ARCHAEOFAUNAL REPRESENTATION OF LATE WESTERN THULE REGIONALIZATION: INSIGHTS FROM THE SNAKE RIVER SANDSPIT SITE IN NOME, ALASKA

A THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the University of Alaska Anchorage

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

By

Kelly Anne Eldridge, B.A.

Anchorage, Alaska

August 2012

iii Abstract This thesis explores the connection between Western Thule regionalization and historic Iupiat socioterritories on the Seward Peninsula by comparing archaeofaunal assemblages to territory-specific subsistence patterns. A faunal analysis of the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146) in Nome, Alaska, and published faunal analyses of 15 additional Western Thule sites are used to test the antiquity of historic Iupiat socioterritorial subsistence patterns. In general, results indicate that regional subsistence practices linked with territorial boundaries on the Seward Peninsula have changed little since Western Thule occupation.

iv Table of Contents Page Title Page ............................................................................................................................. i Signature Page .................................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................ xvi Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Research Problem ............................................................................................................2 Thesis Organization .........................................................................................................3 Chapter Two: Theoretical Overview .................................................................................. 5 Regional Archaeology .....................................................................................................5 Zooarchaeology ...............................................................................................................8 Taphonomy ..................................................................................................................8 Taxonomic identification ...........................................................................................11 Quantification ............................................................................................................11

v Page Ageing........................................................................................................................13 Season of Site Occupation .........................................................................................14 Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns .............................................................................16 Summary ........................................................................................................................19 Chapter Three: The Seward Peninsula .............................................................................. 20 Physical Environment ....................................................................................................20 Geography..................................................................................................................20 Climate .......................................................................................................................22 Vegetation ..................................................................................................................23 Wildlife ......................................................................................................................23 Cultural Environment ....................................................................................................29 Prehistory ...................................................................................................................29 American Paleoarctic tradition, 13,000-9,000 BP .................................................29 Northern Archaic tradition, 6,000-4,000 BP .........................................................30 Arctic Small Tool tradition, 4,200-1,000 BP .........................................................30 Denbigh Flint Complex .......................................................................................30 Choris culture ......................................................................................................31

vi Page Norton-Near Ipiutak culture ................................................................................31 Ipiutak culture .....................................................................................................32 Northern Maritime tradition, 1,500-150 BP ..........................................................32 Punuk ..................................................................................................................32 Birnirk .................................................................................................................33 Western Thule .....................................................................................................33 Historic Period .......................................................................................................36 Previous Archaeological Research ............................................................................37 Summary ........................................................................................................................39 Chapter Four: Snake River Sandspit Site Background ..................................................... 40 Field Methods ................................................................................................................40 Site Description .............................................................................................................42 House A .....................................................................................................................43 House B .....................................................................................................................43 Midden .......................................................................................................................45 Radiocarbon Dating .......................................................................................................47 Overview of Artifact Assemblage .................................................................................48

vii Page Implications of Artifact Assemblage .............................................................................52 Late Western Thule culture .......................................................................................52 Season of Site Occupation .........................................................................................60 Summary ........................................................................................................................61 Chapter Five: Snake River Sandspit Site Methods ........................................................... 63 Laboratory Methods.......................................................................................................63 Taxonomic Classification ..........................................................................................64 Quantification ............................................................................................................65 Ageing........................................................................................................................65 Season of Death .........................................................................................................67 Perthotaxic Analysis ..................................................................................................67 Summary ........................................................................................................................68 Chapter Six: Snake River Sandspit Site Results ............................................................... 69 Archaeofauna .................................................................................................................69 Birds ...........................................................................................................................70 Mammals ...................................................................................................................76 Terrestrial Mammals ..............................................................................................77

viii Page Marine Mammals ...................................................................................................83 Fishes .........................................................................................................................88 Mollusks ....................................................................................................................89 Perthotaxic Data.............................................................................................................89 Intrasite Faunal Analysis ...............................................................................................93 Season of Site Occupation .............................................................................................95 Winter Occupation .....................................................................................................96 Summer Occupation ................................................................................................104 Ethnographic Subsistence Data ...............................................................................105 Summary ......................................................................................................................108 Chapter Seven: Seward Peninsula Comparative Sites .................................................... 110 Archaeofaunas .............................................................................................................110 Ayasayuk (NOM-009). ............................................................................................111 Uqshoyak (TEL-155) ...............................................................................................112 Wales Hillside Site (TEL-025) ................................................................................115 Wales Beach Site (TEL-026) ...................................................................................116 Kurigitavik Mound (TEL-079) ................................................................................118

ix Page Ikpek Area Site (TEL-104) ......................................................................................119 Kitluk River Site (KTZ-145) ...................................................................................120 Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-087) ....................................................................121 Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-088) ....................................................................122 Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-101) ....................................................................124 Deering Western Thule House 1 (KTZ-300) ...........................................................125 Deering Western Thule House 2 (KTZ-301) ...........................................................127 Cloud Lake Village (BEN-033) ...............................................................................128 Salix Bay Site (BEN-106) .......................................................................................128 Kuzitrin Lake West Village (BEN-053) ..................................................................129 Regional Analysis ........................................................................................................129 Summary ......................................................................................................................140 Chapter Eight: Discussion............................................................................................... 141 Site Comparisons to Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns ..........................................141 Summary 144

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................145 References ....................................................................................................................... 148

x Page Appendix: NOM-146 Faunal Database back pocket

xi List of Figures Page Figure 2.1: Location of 19th century villages identified by Ray (1964, 1975) and traditional Iupiat territories Figure 3.1: Location of Nome on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska Figure 4.1: Profile of House A Figure 4.2: Plan view of House B, NOM-146(b) Figure 4.3: Photograph of House B profile Figure 4.4: Plan view of the midden, NOM-146(c) Figure 4.5: Calendrical date ranges of radiocarbon samples from NOM-146 Figure 4.6: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00293] Figure 4.7: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00671] Figure 4.8: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00088] Figure 4.9: Ivory Fishing Lure from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00303]

17 22 43 44 45 46 47 54 54 55 56

Figure 4.10: Striated potsherd with pie-crust rim from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00378] 57 Figure 4.11: Pottery vessel from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00304] Figure 4.12: Seal figurine from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00310] Figure 4.13: Ivory Human Figurine from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00022] Figure 6.1: Percentages of Number of Identified Specimens from NOM-146 Figure 6.2: Compilation of cutmarks from 12 right ringed seal mandibles Figure 6.3: Bird presence on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska 57 59 59 69 91 97

