CHAPTER 5

Gravitation

5-1.
a) Two identical masses:
The lines of force (dashed lines) and the equipotential surfaces (solid lines) are as follows:

b) Two masses, +M and –M:

In this case the lines of force do not continue outward to infinity, as in a), but originate on the
“negative” mass and terminate on the positive mass. This situation is similar to that for two
electrical charges, +q and –q; the difference is that the electrical lines of force run from +q to –q.

149
150 CHAPTER 5

5-2. Inside the sphere the gravitational potential satisfies

∇ 2 φ = 4π G ρ ( r ) (1)

Since ρ(r) is spherically symmetric, φ is also spherically symmetric. Thus,

1 ∂  2 ∂φ 
r = 4π G ρ ( r ) (2)
r 2 ∂r  ∂r 
The field vector is independent of the radial distance. This fact implies
∂φ
= constant ≡ C (3)
∂r
Therefore, (2) becomes
2C
= 4π Gρ (4)
r
or,

C
ρ= (5)
2π Gr

5-3. In order to remove a particle from the surface of the Earth and transport it infinitely far
away, the initial kinetic energy must equal the work required to move the particle from r = Re
to r = ∞ against the attractive gravitational force:
∞ Me m 1
∫ Re
G
r 2
dr = mv02
2
(1)

where Me and Re are the mass and the radius of the Earth, respectively, and v0 is the initial
velocity of the particle at r = Re .
Solving (1), we have the expression for v0 :

2G Me
v0 = (2)
Re

Substituting G = 6.67 × 10 −11 m 3/kg ⋅ s 2 , Me = 5.98 × 10 24 kg , Re = 6.38 × 10 6 m , we have

v0 ≅ 11.2 km/sec (3)

5-4. The potential energy corresponding to the force is

dx mk 2
U = − ∫ F dx = mk 2 ∫ x 3 2x 2
= − (1)

The central force is conservative and so the total energy is constant and equal to the potential
energy at the initial position, x = d:
GRAVITATION 151

1 1 k2 1 k2
E = constant = mx 2 − m 2 = − m 2 (2)
2 2 x 2 d
Rewriting this equation in integrable form,
0 0
dx d x
dt = − ∫
k ∫d d 2 − x 2
=− dx (3)
1 1
d
k  2 − 2
2

x d 
where the choice of the negative sign for the radical insures that x decreases as t increases.
Using Eq. (E.9), Appendix E, we find
0
d
t= d2 − x2 (4)
k d

or

d2
t=
k

5-5. The equation of motion is

Mm
mx = −G (1)
x2
Using conservation of energy, we find
1 2 1 1
x − G M = E = −G M (2)
2 x x∞

dx 1 1 
= − 2GM  −  (3)
dt  x x∞ 
where x∞ is some fixed large distance. Therefore, the time for the particle to travel from x∞ to x
is
x x
dx 1 xx∞
t =−∫ =− ∫ dx
x∞ 1 1  GM x∞
2 ( x∞ − x )
2GM  − 
 x x∞ 

Making the change of variable, x → y 2 , and using Eq. (E.7), Appendix E, we obtain
x
x∞  x 
 x ( x∞ − x ) − x∞ sin
−1
t=  (4)
2GM  x∞ 
x∞

If we set x = 0 and x = x∞ 2 in (4), we can obtain the time for the particle to travel the total
distance and the first half of the distance.
152 CHAPTER 5

0 32
1  x∞ 
T0 = ∫ dt =
GM  2 
(5)
x∞

 π
x∞ 2 32
1  x∞ 
T1 2 = ∫ dt =
GM  2  1 + 2  (6)
x∞

Hence,
π
T1 2 1+
= 2
T0 π
Evaluating the expression,
T1 2
= 0.818 (7)
T0
or

T1 2 9
≅ (8)
T0 11

5-6.
z
P
α s
r2drd(cos θ)dφ
θ
r
y
φ
x

Since the problem has symmetry around the z-axis, the force at the point P has only a
z-component. The contribution to the force from a small volume element is
ρ
dg z = −G r 2 dr d ( cos θ ) dφ cos α (1)
s2
z − r cos θ
where ρ is the density. Using cos α = and integrating over the entire sphere, we have
s
+1 2π
a
z − r cos θ
g z = −Gρ ∫ r 2 dr ∫ d ( cos θ ) ∫ dφ (2)
(r )
32
0 −1 0
2
+ z 2 − 2rz cos θ

