryon numbers is conserved in interactions. Thus baryons deccy to other combinations neutron are the most easily observed of these baryons.

CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of lepton and baryon numbers have already been mentioned. Also

always conserved in particle interactions in which external forces are negligible, are mass energy, momentum, angular momentum and charge. A number used to distinguish different particles with the same nuclear interactions is isotopic s p i n . This is conserved for strong particle interactions. Isotopic spins add like ordinary spins. Another quantum number which was necessary to distinguish different groups of baryons and mesons is hypercharge. This is conserved in strong and electromagnetic interactions. Another related quantum number sometimes used is strangeness. Strangeness is hypertharge minus baryon number.

QUARKS
It is found that by postulating that three kinds of basic particles, called quarks, exist, with the proper charges, spins, isotopic spins, hypercharges and baryon n u m b e r s , t h e v a r i o u s b a r y o n s ancl mesons can be considered to be composites of three or two quarks, respectively.

1 . p- mesons
form atom the /J M-mesic of tin;

con become bound with atomic nuclei, displacing the inner electrons, to
atoms. Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit for a compare be 4.46 if the with nucleus the rluclear of zero = radius. radius? 6.5 fermis; What would the binding Cc-mesic of energy

meson

were

Answer:

fermis; of the

nuclear

radius

8.08
down

MeV. the photons and be,

2.

In

what

region from a

spectrunl-x-ray, due to a /A

infrared, dropping

etc.-would into

arising states 3. If the in

transitions

meson

lower

lower

p-mesic is the

iron atom? at rest, in the reaction K+ + pt + u,,, what is the kinetic

a+ of

initially p+?

energy

Answer:
4. What the E cm is the

4.12MeV. p + p p* p + kinetic p t- p ard + p, a proton-antiproton of each of the pair is created. protons in

In t h e r e a c t i o n

threshold of

total far

energy this of

original

center in

momentum system is

system given in

reaction to occur? The total energy the-total energy EL in the lab system

t h e c.m.

terms

480 Elementary particles OS E, = k4Ff%,C2,

Answer:

when one of the two identical initial particles of rest mass

m. is at rest in the lab. Find the threshold kinetic and total energies in the lab system. 5630 MeV lab kinetic energy.

5.

If the Z is at rest, what is the gc~mna ray energy in the reaction X0 m* .i + 7, by an electromagnetic interaction? Answer: 75 MeV.

6.

For Q A at rest, what is the kinetic energy of the K- meson given off in the weak d e c a y , ;i + p + a-?

Answer: 32 MeV. 7. The K+ meson has a meon

could CI beam of 1 billicn

life in its rest system of 1.2 x lo- sec. About how for

eV K+ particles go before half the particles decayed?

Answer: 6.77 m. 8.
One unlikely decay mode of the K results in o gamma ray in addition to the fir+. Write the reaction. An even more unlikely mode produces a r and a positron. Write the reaction.

9.

I n i n e l a s t i c p r o t o n - a l p h a p a r t i c l e tollisions, can come off along wi+h are both zero. Discuss the possible vI>Iues

e i t h e r no a n d rt, o r p+ a n d K,

the alpha. The spin and isotopic spin of the alpha particle of spin and isotopic spin of the outcoming

particles which are consistent with the spin and isotopic spin of the incoming particles. What are the total T ard T:, of the combination of outgoing particles?

Answer:

S = %, T: = %. of 2He4, zHe3 and , H3, assuming these + He4 +

10.

What are the isotopic spins, T and Ts, K+ a n d p + H3 + He4 Answer: 0, 0;

quantum numbers are CIS small as possible? For the reactions, p + He3

i- ?y, show that the initial and final total T3s are the same. %, -!h, 1. a proton; it has a kinetic energy of 150 MeV. is projected, if the x- goes off at 90 with

What must the total initial Ts be? %, %;

11.

A ho decays in flight into CI K- ancl Calculate the angle at which the prl>ton Answer: 5.4 from clirection

respect to the incident direction of the 11. of incident A.

12.

What is the threshold y energy such that B a+ meson can be created when a y collides with a proton? What is the other particle produced? Answer: 151 MeV.

13.

Which of the following reactions are impossible? (a) K+

- ?r+ + K- + K+
-t r+ -- 7r+

(b) K+ - 8 + k (c) K+ - no + To (d) K+

- A0 + x0 + s-+

14.

A selection rule that appears to hold for weak interactions is that the magnitude .of t h e c h a n g e i n h y p e r c h o r g e i s ullity, 1,IY / = 1 . W h i c h o f t h e folIowIng t w o sequences is possible? z- + 0 + .y

(0)

15.

(b) ,- - A0 + K- - no + 7r + a- -- no t 2-y + rA K meson decays in flight into 2-(s, which make equal angles of 0 with respect to the incident ?y direction. Derive an expression for the total energy of the TO. Answer:

E = m,c/sin

0.

16.

What conservation laws prevent A0 + s+ + Y?

Problems

481

17. 18.

Why doesnt the decay n

p t

r(

occur

by

strong

interaction?

It

doesnt

occur

by weak interaction either. Why? As pointed out in this chapter, Give two reasons why .\ + HO. X0 * .I + y g o e s b y e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n t e r a c t i o n .

X0 d o e s n o t d e c a y b y a s t r o n g i n t e r a c t i o n s u c h a s I0 -+

19.

One of these reactions can occur by strong interaction but the other cannot. Explain why. (a) T + n K+ .\

(b)a+n

*K++.I - .i + y occurs8 v e r y r a p i d l y , i n f a r l e s s t h a n 1 0 I4 s e c . T h e d e c a y y occurs in about 10 6 sec. Why is there this large difference in

20.

T h e d e c a y I0 \ decay
l

probability? ihe r e a c t i o n , about r + p p

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

What conservation laws prevent T h e r e a c t i o n \ + p ty is

.i

K+?

10 m4 t i m e s c t s l i k e l y crs t h e r e a c t i o n X+ * ctre weak interactions. t Y+ + y?

+ IT. W h y d o y o u t h i n k t h i s i s s o ? B o t h

W h a t c o n s e r v a t i o n I u w s p r e v e n t t h e d e c a y , \~ Why doesnt the reaction E -*

.I t - HO g o b y stronmg

interaction?

T o w h a t b a r y o n s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 16.2 d o e s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o AI q u a r k s a n d one To one p what quark correspond? listed in Table 16.2 does the combination of two

baryons

quarks and

n q u a r k

correspond? cr p q u a r k a n d a n ii

To what mesons in Table 16.1 does the combination of quark correspond?

appendix 1
In this appendix the detailed proofs of results quoted in Chapter 8, for the kinetic energy and angular momentum operators in spherical polar coordinates, will be given. The kinetic energy operator, pz /2m, in rectangular coordinates is

(Al.l)

We wish to express this operator in spherical polar coordinates r, defined by the coordinate transformations: r Or = (x + y2 + z)

0 and

p,

x = r sin 0 cos p y = r sin 0 sin p

ta

fl

Y2)i2

z tan(c = r
X

z = r cos 0

( A l .2)

Since

the

operator

in

Equation

(Al.l)

is

second-order

differential

operator,

after making the transformation to spherical polar coordinates, no derivatives of order higher than the second can appear. The most general form of such an operator is:

where the coefficients A,, 0 a n d cp.

AZ,. . .