Figure 6.4: Possible ages (in months) of skeletal elements indicative of yearling status 98

xii Page Figure 6.5: Small ice seal femora. Ages from left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult, adult 99 Figure 6.6: Small ice seal humeri. From left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult 99 Figure 6.7: Presence of mammal neonates on the Seward Peninsula Figure 6.8: Possible ages (in months) of certain caribou skeletal elements Figure 6.9: Tundra hare epiphyseal fusion sequence elements 100 101 103

Figure 7.1: Location of Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula used in intersite comparisons 111 Figure 7.2: Composition of NOM-146 archaeofauna; NISP=5,605 (unidentified remains not included) 130 Figure 7.3: Composition of KTZ-300 archaeofauna; NISP=2,230 (unidentified remains not included) 131 Figure 7.4: Composition of KTZ-301 archaeofauna; NISP=731 (unidentified remains not included) 131 Figure 7.5: Composition of KTZ-145 archaeofauna; NISP=2,765 (unidentified remains not included) 132 Figure 7.6: Composition of TEL-155 archaeofauna; NISP=9,784 (unidentified remains not included) 133 Figure 7.7: Composition of TEL-079 archaeofauna; NISP=8,910 (unidentified remains not included) 133 Figure 7.8: Composition of KTZ-101 archaeofauna; NISP=421 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included) Figure 7.9: Composition of KTZ-087 archaeofauna; NISP=412 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included)

134

134

xiii Page Figure 7.10: Composition of TEL-025 archaeofauna; NISP=335 (unidentified remains not included) 135 Figure 7.11: Composition of TEL-026 archaeofauna; NISP=12,665 (unidentified remains not included) 135 Figure 7.12: Composition of NOM-009 archaeofauna; NISP=1,133 (unidentified remains not included) 136 Figure 7.13: Composition of TEL-104 archaeofauna; NISP=316 (unidentified remains 136 not included) Figure 7.14: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 2010; NISP=4,209 (unidentified remains not included) 137 Figure 7.15: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 1988; NISP=1,124 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included) 137 Figure 7.16: Composition of BEN-053 archaeofauna; NISP=512 (unidentified remains not included) 138 Figure 7.17: Composition of BEN-106 archaeofauna; NISP=390 (unidentified remains not included) 139 Figure 7.18: Composition of BEN-033 archaeofauna; NISP=2740 (unidentified remains not included) 139 Figure 8.1: Location of comparative Western Thule sites and traditional Iupiaq territories

142

xiv List of Tables Page Table 3.2: Modern marine mammals of the Seward Peninsula. Table 3.3: Most common birds of the Seward Peninsula Table 3.4: Most common overwintering birds of the Seward Peninsula Table 3.5: Important subsistence fishes near Cape Nome and Safety Sound Table 4.1: Number of artifacts from NOM-146 Table 4.2: Personal adornment, ceremonial and warfare artifacts from NOM-146 Table 4.3: Household equipment, tools, and transportation artifacts from NOM-146 Table 4.4: Fishing and hunting artifacts from NOM-146 Table 4.5: Manufacturing and unidentified artifacts from NOM-146 Table 6.1: Number of vertebrate fauna from NOM-146 Table 6.2: Bird remains from NOM-146 Table 6.3: Terrestrial mammal remains from NOM-146 Table 6.4: Age categories of NOM-146 non-canid land mammal remains Table 6.5: Age categories of NOM-146 canid remains Table 6.6: Marine mammal remains from NOM-146 Table 6.7: Age categories of NOM-146 pinniped remains Table 6.8: Fish remains from NOM-146 Table 6.9: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with cutmarks Table 6.10: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with gnawmarks 25 26 27 28 48 49 50 51 52 69 70 77 78 78 83 84 88 90 92

xv Page Table 6.11: NISP and %NISP of burned NOM-146 faunal remains Table 6.12: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in House B Table 6.13: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in the midden Table 7.1: NOM-009 vertebrate remains Table 7.2: TEL-155 mammal remains Table 7.3: TEL-155 bird and fish remains Table 7.4: TEL-025 vertebrate remains Table 7.5: TEL-026 vertebrate remains Table 7.6: TEL-079 vertebrate remains Table 7.7: TEL-104 vertebrate remains Table 7.8: KTZ-145 vertebrate remains Table 7.9: KTZ-087 vertebrate remains Table 7.10: KTZ-088 (1988 excavation) vertebrate remains Table 7.11: KTZ-088 (2010 excavation) vertebrate remains Table 7.12: KTZ-101 vertebrate remains Table 7.13: KTZ-300 vertebrate remains Table 7.14: KTZ-301 vertebrate remains Table 7.15: BEN-033 vertebrate remains Table 7.16: BEN-106 vertebrate remains Table 7.17: BEN-053 vertebrate remains 93 94 95 112 114 115 116 117 119 120 121 122 123 123 125 126 127 128 129 129

xvi Acknowledgments This thesis originated from a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers salvage archaeology project, which would not have occurred without the cooperation and assistance of the City of Nome and the Nome Eskimo Community. Thanks to those individuals who first identified the existence of the Snake River Sandspit site: Mark Pipkin, Mike Hahn, and especially Margan Grover, who also directed site excavation, organized community involvement, and originally analyzed the artifact assemblage. Thank you to everyone who helped excavate the site: Karlin Itchoak, Mark Cassell, Helen Lindemuth, Al Sahlin, Boogles Johnson, Aaron Wilson, Beverly Gelzer, Meghan Ten Eyck, Guy McConnell, Chris Floyd, and at least a dozen more who volunteered their time, effort, and shovels. Thank you to the University of Alaska Anchorage for providing lab space for the faunal analysis, and to the Alaska Consortium of Zooarchaeologists, University of Alaska Anchorage Anthropology Department, and Museum of the North Mammalogy and Ornithology Departments for providing access to their comparative faunal collections. I will be forever indebted to those who assisted with the faunal analysis: Diane Hanson, David Yesner, Nancy and Tom Eldridge, Erika Malo, Eric and Heather Smith, Nick Riordan, Jessequa Parker, Dominique Cordy, and Hillary Palmer. And finally, this thesis would never have existed without the encouragement and editorial skills of my academic advisory committee: David Yesner, Diane Hanson, Doug Veltre, and Margan Grover; the patience of my fianc, Dave Coleman; or the enthusiasm of parents, Tom and Nancy Eldridge.