Now, we can obtain the integral of cos θ as follows:

GRAVITATION 153

+1
z − r cos θ
I= ∫ d ( cos θ )
( )
32
−1 r + z 2 − 2rz cos θ
2

+1
∂
∫ (r ) d ( cos θ )
12
=− 2
+ z 2 − 2rz cos θ
∂z −1

Using Eq. (E.5), Appendix E, we find

+1
∂  1 2 
( )
12
I=− − r + z 2 − 2rz cos θ 
∂z  rz −1 

∂ 2 2
=− = (3)
∂z  z  z 2
Therefore, substituting (3) into (2) and performing the integral with respect to r and φ, we have
a3 2
g z = −Gρ ⋅ 2π
3 z2
4π 3 1
= −G a ρ 2 (4)
3 z
4π 3
But a ρ is equal to the mass of the sphere. Thus,
3
1
g z = −GM (5)
z2
Thus, as we expect, the force is the same as that due to a point mass M located at the center of
the sphere.

5-7.
dx
s
x
P
R

The contribution to the potential at P from a small line element is

ρ
dΦ = −G dx (1)
s
M
where ρ = is the linear mass density. Integrating over the whole rod, we find the potential

M 2 1
Φ = −G ∫ − 2
x 2 + R2
dx (2)
154 CHAPTER 5

Using Eq. (E.6), Appendix E, we have

 2 
2  + + R2 
M GM  2
Φ = −G ln  x + x 2 + R2  =− ln 4 
 − 2  2 
− + + R2 
 2 4 

GM  2
+ 4 R2 + 
Φ=− ln   (3)

2
+ 4 R2 − 

5-8.
z
z0
r 2 + ( z0 − z )
2
α

a
z
rdrdθdz

y
θ r
x

Since the system is symmetric about the z-axis, the x and y components of the force vanish and
we need to consider only the z-component of the force. The contribution to the force from a
small element of volume at the point (r,θ,z) for a unit mass at (0,0, z0 ) is
rdrdθ dz
dg z = −Gρ cos α
r + ( z0 − z )
2 2

= −Gρ
( z0 − z) rdrdθ dz (1)
 r 2 + ( z0 − z ) 2 
32

 

where ρ is the density of the cylinder and where we have used cos α =
( z0 − z ) . We can
r 2 + ( z0 − z )
2

find the net gravitational force by integrating (1) over the entire volume of the cylinder. We find
2π
z0 − z
a
g z = −Gρ ∫ rdr ∫ dθ ∫ dz 
r 2 + ( z0 − z ) 
2 32
0 0 0
 
Changing the variable to x = z0 − z , we have
a z0 −
xdx
g z = 2π Gρ ∫ rdr ∫ 32
(2)
0 z0  r + x 2 
2

Using the standard integral,

GRAVITATION 155

xdx −1
∫ = (3)
( )
2 3 a ± x2
2
a2 ± x

we obtain

a  
r r
g z = −2π Gρ ∫ dr  −  (4)
 r 2 + z02 
 r + ( z0 − )
2 2
0

Next, using Eq. (E.9), Appendix E, we obtain

g z = −2π Gρ  a 2 + ( z0 − )2 − a 2 + z02 +  (5)

 

Now, let us find the force by first computing the potential. The contribution from a small
element of volume is
rdrdθ dz
dΦ = −Gρ (6)
r + ( z0 − z )
2 2

Integrating over the entire volume, we have

2π a
r
dΦ = −Gρ ∫ dz ∫ dθ ∫ dr (7)
r 2 + ( z0 − z )
2
0 0 0

Using Eq. (E.9), Appendix E, again, we find

dΦ = −2π Gρ ∫ dz  a 2 + ( z0 − z ) − ( z0 − z ) 
2
(8)
 