13, are some functions of the coordinates

r,

This expression may be simplified somewhat by noting that apart from the factor -Ii22/2m appearing in Equation (Al.l), every term has the physical . . D3 dimensions of (length))2. I n s p h e r i c a l p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s , t h e o n l y v a r i a b l e w i t h physical dimensions of length is the radius r; hence, tloe must each contain the factor -)i2/:2m term the same physical dimensions as in Equation (Al .l). coefficients A,, A2,. Thus we must have: 4 8 3 and enough factors of l/r to give each

4 8 4

Appendr.r I

( A l .3)

wliere now, at most, v,

a,, a2,. . ds can be dimensionless real functions of

19 and

These functions may be identified by the following argument. In Cartesian coordinates, the vector momentum operator is ( A l .4) w h e r e i, 7 a n d k are unit vectors along the x, y and z directions, respectively. The operator p& appearing in Equation (Al .l) is the square of pop, P O P = POP
2

* fJ0p

which reduces immediately to the sum of second derivatives in Equation (Al .l), because of the orthogonality and constancy of the three unit vectors, ?, polar coordinates, anal,ogous to Equation (A1.4), ; and f. If we can derive an expression for the vector momentum operator in spherical then Equation (Al.5) can be used to calculate the kinetic energy. To derive the vector momentum operator in these coordinates, we introduce unit vectors as follows: (1) i is parallel to r; (2) f? is in the cp = constant plane, pointing in the direction a particle would move if only its cclordinate 0 were increased; F. 1 (3) (i, normal to i and 0, s u c h t h a t i x 8 = 6. r,Z i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e x - y p l a n e and is in the direction a particle would move if only its coordinate p were increased. These vectors, each of clnit l e n g t h , a r e i n d i c a t e d a t t h e p o i n t (r, 8, p) in Figure Al .l. They are mutually perpendicu ar at each point, and change direction when the angles (a and 19 change. These changes in direction must be accounted for w h e n t a k i n g t h e s c a l a r p r o d u c t , a s i n E q u a t i o n (A1.5), to calculate the kinetic energy; for then pOP . F, lpOp . 8, and pOp . $ are not zero. The momentum operator p may be written in terms of its components in the A i, r!I a n d 6 directions by noting that if 0 a n d cp are held constant, and r is changed, the differential increment of distance is

ds, = dr

(Pil.6)

I f r a n d q a r e h e l d c o n s t a n t w h i l e 19 is changed,, the differential increment of distance is sdsH = rdti ( A l .7)

Appendix I

485

Figure Al .l

Directions of unit vectors r, 0, and v in spherical polar coordinates.

a n d c h a n g i n g cp while keeping r a n d H constant gives the differential element of distance: ds, = r s i n 0 dp ( A l .8)

In general, the component of the vector momentum operator in the direction corresponding to an increase of linear distance ds is

So, using Equations (A1.6) througil (A1.9), momentum operator must be:

in spherical polar coordinates the

( A l .9) We need to calculate poP * pop, or

;-.+g12L+$pa 1 a
j ar r tM rsinB

d~

(A1.lO)

Consider first only the terms arising from the scalar product in Equation (Al.lO), w h i c h i n v o l v e d e r i v a t i v e s o f s e c o n d o r d e r . S i n c e i, o^ a n d @ form an orthogonal set of unit vectors, the only second derivative terms whllch survive are

2 ;.;L2
ar

2 2 + H^.glL + +.+ -L_- a

r2 f3f12 r2 sin20 ~I+Q

(Al.ll)

Appendi.r I There can, for example, be no term involving a/drdB, because this would have 1 e to arise from a term such as i-0 l/r il/driIB, w h i c h v a n i s h e s b e c a u s e i.8 == 0. Other cross-terms vanish for similar reasons. H e n c e , f r o m E q u a t i o n (Al.ll), t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a,, b,, cl, d,, d, and mined. These are: a, = Only the 1, b, = 1, cl = sin- 0, d, = d, = d:, = 0 (A1.12)

d3

of the second-derivative terms in Equation (A1.3) may immediately be deter-

coefficients a?,

b2 a n d

c? of the derivatives of first order in Equation

(Al .3) remain to be determined. These coeffkients may be identified by comparing the effect of the two alternate expressions, (Al .l) and (Al .3), when differentiating arbitrarily chose11 functions of r, 0 a n d CF. One sequence of choices of functions which allows the unique determination of the three remaining caeffcients is: r2, z and x. (A) Let (Al .3) act on ,r . For brevky, Topr2 L e t ( A l . l ) a c t o n r2 = w e p u t C = --%*2/2m. The result is: C ( 2 -t 2a,) 1tA1.13)

=: C(20, + 2a2) =

x2 -+ y2 + 2. A typical term is calculated as follows:

dr2

--=22x

ax

d2r2 p-p

ax2

S i m i l a r l y , d2r2/ay2

= dr,/dz =

2. H e n c e ,

J,,r2 = 6 C
Equating (A1.13) and (A1.14), we must 2 + olr 17 have 2a2 = 6

(A1.14)

(A1.15)

The results are unique, since letting Equations (A1.13) and (A1.14) act on d. for any 4 > 2, gives results for a2 (Al .15), is: T,, ( r cos 8) = C b z cos 0 - 1 cos H - 2 sin r r r (A1.16) identical to the above. utilizing ( A 1 . 1 2 ) a n d ( B ) L e t ( A 1 . 3 ) a c t o n z = r co: 8. T h e r e s u l t , a f t e r

Letting (Al.l) act on z, the result is obviously zero. Hence, from (Al .16), (A1.17) and therefore,

cos H b, = ~
sin 0

(A1.18)

Appendix (C) Let (Al .3) act on x = r sin 0 cos cp. The result is: 1 co? 0 2 ; s i n 0 c o s $7 - 3 s i n 13 c o s cp + - - cos $0 r sin 0 1 - srn B cos r+c - - T sin 0 cos r

1 487

To, (r sin B cos p) =

(A1.19)

But

letting

the

alternate

expression,

(Al.l), act on x, the result is zero. Hence,

1 cosz 0 0 = 9 sin 0 cos cp - f sin 0 cos p + - cos cp r sin 0 1 sin 0 r sin20

cos cp - : sin d cos cp

=r sin 0 ( = -c2 sin

cos cp

sin2 0 + cos 0 - 1 - cz sin2 0 sin p cos y sin cp )

e
r

( A l .20)

Therefore, c2 Collecting our results, we find: = 0 (A1.21)

( A l .22)

which was to be proved. One method of obtaining components of the angular momentum operator was given in Chapter 8. Here, to obtain the expression for the angular momentum operator, we use instead a straightforward transformation of variables based on the chain rule, from calculus. The same method could have been used in finding pt, a b o v e . T h i s r u l e s t a t e s t h a t t h e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s s u c h a s $(r, 0, PO), in the variables separately: met change in a function of due to changes is the sum of c:ontributions

If the changes in r, 6 a n d (o a r e d u e t o a c h a n g e i n x , t h e n u p o n d i v i d i n g by dx, we have

ar .-= - ~3# + ae a$ + f(p w 8~ dr ax ae ax a(p ax

488 Appendix 1 Usinig the transformations (Al .2), we have: f3r x sin ~9 cos p, - = - cos 0 cos cp,

a0 ax

acp

a,=;= Thus,

--

ax

1 sincp = -. - __ r sin 0

w -= cos (0 sin () f!.? + Cos 2

ax

ar

a8

sin a+ .- ___cp -. r sin 0 ap

(Al .23)

Si~milarly,

for a$/ay we need: sin 0 sin +D, - = - cos 0 sincp,

dr Y -=-= ay r
Thus,

ae

a(p = + 1 cos CF (?Y

r sin 19

ay

(Al .24)

For the calculation

of a#/az,

ar Z sin -=_= cos 8, e = - - 0 acp -=O r aZ i)Z r ' aZ

Then, using the chain rule, we find:

(Al .25)

VVe

may

combine

Equcltions

(A1.23), (A1.24) and (A1.25) to obtain operators. For example, for L, we have:

expres-

sions for the angular momentum

=h;[rsin0cos*I(sin+0sinL)~+

sinPrcosR;$+

5;)

r(

-r

sin 0 sin cp cos p sin 19 $ i( cos cp + sin p) -?- = -ill

cos l+c cos 8 (7 r

sin

cp

ae--rsin0 ap

ap

a acp

)I

(Al .26)

This, is the same polar coordinates,

as the result derived we use:

in Equation

(8.50). To obtain I, in spherical

Appendix

I 489

L,

-&(y$

-z?)