1 Chapter One: Introduction This thesis focuses on regionalization in Western Thule culture on the Seward Peninsula, northern Bering Sea region, Alaska. Two major models have been proposed for the nature of material variation in Western Thule culture: temporal and geographical. Both time and geography clearly affected the material culture of the Western Thule people. Most of the literature, however, emphasizes temporally-based differences. More specifically, cultural phases associated with the Western Thule culture are defined as temporally sequential shifts in major technological traits due to internal cultural innovations, introduction of external cultural influences, or climate change (Dumond 1987; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Morrison 1991; Stanford 1976). Material differences due to adaptation of subsistence practices to diverse geographic regions is not often cited as causal (for exceptions, see Bockstoce 1979; Harritt 1994). Numerous authors, however, have recognized the association between subsistence resources and both historic and prehistoric cultural territories (Ackerman and Ackerman 1973; Andrews 1994; Burch 1980, 2006; Friesen 1999; Helm 1965; Zedeo 1997). The Iupiat of northwest Alaska were organized into politically autonomous socioterritorial groups that controlled discrete ecoregions in the early nineteenth century (Burch 1980, 1998, 2006; Ray 1964, 1967, 1975). Burch (1998:316-318) calls attention to the unknown antiquity of these cultural territories: anthropologists have suggested that they date back to at least the eighteenth century (Ray 1964:86) if not the eleventh century (Burch 1998:317). Burch (1998:318) suggests that the formation of the historic Iupiat

2 nations may have occurred during the expansion of the Western Thule culture, and that these early territories can be identified by comparing prehistoric sites with known historic settlement patterns (Burch 1988). To better understand Western Thule culture and to differentiate between temporal and geographical effects, regional variations in subsistence must be identified and assessed, to the extent permitted by archaeological visibility and preservation. Following the links identified between subsistence and socioterritory, and Western Thule and Iupiaq cultures, this thesis explores Western Thule regionalization in light of historic Iupiat socioterritories through zooarchaeological analysis. Research Problem If nineteenth century Iupiat societal differences were linked to unique subsistence practices (Burch 1980:275) and historic socioterritorial boundaries were demarcated hundreds of years ago (Burch 1998:317, 2006:7; Ray 1964), then regional variations in Western Thule subsistence should correspond with the socioterritorial boundaries documented during the early historic period on the Seward Peninsula in northwest Alaska. These boundaries, encompassing what Ray (1967) identified as the political unit or tribe, and Burch named socio-territorial units (1980) or nations (1998, 2006), differentiated linguistically and culturally similar people from their neighbors (Burch 1980:262; Ray 1975:105). To test this hypothesis, an assemblage of archaeofauna recovered from the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146), a Late Western Thule site at the mouth of the Snake River in the city of Nome, Alaska, is analyzed and compared to

3 published analyses of archaeofauna from 16 Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula. NOM-146 radiometrically dates to around A.D. 1750; its known features include two partial houses and a midden. Data relevant to regional patterns obtained through faunal analysis include both taxonomic composition and season of occupation. Intersite comparisons of these data reflect the nature and degree of spatial variation in subsistence and settlement, linked to larger patterns of cultural variability. More specifically, the subsistence patterns represented at NOM-146 should reflect those associated with the Ayasaagiaagmiut, the historic tribal nation within whose territorial boundaries the site lies (Grover 2005; Schaaf 1995). Ray (1967:375, 1975:104) notes that the traditional tribal society of the Nome area followed the small sea mammal subsistence pattern, which emphasized the importance of seal, followed by beluga, fish, and caribou, in addition to the berries, waterfowl and game birds, eggs, small land mammals and plants commonly found in all geographic regions of the Seward Peninsula and adjacent areas of the northern Bering Sea region. Burch (1980:286-287) also documents the importance of seal, fish and caribou to the Iupiat of the area, in addition to occasional whaling and walrus hunting. A close examination of the archaeofauna recovered from the Snake River Sandspit site, and comparison of those data to published regional ethnohistories, are used to test these hypotheses. Thesis Organization This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter Two examines the theoretical underpinnings of the thesis, focusing on regionalization and zooarchaeology. Chapter

4 Three describes the environment and prehistory of the study area, the Seward Peninsula. In Chapter Four, basic information about the Snake River Sandspit site, including the excavation methods, radiocarbon dates and artifact assemblage overview, is reported. The methods used in the faunal analysis of NOM-146 are described in Chapter Five. Chapter Six conveys the results of the analysis of the NOM-146 archaeofauna, and Chapter Seven synthesizes the published results of faunal analyses from additional Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula. Chapter Eight discusses the above results, examining the potential of the archaeofauna from Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula to provide information on prehistoric regionalization and territoriality. The database produced by the Snake River Sandspit faunal analysis (Appendix) can be found on CD in the pocket on the back cover of the thesis.

5 Chapter Two: Theoretical Overview Regional Archaeology The development of what is now known as regional archaeology began in the 1930s with concepts of regional co-traditions pioneered by anthropologists such as Julian Steward (Kantner 2008:38; McCartney 1992:195). In his monograph on the indigenous peoples of the Basin-Plateau region, Steward (1938) emphasized the need to study how humans adapt to their environment and the importance of an ecological approach in anthropology. Interest in regional patterns of human behavior continued to increase throughout the mid-twentieth century, and the emergence of the New Archaeology enhanced the new regional analysis with discrete quantitative and graphical tools (Kantner 2008:39; McCartney 1992:195). The development of processual archaeology added spatial models and network analyses to the regional archaeology toolkit and led to the definition of subsistence-settlement systems by Struever and others (Kantner 2008:40). In the last two decades, regional archaeology has been influenced not only by new paradigms such as landscape archaeology, historical ecology, and neo-evolutionary selectionism, but by new technologies like Geographic Information System (GIS) modeling and computer simulations (Kantner 2008:60-62) Today, regional archaeology exists as a widespread, method-oriented perspective for answering a variety of anthropological problems through the use of spatiotemporal and contextual data from a sizable, contiguous area (Kantner 2008:43). These areas, or regions, are spaces where past human cultures have left material signatures (Kantner