0

Now, we use Eqs. (E.11) and (E.8a), Appendix E, and obtain

 (z − ) a2
Φ = −2π Gρ  − 0 a 2 + ( z0 − )2 + ln  −2 ( z0 − ) + 2 ( z0 − ) 2 + a2 
2 2 


z0 a2  1 
+ a 2 + z02 − ln −2z0 + 2 z02 + a 2  − z0 + 2

2 2   2 
Thus, the force is
156 CHAPTER 5

 z0 −
 1−
∂Φ 1 2 1 ( z0 − ) 2 a2 ( z0 − ) 2 + a 2
= −2π Gρ  a + ( z0 − ) 2
gz = − + +
∂z 0 2 2 a 2 + ( z0 − )
2 2 −(z − ) + ( z0 − ) 2 + a 2
 0


 z0
1− 
1 2 1 z 2
a z +a
2 2 2
− a + z02 − 0
− + 0
(9)
2 2 a 2 + z02 2 − z0 + z02 + a 2 


or,

g z = −2π Gρ  a 2 + ( z0 − )2 − a 2 + z02 +  (10

 

and we obtain the same result as in (5).

In this case, it is clear that it is considerably easier to compute the force directly. (See the
remarks in Section 5.4.)

5-9.

a r
θ
R P

The contribution to the potential at the point P from a small line element d is

ρd
Φ = −G ∫ (1)
r
M
where ρ is the linear mass density which is expressed as ρ = . Using
2π a
r = R2 + a 2 − 2aR cos θ and d = adθ, we can write (1) as
2π
GM dθ
Φ=−
2π ∫ R + a − 2aR cos θ
2 2
(2)
0

This is the general expression for the potential.

If R is much greater than a, we can expand the integrand in (2) using the binomial expansion:
−1 2
1 1  a a2  
= 1 −  2 cos θ − 2  
R2 + a 2 − 2aR cos θ R   R R 

 1 a a2  3  a a2   1
2

= 1 +  2 cos θ − 2  +  2 cos θ − 2   + … (3)

 2  R R  8 R R   R
GRAVITATION 157

3
 a
If we neglect terms of order   and higher in (3), the potential becomes
 R
2π
GM  a a2 3 a2 
Φ=−
2π ∫ 1
 R

+ cos θ −
2R 2
+
2R 2
cos 2 θ  dθ

0

GM  a2 3 a2 
=−  2π − π + π (4)
2π  R2 2 R 2 
or,

GM  1 a 2 
Φ ( R) ≅ − 1+ (5)
R  4 R 2 

We notice that the first term in (5) is the potential when mass M is concentrated in the center of
GMa 2
the ring. Of course this is a very rough approximation and the first correction term is − .
4 R3

5-10.
P
R
φ R cos θ
r
θ
a x
R sin θ

Using the relations

x= ( R sin θ ) 2 + a2 − 2aR sin θ cos φ (1)

r = x 2 + R2 cos 2 θ = R 2 + a 2 − 2 aR sin θ cos φ (2)

M
ρ = (the linear mass density), (3)
2π a
the potential is expressed by
2π
ρd −GM dφ
Φ = −G ∫ = ∫ (4)
r 2π R  a a2 
1 −  2 sin θ cos φ − 2 
0

 R R 

If we expand the integrand and neglect terms of order ( a R) and higher, we have
3

−1 2
  a a2   a 1 a2 3 a2
 
1 − 2 sin θ cos φ −  ≅ 1+ sin θ cos φ − + sin 2 θ cos 2 φ (5)
  R R 2   R 2 R2 2 R2