= --i/i

s i n 0 ?I r sin 0 sin ip cos 0 i - 7 ;le [ ( 1

- r c o s 19

sin p cos 0 a s i n p s i n 0 g + --~ (

~0s CF a rsin0 ap ii+--

)I
( A l .27)

=-;ft

COS~COS p a a -s,n p ae - __--. -

(
Similarly,

sin B

a@ )

L,=-iii

a z--xa ax a2 1 a c o s cpc0~8 a
r sincp - rsinL3

= -iA

[ (
r cos 19

cos p sin 0 a, +

a
-) av

-r sin 0 cos p (

c o s

0 $ - zij -j$

)I
+ L,2

w;

-2

cos

cp

cosBsin p a sin 0

as

ap)

( A l .28)

The square of the angular momentum, L2, is given by L2 = 1: + L; ( A l .29)

Calculating these squares term by term, we have (using d cot 0 = -sin- Bd0).

Lz# =

-1

+ s i n (

p - +

cos BCOS cp a
sin0 sin p cos (0 sin2 0

ae

ap )( a+

sinp-+

ail/
as

ap

cosr9sincpcoscp sin 0 p

a+
apa

cos 8 COS=
sin 0

cp -. + cos d cos cp sin a+ as sin 19

8 sin p cos cp sin t 3

a * acpdd
( A l .30)

- ~05~

a+ -----+
ap

ccls2 8 cos2 p a=+ sin2 B a@

cos2 cF * .+ ~0s cp sin P w ~--- CosBcoscpsincp - a@

sin2 B a9 sin B c o s 0 sin cp a+ cos 0 sin cp cos cp ____---sin O sin I3 ail/

a'+
apao

as

apa
sin B ad ( A l .31)

+ ~0s H s i n cp c o s cp sin O Adding these two results, we obtain:

a+ cos2 t ) sin2 (0 a'+ ~--+-----ap

cos a ~0~2 a2 L; + I; :: --h2 $ + ~ 0 - + __0 ~ s i n O ae sin O ap2 ) (

Then, since 1: = -?r2(a2/acp2), we get

( A l .32)

12 =
which is the expression squared.

--A2

cos a 5 + -0 - + r-a?
sin 0

ae

sin 19 for

ap2 )
angular

( A l .33) momentum

gliven in

Equation

(8.52)

the

The tedium of the above calculations can be greatly reduced by using more powerful calculational methods derivemd from vector and tensor analysis.

appendix 2
ORTHOGONAUTY OF WAVEFUNCTIONS The eigenfunctions of operators which have only real eigenvalues satisfy orthogonality relations. For example, for two eigenfunctions the :ti n #., 1c/, which have is different energy eigenvalues E,, E, respectively, = 0 , m orthogonality relation

J$,X+,dV

(A2.1)

where the integral goes over all the space in which the wavefunctions are defined. More generally, the orthogonality relations state that the integral over space, of the product of one eigenfunction of an operator, times the complex conjugate of another eigenfunction of the operator, vanishes when the functions As an correspond important to first different example, emigenvalues. we will consider the operator, eigen-

2 ;: + v

(A2.2)

-the total nonrelativistic energy operator-kinetic, plus potential. Suppose that # a n d $,,, are eigenfunctions of this operator with eigenvalues E, a n d E,, respectively. Then,

(A2.3) and = EmlF/m (A2.4)

Taking the complex conjugate of the equation for $, , we have:

(A2.5)

because the potential energy and energy eigenvalues are real numbers. Let us multiply Equation (A2.3) by $2 a n d E q u a t i o n ( A 2 . 5 ) b y $. The difference of the resulting two equations is 491

4 9 2

ApFlendix 2

o r b y a d d i n g a n d subtrac:ting ence can be written as:

terms of the form

(d#/dx)(d+,*/i)x),

t h e diffler-

= (Em - En)+,*+,
dxdydz) gives

(A2.7)

The terms in the potential, V, cancel out. Integration over a volume (dV

ti2
2M ---D-C +

$81

F - $: %):I d y d z +j--( $ F - #, $):: dx,dz

$n F - lb,*

$ dxdy 11

Here x1 a n d x2, t h e v a l u e s o f x a t t h e b o u n d a r y o f t h e v o l u m e , c o u l d b e fulnctions of y and z, depending on the shape of the boundary of the volume. If (+(d+~,lax) - #:(13#,ldx)) i s t h e s a m e w h e n e v a l u a t e d a t x1 a n d a t x:,, a n d with respect to y and z, then the left particle, where the wavefunction apsimilarly for the terms involving derivatives boundary conditions. Also, for a localized

)1

= (E, -

E,,)

j-$,X $. dV

(A2.8)

side of Equation (A2.8) is zero. This would occur,. for example, for periosdic proaches zero as the coordinates go to infinity, the quantities in parentheses would all be zero as the volume of integration approaches the volume of all space. If the wavefunctions or the derivatives of the wavefunctions are zero at the boundaries, as is the case for a particle in a box, then again all terms on the lefi side of Equation (A2.13) vanish. We then have: (Em - En) f 1C/:$.dV - = 0 (A2.9)

For E, # E , , t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e sa5sfied only if

J
of different eigenfunctions it/m

#;#dV

(A2.10)

This is the orthogonality relation. The eigenfunctions are said to be orthogonal. If there is degeneracy, it is possible that and E, = E,,, i n w h i c h c a s e lv #z$,dV might not be zero. However, it is still always possible to find linear combinations #., such that for the new combinations, relations like Equation (A2.10) h o l d .

Appendix 2 493 Clearly, a similar proof could have been made for the one dimensional

Schrodinger equation. In particular, let us consider the one dimensional case w h e n V ( x ) = 0 , a n d p2 = pt. The energy eigenfunctions may then also be E = p2/2m, eigenfunctions of p.. If two energy eigenvalues are different, and conditions, they satisfy the momentum eigenfunctions coi?ditions. shows that the i.e. wavefunctions if the 1+5 t, a n d quantum are orthogonal.

then the momentum eigenvalues are different. Hence, for periodic boundary Likewise, the Bloch functions in solid state physics, cliscussed periodic The boundary in Chapter 12, are orthogonal, since

Let us investigate the orthogonality relations for the hydrogen atom wavefunctions. 1c, oPcm are previous discussion for orthogonal different energies, principal

numbers n and n are different. However, we moy show that the individual p r o d u c t f u n c t i o n s a r e a l s o o r t h o g o n a l i f n # n , t # t, o r m # m . T h e hydrogen wavefunctions discussecl # n4,n with n, k and m integers. == in Chapter 8 are of the form: R,,x (r)Q., (0 orthogonality of the functions (A2.1 1) elm m a y be

The

demonstrated directly. Thus, 2* s 0 e -vePdp = -m)a 1 i(m - m ) elim 2* 0 =0 if m # m (A2.12)

If m = m, the integral is not zero but the The functions R,,, and ox,,

2~. Hence, the eigenfunctions et*, are orthogonal.

of

z component of the angular momentum, L,,

satisfy the equations:

E,R,,,,

with

E,

me4 2(47rt,h)2n2

(A2.13)

I d2@.m
do2

1 t a n

d@c -2 0 dH

(A2.14)