6 2008:41). The geographic region is a flexible unit of spatial research defined by the particular research question (Gallant et al. 1989:1; McCartney 2002:194). This flexibility requires that the researcher clearly identify how and why they determined their regional boundaries (Kantner 2008:42). Most archaeological literature uses the term region in the common geographical sense to include both behavioral areas (i.e., interacting communities) and physiographic regions (e.g., drainage basins or coastal plains) (Kowalewski 2008:226). Regions are defined where internal socio-political interactions are greater than external interactions (Douglas 1995:241). Regions can be huge, like the Boasian culture areas, or relatively small, like the areas covered by individual Native societies (McCartney 1992:194). For the purposes of this thesis, I define region after Burchs socio-territorial units (1980:255), which equate to Rays political units or tribes (1967:373-375) and Guemples regional bands (1972:83). These regions differentiate between people who were generally similar to each other (were members of a single culture) but who differed in detail (Burch 1980:262), in part due to association with particular geographic areas and subsistence bases (Burch 1980:275; Guemple 1972:83; Ray 1967:374). In the Iupiaq cultural area during the early historic period, these territorially circumscribed regions were autonomous political units (Burch 1998:3), probably centuries old (Burch 2006:7). This particular type of region lends itself, in part, to the study of four of the basic themes, which McCartney (1992:197-198) identified as questions needing examination

7 from a regional perspective: culture history/chronology (the study of the evolution of cultures and their adaptations in different regions); human ecology (the study of subsistence and settlement, seasonality and annual rounds); settlement patterns (the study of intersite patterns for the regions and the variety of contemporary sites for cultural-historical periods); and social polities (the investigation of territories that correspond with local to regional political organizations). The above themes are examined here through the study of regional subsistence patterns. The characteristics of exploited food resources are one of the most influential factors in social organization, especially in Arctic and Subarctic cultures (Friesen 1999). Friesen (1999:32, 33) describes how the standard Thule material culture was modified to adapt to local environments, and notes that the primary differences between the Iupiat of north Alaska and the Inuit of the Mackenzie Delta vary with the accessible resources. Because of this significant relationship between social organization and environment, all subsistence behaviors must be identified to reconstruct prehistoric territories (Zedeo 1997:95). The use of a regional approach in zooarchaeological analysis is crucial because it exposes general patterns of behavior which may not be revealed at the site level (Friesen and Morrison 2002:23) and differentiates site and regional patterns (Amorosi et al. 1996:151). Throughout North America, regionalization is being recognized in cultural areas once defined with general, sweeping statements (Sanger 2008:2). A regional approach to a locally diverse area of the widely-distributed Western Thule culture will help identify

8 regional cultural patterns within the overarching Thule model. This thesis examines the relationship between socioterritorial units and their food resources to identify the regionalization of Western Thule culture on the Seward Peninsula. Zooarchaeology is the analytical technique used to identify the subsistence strategies at the examined sites. Zooarchaeology Zooarchaeology is the study of animal remains recovered from archaeological sites. Skeletal animal remains (hereafter referred to as faunal remains or archaeofauna) can be identified and examined to provide information about the subsistence strategies of the people who lived at the site, the season of site occupation, and the paleoenvironment. Taphonomy. Zooarchaeological interpretations are affected by the taphonomy of the archaeofaunal assemblage (Landon 2005:6; Lyman 1987:93). The word taphonomy was coined in the 1940s by the Russian paleontologist Efremov to describe everything that happens to an animal from the time it leaves the biosphere to when it enters the lithosphere (Behrensmeyer et al. 2000:102; Gilbert and Singer 1982:22; Lyman 2008:264). There are seven types of taphonomic processes: biotic, thanatic, perthotaxic, taphic, anataxic, sullegic, and trephic (Gilbert and Singer 1982:23; Lyman 1994a; OConnor 2000:20). Biotic processes are factors occurring during an animals life, such as migrations or molting. Thanatic processes involve the causes of death, such as drowning, being hunted, or falling off a cliff. Perthotaxic processes are perhaps the most inclusive of human involvement with an animal; they include all changes to an animals state

9 perpetrated by other animals (including humans), such as transportation from the kill site (e.g., the schlepp effect), disarticulation and butchering methods, cooking practices, cosmological procedures, scavenging by nonhumans, gnawing and chewing. Taphic processes affect an animal after it has been deposited into the lithosphere and deal mostly with natural and chemical weathering processes, such as root etching and bioturbation. Anataxic processes occur after an animal has been deposited for some time and refer to events like flooding or permafrost uplift natural events that move the animal from its original area of deposition (Gilbert and Singer 1982:23; Lyman 1994a; OConnor 2000:20). The last two processes, sullegic and trephic, include human actions after the archaeological discovery of deposited faunal remains. The methods of excavation of the remains, field sampling techniques, retrieval methods such as screen mesh size, and experience of the excavator are sullegic factors. Trephic processes include curatorial events such as the selection of various methods for numbering, labeling, identifying, and preserving faunal remains (Gilbert and Singer 1982:24; OConnor 2000:20). All of the taphonomic processes listed above directly affect the composition and interpretation of the archaeofaunal assemblage. The most obvious effect that taphonomy has is on relative taxonomic abundance. Depending on the taphonomic processes to which faunal remains were subjected, an individual animal may not be part of the analyzed assemblage at all.

10 Taphonomic processes often produce measurable changes to the bones in faunal assemblages. For example, biotic processes play an important role in the identification of season and human settlement patterns. If migratory birds are found in the midden of a site, then it is probable that they were killed (thanatic process) and brought back to the village (perthotaxic process) during the season in which the birds occupied the surrounding territory (biotic process). The age at death of an individual is also a biotic event: for example, if the identified assemblage includes young ringed seal pups, for example, the zooarchaeologist can assume that the pups were hunted shortly after they were born in April. Biotic events can help the archaeologist reconstruct the paleoenvironment. As seen in the faunal analyses of Crockford and Frederick (2007), the identification of pups of the pagophilic (ice-loving) ringed seal, which gives birth on a sea ice substrate, necessarily indicates the existence of sea ice. Biotic processes can also change how perthotaxic and taphic processes affect faunal remains. Munson and Garniewicz (2003) demonstrated how bone survival during canid gnawing is dependent on the age at death and size of the animal. Another study by Lam et al. (2003) showed how differential bone density of a specimen, which can be a factor of age or element type, affected its likelihood to survive perthotaxic processes. Some perthotaxic processes can change how other such processes affect faunal remains. For example, cooked bone is less likely to survive carnivore gnawing than uncooked bone (Munson and Garniewicz 2003).