Then, (4) becomes

158 CHAPTER 5

GM  1 a2 3 a2 
Φ≅−  2π − 2π + π sin 2 θ 
2π R  2R 2
2R 2

Thus,

GM  1 a2  3 
Φ ( R) ≅ − 1 − 2 R 2 1 − 2 sin θ  
2
(6)
R   

5-11.
P
r a
θ
dm z

The potential at P due to a small mass element dm inside the body is

dm dm
dΦ = −G = −G (1)
r z + a − 2 za cos θ
2 2

Integrating (1) over the entire volume and dividing the result by the surface area of the sphere,
we can find the average field on the surface of the sphere due to dm:
π
1  2π a 2 sin θ dθ 
dΦ ave =
4π a 2
 −G dm ∫ z 2 + a2 − 2za cos θ  (2)
 0 
Making the variable change cos θ = x, we have
+1
G dx
dΦ ave = − dm ∫ (3)
2 −1 (z 2
)
+ a 2 − 2 zax

Using Eq. (E.5), Appendix E, we find

 1 
dΦ ave = −
G
2
dm  −
 za
(z 2
)
+ a 2 − 2za +
1
za
(z 2
)
+ a 2 + 2 za 


G  − ( z − a) + ( z + a) 
=− dm  
2  za 
G
=− dm (4)
z
This is the same potential as at the center of the sphere. Since the average value of the potential
is equal to the value at the center of the sphere at any arbitrary element dm, we have the same
relation even if we integrate over the entire body.
GRAVITATION 159

5-12.

dm
r'
O

r R

Let P be a point on the spherical surface. The potential dΦ due to a small amount of mass dm
inside the surface at P is
Gdm
dΦ = − (1)
r
The average value over the entire surface due to dm is the integral of (1) over dΩ divided by 4π.
Writing this out with the help of the figure, we have
Gdm π 2π sin θ dθ
dΦ ave = −
4π ∫0
r ′ 2 + R − 2r ′R cos θ
2
(2)

Making the obvious change of variable and performing the integration, we obtain
Gdm 1 du Gdm
dΦ ave = − ∫
4π −1 r ′ 2 + R − 2r ′Ru
2
=−
R
(3)

We can now integrate over all of the mass and get Φ ave = − Gm R . This is a mathematical
statement equivalent to the problem’s assertion.

5-13.

R1
R0
ρ1
R2
ρ2

R0 = position of particle. For R1 < R0 < R2 , we calculate the force by assuming that all mass for
which r < R0 is at r = 0, and neglect mass for which r > R0 . The force is in the radially inward
direction ( −er ).
The magnitude of the force is
GMm
F=
R02
where M = mass for which r < R0
160 CHAPTER 5

M=
4
3
4
(
π R13 ρ1 + π R03 − R13 ρ2
3
)
4π Gm
So F = −
3R02
( )
ρ1R13 + ρ2 R03 − ρ2 R13 er

4  ( ρ − ρ ) R3 
F = − π Gm  1 22 1 + ρ2 R0  er
3  R0 

5-14. Think of assembling the sphere a shell at a time (r = 0 to r = R).

For a shell of radius r, the incremental energy is dU = dm φ where φ is the potential due to the
mass already assembled, and dm is the mass of the shell.
So

 3M  3 Mr 2 dr
dm = ρ 4π r 2 dr =  4π r 2
dr =
 4π R 
3
R3

Gm r3
φ=− where m = M 3
r R
So

U = ∫ du

R
 3 Mr 2 dr   GMr 2 
= ∫  R3   − R3 
r =0 

R
3GM 2 4
R6 ∫0
=− r dr

3 GM 2
U=−
5 R

5-15. When the mass is at a distance r from the center of the Earth, the force is in the inward
radial direction and has magnitude Fr :

m
r

Gm  4 3 
Fr = π r ρ  where ρ is the mass density of the Earth. The equation of motion is
r 2  3 
GRAVITATION 161

Gm  4 3 
Fr = mr = − π r ρ
r 2  3 
or
4π Gρ
r + ω 2 r = 0 where ω 2 =
3
This is the equation for simple harmonic motion. The period is

2π 3π
T= =
ω Gρ

Substituting in values gives a period of about 84 minutes.