The orthogonality of the functions R,,,c for different n s a n d t h e s a m e 4, a n d of (ij~,~ for different e a n d t h e s a m e .m, may be demonstrated in a fashion similar to that used above for the solutions of the Schrodinger e q u a t i o n . T h e infinitesimal volume in spherical c o o r d i n a t e s i s r d r s i n 19 dH dp. T h e dp w a s used above for the proof of the orthogonality of the eigenfunctions of I,. The one dimensional volume elements needed in discussing the orthogonality of the R,,x and of the G&m tively. For the radial wavefunctions, R,,, , orthogonality will be shown for functions of the same 4 . Hence let us, for simplicity, drop the e subscript. Then, multiplying Equation (A2.13) by R:, may therefore be taken to be rdr a n d s i n tl do, respec-

494 Appendix 2

Ii2 d*R. --+?.I-2M dr2

+ 1 Re r

dRn t dr

(4:

+ r2

1)

R*R n

e2 - ___ 4acor

RPR,

= E, R:R,

(A2.15)

A similar equation is obtained by taking the complex conjugate of Equatilon (A2.15) and interchanging n and n. The difference of the two equations leads to:

The integral over rdr for r running from zero to infinity is

)I

= ( E ,

- E,)R;R,

ti2 R*dRn RdR3 --- Lr2(

2M dr Since b o t h R a n d dR/dr

dr

a p p r o a c h z e r o e x p o n e n t i a l l y a s r + a; and are finite is zero. Thus, for different energies,

)I

( E , - E,,)

5 RXR,rdr

(A2.116)

at r = 0, the left side of Equation (A2.16) which is the same as for different ns, rx s 0 This could also have E q u a t i o n (A2.10), be,:n R*,,e

R,,xrdr

(A2.17)

deduced from the general orthogonality relation,

for the eigenfunciions in the time independent Schrijdinger cannot give zero.

equation, since for two functions with the same L and m but different n, there is no energy degeneracy and the angular integrals over 0 and cp Therefore, the radial part of the function must satisfy an orthogonality relation. Since R may be chosen real, the complex conjugate used here was not really nec:essary. For the angular functions at,,,, orthogonality will be demonstrated for functions of the same m. Thelpefore, for simplicity the m subscript will be dropped. Then, from Equation (A2.14),

(A2.18) and a similar complex conjugate equation, with interchange of & a n d valid. The difference between these two equations leads to: &, is

[- C(L +

1 )

+ [( 4 +

l)]@,,@,

(.A2.19)

Appendix 2 495
The integral over sin 0 dH for 0 running from 0 to s is

[-4,(4 + 1

+- 4( L +

1)]L,,~@~,@4 / II # C,

sintide

(A2.20)

The left side of Equation (A2.20) is zero. Thus, for

o T 6& 04. sin 0 d0 = 0 s Since @.e,m operator, eima i s a n eigenfunction

(A2.21)

o f t h e squarle o f t h e a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m show that the angular momentum

L2, Equations (A2.12) and(A2.21),

wavefunctions are orthogonal either for different total angular momenta, specified by different ts, or for different I components of angular momenta, specified by different Similar ms. relations for eigenfunctions with different eigenvalues orthogonality

can be proved for all operators with real eigenvalues.

appendhx 3
ATOMIC MASSES, NUC:LEAR SPINIS AND MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF THE STABLE NUCUDES
Given here are the masses of the neutral atoms of all stable nuclides and a few unstable ones. The unstable nuclides are indicated by an asterisk following the mass number A. Nuclear :spins and magnetic moments are also given. Errors in listed values are in the last significant figure only. The C atom is the standard at 12.000000 amu.

1 amu on the C scale = 93 1.48 MeV Z 0 1 Element Yi A 1 1 2 3* 3 4 5* 6* 5* 6 7

Irl
1 0 1 2 1 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6 7 4 5 6

Atomic Mass 1.0086652 1.00782519 2.0141022 3.0160497 3.0160297 4.0026031 5.012297 6.018893 5.012538 6.015125 7.016004 8.022487 7.016929 8.005308 9.012186 10.013534 8.024609 9.013332 10.012939 11.0093053 12.0143537 10.016810 11.011432 12.000000000

Spin I

p (nuclear magnetons:l -1.91314 +2.79277 +0.857406 +2.97885 -2.12755 0

l/2 l/2
1

He

l/2 l/2
0

Li

a*

1 3/2

+0.822010 +3.25628

Be

7* 8* 9 10* 8* 9* 10 11 12* 10* 11* 12

3/2

- 1 .17744

3 3/2

+ 1 .a0063 +2.68857

References: J. H. E. Mattauch,

W. Thiele, A. H. Wapstra,

Nuclear Physics

67, 1, (1965). C. M. Lederer, J. M. Hollander, I. Perlman, Table of Isotopes, 6th ed., John Wiley 8 Sons, New York, (1967).

496

Appendix 3 497 Z Element A 13 14* 15* 12* 13* 14 15 16* 17* 14* 15* 16 17 18 19* 17* 18* 19 20* 18* 19* 20 21 22 23* 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 29 31 32 33 34 36 35 37 36 38 40 39 40* 41 40 42 43 44 N 7 8 9 5 6 7 8 9 10 6 7 8 9 10 11 8 9 10 11 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 12 13 14 14 14 15 16 14 16 16 17 18 20 18 20 18 20 22 20 21 22 20 22 23 24 AtomicMass 13.003354 14.003242 15.010600 12.018641 13.005738 14.0030744 15.000108 16.006103 17.00845 14.0085971 15.003070 15.9949150 16.999133 17.9991600 19.003578 17.002095 18.000937 18.9984046 19.999987 18.005711 19.001881 19.992440 20.993849 21.991385 22.994473 22.989771 23.985042 24.985839 25.982593 26.981539 27.976929 28.976496 29.973763 28.981808 30.973765 31.972074 32.97146 :33.967865 :35.96709 :34.968851 :36.965897 i35.967544 :37.962728 :39.962384 :38.963710 139.964000 40.961832 :39.962589 41.958625 42.958780 43.955490 Spin I ~(nuclearmognetons) +0.702381 0

l/2

1 l/2

+0.40361 -0.28309

10 5/2 10

0 -1.89370

l/2

+2.6287

10

Ne

:3/2

-0.66176

11 12

Na Mg Al Si

:3/2 :5 /2 :5 /2 l/2

+2.21751 -0.85512 +3.64140 -0.55525

13 14

15 16

P 5

ID :3/2 0 :3/2 :3/2

l/2

+1.13166 +0.64327

17 18

Cl Ar

+0.82183 +0.68409

19

:3/2 4 :3/2

+0.39140 -1.2981 +0.21483

20

Ca

7/l

1.3172

498 Appendix 3 Z Element A 46 48 45 46 47 48 49 50 so* 51 50 52 53 54 55 54 56 57 58 59 58 60 61 62 64 63 65 66 64 66 67 68 70 69 71 70 72 73 74 76 75 74 76 77 78 79 81 78 80 82 83 84 N 26 28 24 24 25 26 27 28 27 28 26 28 29 30 30 28 30 31 32 32 30 32 33 34 36 34 36 37 34 36 37 38 40 38 40 38 40 41 42 44 42 40 42 43 44 44 46 442 *44 ~46 ,47 ,48 Atomic Mass 45.95369 47.95253 44.951i919 45.952632 46.951768 47.947950 48.947870 49.944786 49.947164 50.943961 49.946054 51.940513 52.940653 53.9313881 54.938050 53.939617 55.934936 56.9315398 57.933273 58.933189 57.931i342 59.930787 60.931056 61.928342 63.927958 62.929592 64.927786 65.928871 63.929115 65.926052 66.927145 67.924857 69.921i334 68.92!;574 70.924706 69.924251 71.922082 72.923462 73.921181 75.921405 74.921596 73.922476 75.919207 76.919911 77.91:7314 78.9113329 80.91t5292 77.920403 79.9116380 81.91.3482 82.91,4131 83.911503 Spin I