11 Taxonomic identification. To use faunal assemblages to reconstruct site paleoeconomies, the taxa present in the assemblage must first be identified. The identification of archaeofauna to taxon is based on the morphology of a specimen; accurate identification is affected by expectations of which fauna should occur in the site area and by the species in available comparative collections (Bochenski 2008; Gobalet 2001). Comparative collections, composed of skeletal material from modern animal species, are one of the most significant tools used by zooarchaeologists in the identification of archaeofauna. Another important tool used in the taxonomic identification of faunal remains is the animal osteology manual, or bone atlas. Osteology manuals are useful in directing the zooarchaeologist to the likely taxa to consult in a comparative collection. Quantification. As a second step in reconstructing site paleoeconomies, quantification of the taxa present in the assemblage must be undertaken. The method most often used to count the taxonomic abundance of faunal assemblages is the Number of Individual Specimens (NISP) technique (Grayson and Frey 2004:28); however, the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) technique is also common (Lyman 1994b:48; Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:262). The NISP technique is a count of each fragment in an assemblage that can be identified to taxon (Grayson and Frey 2004; Lyman 1994b, 2008). It produces the maximum taxonomic abundance (Grayson 1984) and generates larger sample sizes. This method relies on the assumption that cultural and noncultural fragmentation is uniform,

12 recovery rates are constant for each taxon, and all taxa have an equal opportunity to be counted (Reitz and Wing 2008:203). The main problem with NISP is its inability to account for variations in fragmentation rates between taxa (Grayson and Frey 2004:40; Lyman 1994b:47), whether the source of fragmentation is taphonomic or cultural. Additionally, NISP is biased towards taxa with more elements in their skeletons (Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:262; OConnor 2000:56). For the MNI technique, the most common skeletal element is identified for a taxon, while taking specimen age and side of body into account (Grayson and Frey 2004:28; Lyman 1994b). For example, if ringed seal specimens identified from an occupation horizon within a site are represented by three left femora, seven right ulnae, and five right tibiae, the MNI for that occupation would be seven, as it takes at least seven animals to produce the assemblage. MNI does not work as well for characterizing faunal assemblages as does NISP when confronted with severely fragmented specimens, because multiple fragments identified as a particular skeletal element might all be from a single bone or at least a single animal (Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:267). To avoid counting one animal multiple times, MNI is conservative and often under-represents the number of individuals at a site. Although allowing for apparent pairs when using MNI (for example, deciding that a left femur and right femur came from one animal based on similar size and shape) can help alleviate this problem by increasing the recorded number of individuals (OConnor 2000:59), determining appropriate pairs is subjective and not always scientifically rigorous (Lyman 2006). Also, unless sample sizes are significantly

13 large, MNI calculations tend to exaggerate the dietary importance of rare taxa. The most serious disadvantage to the MNI technique, however, is aggregation, which can reduce the MNI of an assemblage (Grayson and Frey 2004:40; Lyman 2008). Aggregation occurs when multiple assemblages from within one site are combined. When considering quantification, it is important to emphasize that archaeofauna are only proxy indicators of past economic conditions. Research has demonstrated that the overall patterns that can be obtained from the faunal remains are more significant and useful than the exact number of NISP or MNI calculated from a single analytical unit. The particular method of quantification employed in this search for patterns appears to be less important than other characteristics of the archaeofaunas under study (Amorosi et al. 1996:139). Ageing. Ascertaining the age at which animals are harvested is significant for the reconstruction of human cultural patterns (Stor 2000:200; Twiss 2008:329). In animals with determinate growth patterns, age at death is commonly estimated by the analysis of dental cementum increments, the eruption and attrition of teeth, and epiphyseal and cranial fusion (Stor 2000:200). In all mammals, teeth erupt through the alveolar bone of the maxilla or mandible in a species-specific sequenced rate. These rates have been calculated for multiple species by biologists, zooarchaeologists, and veterinarians, among others. For example, dental eruption can be used for determining age at death until all of an individuals teeth are erupted. Age can also be estimated by examining the attrition of the teeth, usually by

14 measuring molar crown height (Greenfield and Arnold 2008:837-838). It is important to note, however, that age estimates based on tooth eruption or attrition can be affected by the animals age, sex, and diet (Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:117). In a fashion similar to dental eruption, the fusion of the epiphysis to the diaphysis of the long bones occurs at a rate specific to skeletal element and species. As an animal matures, its epiphyses (usually located at the ends of bones) fuse to the corresponding diaphyses. Juvenile animals have unfused epiphyses, while older juveniles and young adults are represented by varying stages of fusion (Purdue 1983:1207). However, fusion timing is affected by the sex of the animal and nutrition (Popkin et al. 2012:1791). Increased sculpting of the bone surface also occurs as an animal ages. This sculpting can involve the ossification of ligaments and tendons, an increase in the size and definition of muscle attachments, and the formation of osteoarthritis (Greer and Gillingham 1977:43). Age classes can be created based on sets of these criteria. Season of Site Occupation. The identification of archaeofaunal taphonomy, taxa, and age at death can assist in determining the season of occupation at an archaeological site (Monks 1981; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002). The two most common methods of interpreting seasonality with faunal remains are based on species presence/absence and physiological events (Monks 1981; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002). The presence/absence method is based simply on the acknowledgement that many animal species are most accessible in a given area during certain times of the year. Migratory species, for example many birds and fish, provide the clearest interpretation. It

15 is important to note, however, that the absence of a species in the archaeological record does not necessarily mean that it was not present; it may also indicate that it was either 1) not used or rarely used by that particular culture as a resource, or 2) its skeletal remains were deposited elsewhere (Monks 1981:180-185; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:104). The use of physiological events for determination of season of occupation, involves ascertaining the age at death for the individual animals represented by the faunal remains (Monks 1981:185-193). This involves determining the age of death for young animals through epiphyseal fusion and dental studies as mentioned above, and combining that known age with the probable date of birth (Monks 1981:190; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:107). Season of death can be ascertained from physical indicators such as the timing of antler growth and shedding, seasonal osteoporosis (Monks 1981:191; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:107) and the presence of medullary bone in birds (Monks 1981:193). Other methods of analysis include skeletochronology (examining incremental growth in structures of mollusks and fish, and adhesion lines or Harris lines in mammals); the analysis of seasonal sex and/or age variations in a population composition; and stable isotope analysis (Monks 1981:193-215; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:105-109). Additionally, there are indirect methods for estimating season of site occupation that do not involve archaeofauna, such as matrix granulometry, paleoethnobotany (e.g., coprolite analysis), settlement pattern studies, and the functional analysis of tools (Monks 1981:218; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:103).