5-16.
z M

y θ
x r 2 + h2
h

For points external to the sphere, we may consider the sphere to be a point mass of mass M. Put
the sheet in the x-y plane.
Consider force on M due to the sheet. By symmetry, Fx = Fy = 0
∞
GMdm
Fz = ∫ dFz = ∫ (r cos θ
r =0
2
+ h2 )
h
With dm = ρs 2π rdr and cos θ =
r + h2
2

we have
∞
rdr
Fz = 2πρsGMh ∫
(r )
32
r =0
2
+ h2

∞
 1 
Fz = −2πρsGMh  
 r + h2 ( ) 
2 12
 0

Fz = 2πρsGM

The sphere attracts the sheet in the z -direction

with a force of magnitude 2πρsGM
162 CHAPTER 5

5-17.

water x

moon
(not to scale)

Earth

Start with the hint given to us. The expression for g x and g y are given by

2GMm x GMe x GMm y GMe y

gx = 3
− 3
; gy = − − (1)
D R D3 R3
where the first terms come from Equations (5.54) and the second terms come from the standard
assumption of an Earth of uniform density. The origin of the coordinate system is at the center
of the Earth. Evaluating the integrals:
2 2
xmax  2GMm GMe  xmax ymax  GMm GMe  ymax
∫ 0
g x dx = 
 D
3
−
R3  2
; ∫ 0
g y dy =  −
 D
3
−
R 3  2
(2)

To connect this result with Example 5.5, let us write (1) in the following way

GMm  2 2
 GMe 2
3
D 
 xmax +
ymax
=
2  2R 3
xmax − ymax
2
( ) (3)

The right-hand side can be factored as

GMe GMe
3 ( max
x + ymax )( xmax − ymax ) = ( 2 R ) ( h ) = gh (4)
2R 2R 3
2 2
If we make the approximation on the left-hand side of (3) that xmax ymax R 2 , we get exactly
Equation (5.55). Turning to the exact solution of (3), we obtain
Me M m Me 2 M m
3
+ 3 − −
h = 2R R D R3 D3 (5)
Me Mm Me 2 M m
3
+ 3 + −
R D R3 D3

Upon substitution of the proper values, the answer is 0.54 m, the same as for Example 5.5.
Inclusion of the centrifugal term in g x does not change this answer significantly.
GRAVITATION 163

5-18. From Equation (5.55), we have with the appropriate substitutions

3GMm r 2
3
hmoon 2 gD3 Mm  Res 
= = (1)
hsun 3GMs r 2 Ms  D 
3
2 gRes
Substitution of the known values gives
3
hmoon 7.350 × 10 22 kg  1.495 × 1011 m 
= 2. 2 (2)
hsun 1.993 × 10 30 kg  3.84 × 10 8 m 

5-19.

ωmoon
ωearth

Because the moon’s orbit about the Earth is in the same sense as the Earth’s rotation, the
difference of their frequencies will be half the observed frequency at which we see high tides.
Thus
1 1 1
= − (1)
2Ttides Tearth Tmoon

which gives Ttides 12 hours, 27 minutes.

5-20. The differential potential created by a thin loop of thickness dr at the point (0,0,z) is

2π rdrM −GM d ( r 2 )
dΦ( z) =
−G
= ⇒ Φ( z) = ∫ dΦ( z) =
−2GM
( z 2 + R2 − z )
z +r
2 2 π R 2
R 2
z +r
2 2 R 2

Then one can find the gravity acceleration,

dΦ 2GM  z 2 + R 2 − z 
g( z) = − kˆ = − kˆ 2  
dz R  z 2 + R2 

where k̂ is the unit vector in the z-direction.

164 CHAPTER 5

5-21. (We assume the convention that D > 0 means m is not sitting on the rod.)
The differential force dF acting on point mass m from the element of thickness dx of the rod,
which is situated at a distance x from m, is
G ( M L) mdx GMm
L+ D
dx GMm
dF = ⇒ F = ∫ dF = ∫ =
x 2
L D
x 2
D(L + D)

And that is the total gravitational force acting on m by the rod.