21 22

SC Ti

7/2 5/2 7/2 6 7/2

+4.75626 -0.7881 -1.1036 -I-3.347 +5.148

23 24

V Cr

3/2 5/2

-0.47434 +3.4678

25 26

Mn Fe

l/2
7/2

+0.0902 +4.6583

27 28

co Ni

29

cu

3/2 312

+2.2261 +2.3849

30

Zn

5/2

+0.87552

31 32

Ga Ge

3/2 3/2

+2.01602 +2.56161

912

-0.8788

33 34

AS

Se

312 0

+1.4390 0 +0.5344 0 +2.1056 +2.2696

35 36

Br Kr

0 3/2 3/2

l/2

912

-0.97017

A p p e n d i x 3 499 Z 36 37 38 Element Kr Rb Sr A 86 85 87* 84 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 94 96 93 92 94 95 96 97 98 100 98 96 98 99 100 101 102 104 103 102 104 105 106 108 110 107 108 109 106 108 110 111 112 113 114 116 113 115* 112 114 115 N 50 48 50 46 48 49 50 50 50 51 52 54 56 52 50 52 53 54 55 56 58 55 52 54 55 56 57 58 60 5 8 56 58 59 60 62 64 60 61 62 58 60 62 63 64 65 66 68 64 66 62 64 65 Atomic Mass 85.910616 84.911800 86.909 186 83.913430 85.909285 86.908892 87.90564 1 88.905872 89.904700 90.905642 91.90503 1 93.906313 9.5.908286 92.906382 91.906810 9:3.905090 94.905839 9l5.904674 9t5.90602 9:7.905409 99.907475 9i7.90711 915.907598 97.905289 98.905935 99.9042 18 100.905577 101.904348 103.905430 lo:!.90551 1 101.905609 103.904011 104.905064 1051.903479 107.903891 109.905164 106.905094 107.905949 1088.904756 105.906463 107.904187 109.903012 110.904188 111.902762 112.904408 113.903360 115.904762 112.904089 114.901745 111.904835 113.902773 114.903346 Splin I /1(nuclearmagnetons)

512
3/2

+1.35267 +2.7505

9/2 l/2

--1.0930 -0.137316 - 1.30285

39 40

Y Zr

5/2

41 42

Nb MO

9,/2

+6.1671

s/2 5,/2

-0.9133 -0.9325

43 44

TC Ru

512 5/2

-0.62 -0.7

45 46

Rh Pd

l/2

-0.0883

5/2

-0.615

47

Ag Cd

l/2 l/2

-0.113548 -0.130538

48

l/2
l/2

-0.59501

- 0.62243
f5.5233 +5.5351

49 50

In Sn

9/2 9/2

l/2

-0.91781

500 Appendix 3
i! Element A

-__
116 117 118 119 120 122 124 121 123 120 122 123 124 125 126 128 130 127 124 126 128 129 130 131 132 134 136 133 130 132 134 135 136 137 138 138* 139 136 138 140 142 141 142 143 144* 145 146 148 150 147

N Atomic Mass -___

66 67 68 69 70 72 74 70 72 68 70 71 72 73 74 76 78 74 70 72 74 75 76 77 78 80 82 78 74 76 78 79 80 81 82 81 82 78 80 82 84 82 82 83 84 85 86 88 90 86 115.901745 116.002958 117.901606 118.903313 119.902198 121.903441 123.905272 120.903816 122.904213 119.904023 121.903066 122.904277 123.902842 124.904418 125.903322 127.904426 129.906238 126.904470 123.90612 125.90429 127.90354 128.90478 129.90351 130.90509 131.90416 13390540 135.90722 132.90536 129.90625 131.90512 133.90461 134.90555 135.90430 136.90550 137.90500 137.90691 138.90614 135.90710 137.90583 139.90539 141.90914 14Cl.90760 141.90766 14:!.90978 143.91004 144.91254 14Li.91309 147.91687 149.92092 14t5.91511

Spin I

~(nuclear magnetons) -

-0.99983

l/2

-1.04621

51 52

Sb Te

5/2 7/2

+3.3590 +2.547

l/2 l/2

-0.73585 -0.88715

53 54

I Xe

5/2

+2.8091

l/2 3/2

-0.77686 +0.69066

55 56

cs Ba

7/2

+2.5789

3/2 3/2 5 712

+0.83718 +0.93654 +3.7071 +2.7781

57 58

La Ce

59 60

Pr Nd

512 7/2

+4.3 -1.064 -0.653

7/2

61

Pm

Appendix 3

501

Z 62

Element
Sm

A 144 147* 148 149 150 152 154 151 153 152 154 155 156 157 158 160 159 156 158 160 161 162 163 164 165 162 164 166 167 168 170 169 168 170 171 172 173 174 176 175 176* 174 176 177 178 179 180 181 180 182

N 82 85 86 87 88 90 92 88 90 88 90 91 92 93 94 96 94 90 92 94 95 96 97 98 98 94 96 98 99 100 102 100 98 100 101 102 103 104 106 104 105 102 104 105 106 107 108 108 106 108

AtomicMass 143.91199 146.91487 147.91479 148.91718 149.91728 151.91976 lS3.92228 l!iO.91984 152.92124 1511.91979 1513.92093 15~4.92266 155.92218 156.92403 157.92418 159.92712 158.92539 155.92392 157.92445 159.92520 160.92695 161.92680 162.92876 163.92920 164.93042 161.92874 16.3.92929 16.5.93031 166.93206 1617.93238 16'?.93556 1613.93425 167.9342 169.93502 170.93643 17'1.93636 17:!.93806 173.93874
175.94268

Spin I p(nuclear maqnetons)

712 7/l

-0.8 --0.65

63 64

Eu Gd

S/2 5/2

+3.465 +1.52

65 66

Tb OY

312

67 68

HO

Er

7/2

7,/2

69 70

Tm Yb

l/2

l/2 5/2

+0.4930 -0.678

71 72

Lu Hf

73 74

Ta w

174.94064 17S.94266 173.94036 17S.94157 176.94340 177.94388 17E1.94603 179.94682 180.94801 179.94700 181.94830

7/2

+2.23

712 912 712

+0.61 -0.47 +2.35

502 Appendix 3 Z Element A 183 184 186 185 187* 184 186 187 188 189 190 192 191 193 190* 192 194 195 196 198 197 196 198 199 200 201 202 204 203 205 206* 207* 208* 209* 210* 204 206 207 208 209 210* 211* 212* 214* 209 210* 211* 212* 213* 214* N Atomic Mass Spin I ~(nuclearmagnetons) l/2 +0.117224

7!5 74

Re OS

77 78

Ir Pt

79 80

Au b

81

TI

82

Pb

83

Bi

109 182.95032 110 183.9!5103 112 185.9.5444 110 184.95306 112 186.95583 108 183.95275 110 185.95387 111 186.95583 112 187.95608 113 188.95830 114 189.95863 116 191.96145 114 190.96064 116 192.96301 112 189.95995 114 191.96115 116 193.96272 117 194.96481 118 195.96497 120 197.96790 118 196.96654 116 195.96582 118 197.96676 119 198.96828 120 199.96833 121 200.97031 122 201.9'7064 124 203.97349 122 202.972353 124 204.974442 125 205.976104 126 206.977450 127 207.982813 128 208.985296 129 209.990054 122 203.973044 124 205.974468 125 206.975903 126 207.976650 127 208.981082 128 209.984187 129 210.988742 130 211.991905 132 213.99977 126 208.980394 127 209.984121 128 210.987300 129 211.991279 130 212.994317 131 213.998686