16 Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns The traditional boundaries of the Iupiaq tribes on the Seward Peninsula have been studied by Dorothy Jean Ray (1964, 1967, 1975) and Ernest Tiger Burch, Jr. (1980, 1988, 1998, 2006). The Iupiaq tribes of the Seward Peninsula have occupied their territories since at least the early eighteenth century (Ray 1964:86). The antiquity of the Iupiaq tribal nations is unknown; some believe that a regional system of tribal nations has existed in northwest Alaska for over 1,000 years (Burch 1998:317). Ray (1964:62) has identified three primary subsistence patterns on the Seward Peninsula. The whaling pattern focused on whales, but walrus, seal, and fish are also important (later, Ray [1975:104] changed the name of this pattern to whaling-walrus). The small sea mammal pattern concentrated on seal and beluga, but also incorporated fish and caribou. Caribou are the most important game species in the caribou hunting pattern, but fish, seal, and beluga are also notable (Ray 1964:62). Ray (1964:71, 1975:104) classified the large historic villages on the Seward Peninsula by their subsistence pattern (Figure 2.1). Most coastal villages followed the small sea mammal pattern (Cape Espenberg, Shishmaref, Port Clarence, Teller, Cape Nome, Fish River, Golovin Bay, and Atnuk), while a few adhered to the whaling pattern (Wales, King Island and Sledge Island). The caribou hunting pattern was followed at Buckland, Candle, Deering, Kauwerak, Goodhope, and Koyuk.

17

Figure 2.1: Location of nineteenth century villages identified by Ray (1964, 1975) and traditional Iupiat territories. Map based on Grover (2005) and Schaaf (1995). Ray (1964:85) stressed that subsistence patterns were not associated with tribal divisions. However, Burch (1980:275) found that each tribal territory was its own ecological zone with a unique resource base and distinct annual subsistence cycle. Although common elements existed, the annual subsistence cycle of each tribal nation within its boundary was distinct (Burch 2006:32). Following Burchs suggestion that territorial boundaries encompassed distinctive ecoregions, we can extrapolate Rays identification of village subsistence patterns to the territory in which they exist. The only territory this does not work well for is the Pittagmiut; although Deering and Goodhope

18 are identified as having followed the caribou hunting pattern, Cape Espenberg is classified as following the small sea mammal pattern. Keeping the Pittagmiut exception in mind, we associate the Tapqagmiut, Singagmiut, Ayasaagiaagmiut, Igniqtagmiut, Igatuingmiut, and Atnegmiut with the small sea mammal subsistence pattern. The Kingikmiut territory is associated with the whaling pattern, and the Qaviaragmiut, Kuuyungmiut, and Kangigmiut territories are identified with the caribou hunting pattern. Burchs (2006:41-51) investigation of historic subsistence cycles of the Kangigmiut (Kanigmiut), Pittagmiut, Tapqagmiut, and Kingikmiut (Kinikmiut) territories support this interpretation. However, Ellanna (1983:458) suggested that historically, within the Kingikmiut territory and at Wales in particular, the walrus may have been as important a subsistence species as the whale. If subsistence patterns are associated with territorial ecoregions, and the territorial boundaries as they existed in the early nineteenth century represent regional tribal territories established hundreds of years before the present, then a regional examination of archaeofaunal assemblages recovered from Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula should identify the same subsistence patterns historically associated with their locations. Ray (1964:64) notes that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, families and villages stuck to their traditional subsistence pattern despite famine, disease, and Euroamerican influences. Therefore, it is possible that traditional subsistence patterns were maintained from antiquity (i.e., precontact times).

19 Summary Regional archaeology is a method-oriented perspective useful for answering a variety of questions about contiguous regions. In this thesis, regions are equated with traditional territories, defined by Burch (1980) as socio-territorial units and by Ray (1967) as political units. The overlapping themes of human ecology, settlement patterns, territorial polities, and culture history are examined here through the study of regional subsistence patterns on the Seward Peninsula. In this thesis, Western Thule subsistence practices are identified through zooarchaeological analysis and are compared to historic socioterritorial subsistence patterns in order to test the hypothesis that historic Iupiat territories correspond to prehistoric regionalization.

20 Chapter Three: The Seward Peninsula Physical Environment Geography. The Snake River Sandspit site is in Nome, Alaska, on the southwestern Bering Sea coast of the Seward Peninsula in northwest Alaska. The Seward Peninsula is an ecoregion (Gallant et al. 1995; Nowacki et al. 2002) within the Western subregion of Alaska (Armstrong 2010:8; MacDonald and Cook 2009:26). Originally coined by Crowley in the 1960s, the term ecoregion refers to a region of relative homogeneity in ecological systems or in relationships between organisms and their environments (Gallant et al. 1989:1) which provides a geographical framework in which similar responses may be expected (Bailey 1983:366). Their boundaries are delineated on the basis of detailed information about ecosystems at the site level, or by analysis of the environmental factors that most probably acted as selective forces in creating variation in ecosystems (Bailey 1983:365). The Seward Peninsula ecoregion has extensive, narrow coastal plains bordered by low hills with high peaked mountains in the interior. Interior basins are drained by streams through narrow canyons. Coastal lowlands are dotted with numerous thaw lakes (Gallant et al. 1995:32). For the purposes of this thesis, the Seward Peninsula ecoregion

is identified as the mainland and nearshore islands west of the Buckland and Koyuk rivers (after Kessel 1989:3). It is flanked on the southern and northern sides by Norton and Kotzebue Sound. At Cape Prince of Wales, the Seward Peninsula is the most westward-reaching point of mainland North America and is only about 88 km from Asia

21 (Ray 1975:4). Most of the examined archaeological sites occur in the sandy, coastal lowlands interspersed with rocky headlands (Bockstoce 1979:9). The city of Nome is on the subarctic sandy strand of the coastal lowlands. Thousands of lakes and ponds occur on the flats to the east, interrupted by the headland of Cape Nome which rises to an elevation of approximately 200 m only 24 km from the city. About 50 km inland from the city are the 1,000 m-high Kigluaik Mountains (Bockstoce 1979:11; Critchfield 1949:276; Ray 1975:6). Nome is on Norton Sound, west of the delineation distinguishing the sound from the Bering Sea (Figure 3.1). Norton Sound is a shallow body of water; its average depth of 17 m gradually decreases until it reaches around 2 m in Norton Bay at the eastern end of the Sound. The primary exception to this is a corridor of deep water (to 30 m in depth) that parallels the coast until it ends near Safety Sound, about 35 km east of Nome (Bockstoce 1979:9).

22

Figure 3.1: Location of Nome on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Climate. Historical temperature records for Nome show an average July temperature of 50F and an average January temperature of 3F (Critchfield 1949:276). Relative humidity throughout the year hovers between 75 and 90 percent, with an annual precipitation of approximately 50 cm (Bockstoce 1979:9; Critchfield 1949:276). Shorefast ice forms at the end of October and merges with pack ice during November, although open water can still be regularly found during the winter around Sledge Island, about 24 km west of Nome. Pack ice usually disappears in June (Bockstoce 1979:13; Ray 1975:6-

23 7). During the ice-free period, driftwood from the Yukon River amasses on the beaches of Norton Sound (Bockstoce 1979:9). Vegetation. In the summer, boggy muskeg forms on top of the discontinuous permafrost that underlies much of the Seward Peninsula. Tundra, often composed of sedges, is common in areas of well-drained soil, while beach grasses grow on the active sand beaches of the coasts (Bockstoce 1979:9; Critchfield 1949:276-277). More specifically, low scrub and herbaceous (mostly tussock-forming) vegetation covers the hills and lower mountain slopes. Tall scrub vegetation occurs along streams and floodplains. Common species include dwarf Arctic birch (Betula nana), resin birch (B. glandulosa), diamondleaf willow (Salix planifolia), netleaf willow (S. reticulata), and various mosses and lichens. Berries such as mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), bog blueberry (V. uliginosum), and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) are also common (Gallant et al. 1995:32-33). The utilized edible flora around Nome are numerous and include such plants as beach greens (Honckenya peploides), Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), and wild chive (Allium schoenoprasum) (Bockstoce 1979:11). Wildlife. With the exception of a few species discussed below, the animal population on the Seward Peninsula has changed relatively little in the past few hundred years; therefore contemporary biological data are useful to the NOM-146 faunal analysis. MacDonald and Cook (2009) have identified the numerous wild mammals which occur on some if not all of the Seward Peninsula (Table 3.1). For unknown reasons, caribou have been absent from the Seward Peninsula since the late nineteenth century (Bockstoce

24 1979:14; Burch 1998:270; MacDonald and Cook 2009:223; Murie 1935:64; Ray 1967:62), although recently they have begun to reoccupy the area (MacDonald and Cook 2009:224; Schneider et al. 2005:29). However, they were formerly numerous and an important prehistoric subsistence resource (Bockstoce 1979:14; Ray 1967:62). Additionally, muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) occurred throughout the Arctic coastal and foothill areas until the mid-1800s (MacDonald and Cook 2009:231; Reynolds 1998:734) and probably also resided on the Seward Peninsula (Burch 1998:293). Table 3.1: Modern land mammals of the Seward Peninsula.
Taxon Spermophilus parryii Castor canadensis Dicrostonyx groenlandicus Lemmus trimucronatus Microtus oeconomus Myodes rutilus Ondatra zibethicus Erethizon dorsatum Lepus americanus Lepus othus Sorex cinereus Sorex monticolus Sorex tundrensis Sorex yukonicus Lynx canadensis Canis lupus Vulpes lagopus Vulpes vulpes Ursus arctos Ursus maritimus Gulo gulo Lontra canadensis Martes americana Mustela erminea Mustela nivalis Neovison vison Alces americanus Rangifer tarandus Common Name Arctic Ground Squirrel Beaver Collared Lemming Brown Lemming Root Vole Red-backed Vole Muskrat Porcupine Snowshoe Hare Alaska or Tundra Hare Cinereus Shrew Dusky Shrew Tundra Shrew Alaska Tiny Shrew Lynx Wolf Arctic Fox Red Fox Brown Bear Polar Bear Wolverine River Otter Pine Marten Ermine Least Weasel Mink Moose Caribou

Source: MacDonald and Cook (2009).

25 MacDonald and Cook (2009) have also identified numerous mammals occurring in the waters around the Seward Peninsula (Table 3.2). Marine mammals traditionally important for subsistence included ringed seals, bearded seals, spotted seals, Stellers sea lions, and northern fur seals (Bockstoce 1979:13), as well as walruses, belugas, porpoises, and large whales (Oquilluk 1973:231). Although walrus are only occasionally seen today, the waters off Cape Nome supported an estimated population exceeding 200,000 before American whalers began to take walrus in the mid-nineteenth century (Foote 1964:18), and would have been a significant subsistence species in prehistoric times. Today, beluga whales are the most important regional cetacean species taken for subsistence purposes; however, oral traditions note that gray whales and bowhead whales were formerly hunted from Sledge Island (Bockstoce 1979:13). Table 3.2: Modern marine mammals of the Seward Peninsula.
Taxon Callorhinus ursinus Eumetopias jubatus Odobenus rosmarus Erignathus barbatus Histriophoca fasciata Phoca largha Pusa hispida Balaena mysticetus Eubalaena japonica Balaenoptera acutorostrata Balaenoptera musculus Balaenoptera physalus Megaptera novaeangliae Eschrichtius robustus Orcinus orca Delphinapterus leucas Phocoena phocoena Common Name Northern Fur Seal Stellers Sea Lion Walrus Bearded Seal Ribbon Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Bowhead Whale North Pacific Right Whale Common Minke Whale Blue Whale Fin Whale Humpback Whale Gray Whale Killer Whale Beluga Harbor Porpoise

Source: MacDonald and Cook (2009).