5,/2 5,/2

+3.1718 +3.2043

312 3/2

+0.16 +0.17

l/2

+0.60602

312

+0.74485

l/2
3/2

+0.502702 -0.556701

l/2 l/2

+1.61169 +1.62254

l/2

+0.5895

9/2

+4.0802

Appendix 3 503 2 a4 Element PO A 209* 210* 211* 212* 213* 214' 215* 216* 218* 215* 216* 217* 218* 219* 220* 222* 221' 223* 223* 224* 225* 226* 228* 225* 227' 228* 227* 228* 229* 230* 231* 232* 231* 233* 234* 233' 234* 235* 238* 237* 240* 241' N 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 134 130 131 132 133 133 134 136 134 136 135 136 137 138 140 136 138 139 137 138 139 140 141 142 140 142 143 141 142 143 146 144 146 146 Atomic Mass 208.982426 209.982876 210.986657 211.988866 212.992825 213.995201 214.999423 216.001922 218.008930 214.998663 216.002411 217.004648 218.008607 219.009481 220.011401 222.017531 221.014183 223.019736 223.018501 2'24.02021 2'25.02352 2'26.02536 2'28.03114 2'25.02315 2t27.02775 2t28.03108 2Y27.02771 2t28.02875 2t29.03165 230.03309 231.03629 232.03812 231.03588 233.04013 234.04330 233.03952 234.04090 235.04392 238.05377 237.04806 240.05388 241.05671 Spin I ~(nuclearmagnetons)

l/2

85

At

86

Rn

87 88

Fr Ra

89

AC

90

Th

91

Pa

92

7/2

93 94 95

NP Pu Am

S/2

l-l.4

appendix 4
SOME PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSIONS
Table of physical constants S p e e d o f l i g h t , c = 2 . 9 9 8 x lO*m/sec. P l a n c k s c o n s t a n t , h = 6.626 x 10eZ4 j o u l e - s e c . If = h,2r = 1 . 0 5 4 5 x 10e3 j o u l e - s e c . Reciprocal of fine structure constant, 1 /tr = 1 /( e2/4rcohc) Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x Bolltzmann c o n s t a n t , ks = 1.381 x 10 lo- m23 nt-m2/kg2. joule/K. = 137.04.

A v o g a d r o s n u m b e r , Ne =: 6.022 x 1023/mole. Gas constant, R = Noks = 8 . 3 1 j o u l e / K - m o l e = 1 . 9 9 c a l o r i e s / K - m o l e . Electron: Charge, ) e / = 1.602 x lo-l9 c o u l o m b s ; M a s s , m, = 9 . 1 0 9 x 110-3 kg = 0.5 110 MeV; M a g n e t i c m o m e n t (Bohlr magneton:!, ps = eh/lm, = 9.273 x C o m p t o n w a v e l e n g t h , X, = h/m.c = 2.426 x lo-l2 B o h r r a d i u s , a = 4*coli/m,e2 Proton: Nuclear M a s s , mpmag~i~~,3 ;, ll~~~~:,9,= 9 3 8 . 2 MeV = 1!:6.1 m , ; = := 5 . 0 5 1 x lo- ioule/(weber/m2). I C o n s t a n t i n C o u l o m b s l a w , l/( 47rti) = 8.987 x lo9 nt-m2/cou12. Stefan-Boltzmann constant in black body radiation, a = 2r5k;/15c3h3 = 5.67 x 10 -s watts/m2-K4. = 5.2917 x lo- m;

1O-24 joule/(weber/m2:); m;

R y d b e r g c o n s t a n t , R, == % m,e4/hf:(4rQi)2 = 1 . 0 9 7 3 7 3 1 x lO/m.

Table of conversions 1 radian = 57.3 degrees; 1 degree = 0.01745 radians 1 almu = 1 . 6 6 0 x 10m2kg = 931.48MeV 1 eV = 1 . 6 0 2 x lo-l9 i; 1 i = 6 . 2 4 2 x 1OseV 1 NeV = 1 . 6 0 2 x 10-13i 1 f e r m i = 10-l m 1 A n g s t r o m = lo- lo m 1 foot = 0.3048 m; 1 m 1 b u r n = 10m2*m2 1 d a y = 8 6 4 0 0 set 1 year = 3 . 1 5 6 x 107sec lOdisintegrations,sec. 1 curie = 3.7 x == 3.281 ft.

1 m i l e = 1 . 6 0 9 k m ; 1 k m = 0 . 6 2 1 ml1

IReference: 8. N. Taylor, W. H. Parker, D. N. Langenberg, Reviews of Modern Physics 41,375,(1969). 504

bibliography
[l] B e i s e r , A . C o n c e p t s 1967. [2] C h e w , G . F . , M . American, Gell-Mann, 1964, W A. H. Rosenfeld, Freeman Strongly Interacting Reprint Particles, 296. Scientific

of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,

February

and

Company,

131 E i s b e r g , R . F u n d a m e n t a l s o f M o d e r n P h y s i c s , J o h n W i l e y 8 S o n s , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , 1961. [4] E v a n s , R .

The A t o m i c N u c l e u s , M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k C o . , N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 5 .
to Probability

[5] F e l l e r , W . A n lnfroducfion

T h e o r y (and Ifs Applicafions,

3rd Ed., John

Wiley 8 Sons, Inc., New York, 1968.

[6] G a m o w , G .
Doubleday 171

T h i r t y Years That S h o o k P h y s i c s , the Story of t h e Q u a n t u m Theory,

8 Company, Inc., Garden City, New York, 1965. Efemenfs

Goble, A., and P. Baker, 1962.

of Modern Physics, Ronald Press Co., New York,

[8] G o l d w o s s e r , E . O p t i c s , W a v e s , A f o m s , a n d N u c l e i , W . A . B e n j a m i n , I n c . , N e w Y o r k , 1965. 191 Herzberg, G. Atomic Specfrc ond Atomic Sfrucfure, Dover Publications, Inc., New

York, 1944. [lo] K i t t e l , C . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S o l i d S t a t e P h y s i c s , 3 r d E d . , J o h n W i l e y & S o n s , I n c . , New York, 1966. 1. T u r c o t t e , Sfofisfical T h e r m o d y n a m i c s , Addison-

[l l] L e e , J . F . , F . W . S e a r s , a n d D .

Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.. Reading, Moss.,. 1963. [12] Leighton, R. B. Principles York, 1959. [13] Pouling, L., and E. B. Wilson, fnfroducfion to IQuonfum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill

of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New

Book Company, New York, 1335. [14] R e i f , F . F u n d a m e n t a l s o f Sfc~fisficaf pany, Inc., New York, 1965. [15] R e s n i c k , R . lntroducfion 1968. [16] Saxon, S. Elementary Quantum Mechanics, Holden-Day, Inc., San Francisco, 1968. to Special Relativity, John Wiley 8 Sons, Inc., New York, o n d Jhermol Physics, McGraw-Hill Book Com-

[17] T a y l o r , E . F . , a n d J . A . W h e e l e r , S p o c e f i m e P h y s i c s , W . H . Freemon San [ 181 Francisco, 1966.

and Company,

Tipler, P. A. Foundations of Modern Physics, Worth Publishers, Inc., New York, 1969. and Bacon, Inc.,

[19] W e i d n e r , R . T . , a n d R . L . S e l l s , E l e m e n t a r y M o d e r n P h y s i c s , Allyn Boston, 1960.

5 0 5

index
Absolute space, 53 Accelerators, Acceptor, 373 Acoustic branch, 356 Actinium series, 440 Alkali metals, 256 Alpha decay, 441 theory, 443 Alpha particle, 391 model, 425 scattering, amu, 5 Angular momentum conservation, intrinsic, operator, 240 231,232,488 218 230 393 402 Band, 364,366,367 conduction, 370 valence, 370 Band spectra, 246 Barn, unit, 391 Barrier penletration, Boryon, 467 190, 443

Beta decay, 43 1,447 theory, 450 Beta particle, 391 Binding energy definitiorl, 230 deuteron, 415 hydrogen atom, 230 impurity, 373 nuclear, 422 per nucleon, 424 Black body radiation, 328 Bloch theorem, 365 Bohr magneton, 237 Bohr model, hydrogen, 2 17 Bohr radius, 221 Boltzmann (constant, ks, 4, 289, 504 Boltzmann distribution, 335 258 Boltzmann ,factor, 238, 312 Bench-Bruevich experiment, 58 Bond covalent, 346 ionic, 34t5 metallic, 347 Bose-Einstein Boson, 312 Boundary conditions, 170, 192, 316 6,504 Brackett series, 217 Bragg formula, 148 Bravois lattice, 341 Brillouin zone, 367 Biicherer experiment, 83 distribution, 335 464

quantization, spin, 240

quantum number, 218, 232, 234, 244 total, 233,243 Annihilation, Antineutrino, Antiparticle, Antisymmetric Atomic mass number, 409 table, 495 unit, 5 Atomic number, 401 Average lifetime, 461 Average value, 20 momentum, 296 Avogadros number, Azimuthal quantum number, 232, 235 Balmer formula, 2 15 Balmer series, 217 123 447, 464 function, Anomalous Zeeman effect, 243

507

5 0 8

Index
c, speed of light, 43,504 Carbon based amu, Carbon dating, 458 Center of mass system, 220 Charge independence, 417 Classical statistical mechanics, 279 Collision, 43 Complex numbers, 8 Compound nucleus, 455 Compton effect, 119 Compton wavelength, 12:3, 504 Conduction band, 370 Conductors, 370, 371 Configurations, baryons, 468 electron, 262 Conservation laws energy, 43,88 leptons, 465 mass, 44 mass-energy, a8 momentum, 43,83 strong interactions, 469 Constant potential, 169 5 beta, 447 fission, 457 gamma, 454 Decay constant, 432 Dee, 402 Degeneracy eigenvolues, 226, 256 statistics, 3 16, 336 Density of states, 288 energy, 299,321 momentum, 295,316,318 Detailed balance, 305,314,321,335 Deuteron, Diffraction, 414 electron, 148 Diatomic molecule, 244 Dilation, time, 61 Dipole moment, magnetic electron, 236 nuclei, 413 Discrete medium, 349 Disintegration constant, 431 Dispersion relation, 6, 352 Distribution energy, function, 335 315 291 300 16 Bose-Einstein, Fermi-Dirac,

Contraction, lengths, 64 Conversion of units, 504 Coordinate tronsformatic~ns Galilean, 51 Lorentz, 65 ICorrespondence principle, 47 quantum theory, 207 (Coulomb barrier, 443 (Coupling, S. 1, 241 ICovalent binding, 346 388 397 Cross-section differential, Rutherford, total, 387

ideal gas, 291 Maxwell-Boltzmann, momentum, Donor, 373 diffraction, 130 295,299 phase space, 285 Doppler effect, 100 Double-slit Duane-Hunt law, 115 Dulong-Petit law, 302, 361 e, electron charge, 504 Effective mass, 368 Eigenfunction, 158, 162 Eigenvalue, 158 Einstein photoelectric equation, 1 17 Electrostatic Electron charge, 504 146 magnetic moment, 504 mass, 504 Electron capture, 453 Electron configuration, 262 Electron diffraction, 148, 151 Electronic specific heat, 324 experirnent, Coulomb potential, 424,443

Crystal binding force, 346 Crystal classification, 341 Curie, unit, 504 Cyclotron, 402

D state, 255 Daughter nucleus, 433 Davisson-Germer De Broglie relations, 145 De Broglie wave, 141,218 De Broglie wavelength, ;!I 8 Decay alpha, 441

Index
Electron lepton number, 465 Electron-positron pair, 123 Electrons in metals, 323 Electron spin, 240 Electron volt, 4 Elementary particles, 16 Elements, periodic table, 266 Emission spontaneous, 331 stimulated, Energy conservation, 43,88 frequency relation, photon, 113 kinetic, 87 lattice vibrations, 357, 359 mass relation, 87 momentum relationship, 90 momentum transformation, 97 operator, 164,482 rdlativistic, 86 rest, 86 Energy band, 364,365 Energy, binding, 230 Energy density of states, 300, 32 1 Energy eigenfunction, 158 Energy equipartition, 302 Energy level, 194 Energy level diagram, 195 Energy, probability function, 280, 300 Energy quantization, 193 Equal a priori probabilities, 12 Equiportition of energy, 302 Errors repeated experiments, 28 rms, 25 Exclusion principle, 254, 258 and statistics, 313 Exothermic reaction, 456 Expectation value, 20,32 energy, 164 gaussian distribution, 35 momentum, 160 Experimental error, 24,28 Exponential function, 9 Extrinsic semiconductor, 373 F state, 255 Fermi-Dirac distribution, 315 Fermi energy, 315,322,324 332 Endothermic reaction, 456 Fermion, 312 Fermi, unit, 384 Fine structure constant, 219, 504 splitting, x-ray, 240 272

509

Fission, nuclear, 457 Flux, particle, 386 Fractional error, 26 Frequency, energy relation, 1 13 Frequency, wave vector transformation, 139 Fusion, nucllear, Golilean Gamma Gamma Gaussian 457

transformations, 51 decay, rays, 436,454 123,436 34

velocity, 52

distribution, 179

Gaussian packet free-particle, Geiger-Nuitall harmonic oscillator, 205 rule, 447 Ground state, 194, 197, 2 16, 260 Group speed, 6, 141 h, Plancks constant, 1 1 1, 1 13, 1 15, 13 1, 150 ti, 1 5 0 , 5 0 4 Hadron, 467 Half-life, Halogens, Harmonic 433 265 oscillator Hall effect, 373 Hard sphere scattering, 389 average energy, 302 distribution function, 301 energy eigenvalues, 198 quantum, 196 Heat capacity electron gas, 325 lattice, 302, 364 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 152, 154 Helium, liquid, 321, 336 Hole, 371 Hydrogen Bohr model, 217 energy levels, 2 15, 226 ortho-, pow-, 275 Schrb;dinger equation, 222 wavefunctions, 226

510

Index Hlyperchorge, 470 Lorentz force, 3 Lorentz transformations 96 coordinate, 65 energy-momentum, velocity, 71 wove vector, 139 Lyman series, 217 Magic number, 425 Magnetic Magneto Bohr, 237 nuclear, 413 Moss conservation, 44
MOSS

isotopic spin plot, 473 Ideal gos distribution function, 291 energy, 288 in gravitational field, 294 Impact porometer, 394 Impurities in semiconductors, 373 Incident flux, 386 Indistinguishability Inert gases, 263 Inertial frame, 48 IInertial system, 48 Michelson, 54 IInsulator, 371 IInterferometer, hnternol conversion, 454 of particles, 256

moment,

236,413

effective, 368 relatiwstic, rest, 83 Moss-energy conservation, 87 Moss, atomic, 409 Moss number, 409 Maxwell-Boltzmonn experimental ideal gas, 291 Mesons, 419,466 Meson theory of Yukawa, 418 Metallic binding, 347 MeV, 4 MeV/c, 5 Michelson Miller-Kusch interferometer, experiment, 54 54 296 Michelson-Morley experiment, distribution, 298 288 verification, 83

IIntrinsic semiconductor, 373 Inversion symmetry, 344 Itonic binding, 346 fonizotion energy, 230 Isomer, 436,454 Isotone, 411 Isotope, 411 Isotopic Spin, 469 j, angular momentum quantum number, 243 k:s, Boftzmann constant, 4, 289 li:, wave number, 6 K, x-ray line, 271 K capture, 453 Kinetic energy, 87 operator, 168,222,483 K meson, 467 ,e, angular momentum quantum number, 234,235 Lambda particle, 90, 468 Laser, 333 Lattice specific heat, 364 ILattice vector, 341 ILattice vibrations, 351 360 energy, 357 quantizotion, ILegendre ltepton, 464 polynomials, 234

Minimum uncertainty, 181, 197 MKS units, 3 Molecular rotation, 244 Momentum conservation, 43 energy relationship, 90 energy transformation, 162 83 98 operator, relativistic,

Momentum density of states, 295 Momentum distribution function, 295, 299 Momentum eigenfunction, 159 Mosely low, 271 Most probable value energy, 300 momentum, mm, 218,232,235 296,299

Linear accelerator, 403 Linear chain of atoms, 350,354 Liquid drop model, 421 Longitudinal Doppler effect, 102

Index
Mu meson, 63, 383, 464 Muon, 464 Mvonic lepton number, 465 n, principal qvontvm number, 226, 235 n-type semiconductor, 373 Natural Nevtrino, Neutron, radioactivity, 431 464 410,411, 467 54 Neptunium series, 438 flux, 458 Neutron number, 41 1 Newtons laws of motion, 42,53, Non-inertial system, 49 Normal distribution, 21, 35 193, 204 Normal Zeeman effect, 239 Normalization, Nuclear binding energy, 422 Nuclear fission, 457 Nuclear forces, 416,418 Nuclear fusion, 457 Nuclear magnetic moment, 413 Nuclear magneton, 413 Nuclear masses, 409 Nuclear models, 421 Nuclear radius, 384, 394 Nuclear reactions, 454 Nuclear spin, 413 Nucleon, 41 1 conservation, 448 Nvclide, 427, 431 Number of modes bond, 367 sound, 354,356 Number of states band, 367 shell, 256 Optical branch, 356 Orbital angular momentum, 231, 232, 233 Orthogonolity, Orthohydrogen, P state, 255 p-type semiconductor, 373 Pair annilhilation, Parahydrogen, 126 Pair production, 123 273 Parent nucleus, 433 491 273 Nondegenerate statistics, 316, 336 Particle accelerators, 402 Particles, elementary, 464 Particle in a box, 190, 2 13 Paschen series, 217 Pavli exclusion principle, 254, 258 Periodic boundary 217 284, 450 conditions, 316,353, 366 Periodic table, 266 Pfvnd series, Phase spacte,

51 1

volume element, 286, 287 Phase speed, 6, 137, 141 Phase, wave, 136, 138 Phonon, 361 Photodisintegration, 415 Photoelectric effect, 1 15 Photon,5,ll12,113,116,119 distribution, 328 Pi meson, 4 19,467 Planck energy-frequency relation, 1 13 Planck rod&ion formula, 329 Plancks constant, 1 11, 113, 115, 13 1,504 Positron, 124, 464 Postulates of relativity, 55 Potential energy, 88 Primitive laitice vector, 341 Probability, amplitude, density, 30 distribvtison function, 16 equal a priori, 12 products of, 14 sums of, I 3 Probability, wavefunction, 130, 156 Proton, 411,467 mass, 504 Proton-protean cycle, 457 Principal quantum number, 226, 235 Principle exclusion,, 254, 258 relativity, 56 130, 163 superposition, 11 130, 157

uncertainty, 152, 154 Products of probability, 14 Q, reaction energy, 441 Quanta, 11 I Qvantization Bohr model, 218 lattice vibrations, 360

512 I n d e x
Quantum mechanics, 167 Quantum theory of radiation, 329 Quark, 474 Scattering, 385 396 equation, 166, 167 178

Scattering angle, 387 Rutherford, Schrodinger examples,

R, gas constant, 302, 504 Radial momentum operator, 224 Radiation, black body, 329 Radioactive carbon dating, 458 Radioactive decay

hydrogen, 222 Selection rule, 239, 244 Semiconductor, 371 Shell model, 425 Sigma particle, 468 Simple harmonic oscillator average energy, 302 distribution function, 301 energy eigenvalues, 198

laws, 432,433
table, 437 Radioactive series, 436 Radius Bohr, 221 nucleur, 3 8 4 , 3 9 4 Rayleigh-Jeans Redshift, 103 Reduced mass, 220 Reflection coefficient, 186 Reflection plane, 344 Reflection symmetry, 344 Relativistic transformations longitudinal length, 64 Lorentz, 65 time, 60 transverse length, 60 velocity, 71 Relativistic kinetic energy, 137 Relativistic mass, 83 Relativistic mechanics, 85 Relativistic momentum, 88 Relativistic postulates, 57 Relativistic wave equation, 169 Rest energy, 87 Rigid rotator, 244 Root mean square deviation, 24 Rotation axis, 342 Rotational quantum number, 244 Rotational spectrum, 245 Rotational Rutherford atomic model, 393 cross-section, theory, Rydberg 394 constant, 215,219, 221,504 397 Rutherford scattering, 393 symmetry, 342 radiation formula, 329

quantum, 196 Simultaneity, Single-slit Sound 67 153 diffraction,

Solid state, 341 waves, 347,349 Specific heat electron gas, 325 solid lattice, 302, 362 Spectral series, 2 17 Speed group, 6, 141 phase, 6, 141 Speed of light, 43,504 Spherical polar coordinates, 222, 23 1,483 Spin, 240, 24 1 Spin magnetic quantum number, 240 Spin orbit interaction, 241 Spontoneous emission, 33 1 Spreading of packet, 182 Square potential barrier, 188 Stability line, 447 Standing wave, 192 Stationary state, 195,213 constant, 504 242 Statistical mechanics, 279, 312 Stefan-Boltzmann Stern-Gerloch Stirling Step potential, 183, 187 experiment, 35 Stimulated emission, 332 formula, Strangeness quantum number, 470 Sums of angular momenta, 242 Sums of probabilities, 13 Superposition, 130, 163 of lattice modes, 359

s, electron spin, 240 5; state, 255

Index

5 1 3

Surface energy, nuclear, 423 Symmetric function, 258 Symmetries of crystals, 341 Temperature, 280 Thermal equilibrium, 280 Thorium series, 437 Threshold energy, 125,415,456 Time dilation, 61 Time reversal, 305 Transformation Galilean, 51 Lorentz, 65 Transition probability, 314 Transitions, 214 Translational symmetry, 341 Transmission coefficient, 187 Transverse Doppler effect, 101 Tunneling, 188,443

group, 6, 141 phase, 68, 141 Velocity transformations, 52, 71 Vibration, lattice, 349 Volume energy, nuclear, 423 Volume element energy, ,300 momentum space, 295 phase space, 287 Van Laue diffraction, 149 Wave equation, sound continuous medium, 349 discrete Imedium, Wavefunction, hydrogen, Wavelength, Wave 130 226 6 179,205 free pariicle, 159 350

Wave mechanics, 167 packets,

Uncertainty, minimum, 181, 197 Uncertainty principle energy-time, 152 light waves, 127, 128 momentum, position, 154 Unit cell, 341 Units, 3 conversion, 504 Universal gas constant, R, 302, 504 Uranium series, 439 Valence band, 370 Valence crystal, 346 Van der Waals Velocity force, 347

Wave vector, frequency transformation, 140 Weak interaction, 465 Work function, 1 16, 326 Work, relativistic, 86 Xi particle, 468 X rays, 1 14, 270 Youngs momdulus, Yukawa force, 421 Zeeman effect, 236 anomalous, normal, 239 Zero point energy, 197, 206 Zero rest mass particle, 11 1 243 348