26 More than 200 species of birds also occupy the Seward Peninsula (Kessel 1989:59), the greatest numbers of which are found in wetland areas (Kessel 1989:31). Bird populations are greatest on the Seward Peninsula in the spring and fall during seasonal migrations (Bockstoce 1979:14; Table 3.3). Table 3.3: Most common birds of the Seward Peninsula, in descending order. Taxon Anas acuta Somateria spectabilis Clangula hyemalis Calidris pusilla Calidris mauri Phalaropus lobatus Larus hyperboreus Sterna paradisaea Uria aalge Aethia pusilla Aethia cristatella Catharus minimus Spizella arborea Passerculus sandwichensis Calcarius lapponicus Carduelis flammea Gavia stellata Chen caerulescens Branta bernicla Branta canadensis Aythya marila Somateria mollissima Grus canadensis Pluvialis dominica Limosa lapponica Calidris melanotos Calidris alpina Phalaropus fulicarius Stercorarius longicaudus Larus canus Source: Kessel (1989:42). Common Name Northern Pintail King Eider Long-tailed Duck Semipalmated Sandpiper Western Sandpiper Red-necked phalarope Glaucous Gull Arctic Tern Common Murre Least Auklet Crested Auklet Gray-cheeked Thrush American Tree Sparrow Savannah Sparrow Lapland Longspur Common Redpoll Red-throated Loon Snow Goose Brant Canada Goose Greater Scaup Common Eider Sandhill Crane American Golden-plover Bar-tailed Godwit Pectoral sandpiper Dunlin Red Phalarope Long-tailed Jaeger Mew Gull

27 Although some shorebird species were used for food (Bockstoce 1979:15; Oquilluk 1973:230, Ray 1975:116), most of the birds hunted for subsistence belong to the anatid (waterfowl), larid (gull), or alcid (auk) families. Loons, ptarmigan, pelagic cormorants, sandhill cranes, and snowy and short-eared owls were also hunted for food (Bockstoce 1979:15; Burch 1998:295; Oquilluk 1973:230; Ray 1975:116). Some of these popular subsistence birds commonly overwinter on the Seward Peninsula (Table 3.4). Table 3.4: Most common overwintering birds of the Seward Peninsula, in descending order. Taxon Somateria mollissima Somateria spectabilis Clangula hyemalis Falco rusticolus Falcipennis canadensis Lagopus lagopus Lagopus mutus Larus hyperboreus Pagophila eburnean Uria lomvia Cepphus grylle Bubo virginianus Bubo scandiacus Picoides pubescens Perisoreus canadensis Corvus corax Poecile atricapillus Poecile hudsonica Cinclus mexicanus Lanius excubitor Plectrophenax nivalis Plectrophenax hyperboreus Pinicola enucleator Source: Kessel (1989:57). Common Name Common Eider King Eider Long-tailed Duck Gyrfalcon Spruce Grouse Willow Ptarmigan Rock Ptarmigan Glaucous Gull Ivory Gull Thick-billed Murre Black Guillemot Great Horned Owl Snowy Owl Downy Woodpecker Gray Jay Common Raven Black-capped Chickadee Boreal Chickadee American Dipper Northern Shrike Snow Bunting McKays Bunting Pine Grosbeak

28 The Bering Sea is one of the most productive bodies of water in the world (Ackerman 1988:56). Fishes were an important subsistence resource across the Seward Peninsula (Ray 1975:114). Bockstoce (1979:16) identified numerous subsistence fish species and the season in which they were caught (Table 3.5). Marine invertebrates such as king crab (Lithodes sp.) and mollusks also played a significant subsistence role in the area around Nome (Bockstoce 1979:17). Table 3.5: Important subsistence fishes near Cape Nome and Safety Sound.
Season Taxon Summer Oncorhynchus keta Summer Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Summer Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Summer Oncorhynchus nerka Summer Oncorhynchus kisutch Summer Clupea pallasii Summer Platichthys stellatus Summer Salvelinus alpinus Summer Thymallus thymallus Summer Myoxocephalus spp. Summer Mallotus villosus Summer Thaleichthys pacificus Autumn/Winter Coregonus autumnalis Autumn/Winter Coregonus sardinella Autumn/Winter Coregonus pidschian Winter/Spring Eleginus gracilis Winter/Spring Myoxocephalus spp. Winter/Spring Lota lota Winter/Spring Esox lucius Winter/Spring Salvelinus alpines Year-round Arctogadus glacialis Year-round Osmerus mordax dentex Source: Bockstoce (1979:16). Common Name Chum Salmon Pink Salmon Chinook Salmon Sockeye Salmon Coho Salmon Pacific Herring Starry Flounder Arctic Char Grayling Sculpin Capelin Eulachan Arctic Cisco Least Cisco Humpback Cisco Saffron Cod Sculpin Burbot Northern Pike Arctic Char Arctic Cod Arctic Smelt

29 Cultural Environment Prehistory. Documented human settlement of the Seward Peninsula dates back about 10,000 years (Keene et al. 2009; Larsen 1968), shortly after rising sea levels inundated the Beringian land bridge. Stretching between Siberia and Alaska, Beringia is thought to have been the main corridor for human entrance into North America. The oldest well-dated archaeological sites in eastern Beringia are southeast of this region, in central Alaska, and date to 14,000 B.P. (Hoffecker and Elias 2007).
1

The following is a summary of the known prehistoric cultural patterns, identified primarily by different artifact types, which existed in northwest Alaska. This timeline provides an outline of human occupation in the area as currently understood by archaeologists (see Giddings and Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994). American Paleoarctic tradition, 13,000-9,000 BP. Artifact assemblages from the American Paleoarctic tradition included large polyhedral cores, prismatic blades, and small wedge-shaped cores, microblades, blade-like flakes, flake burins, trianguloid and ellipsoidal bifaces, and side-slotted bone or antler points into which blade-like flakes were mounted (Harritt 1994). Information about settlement patterns is scanty, but all recorded habitations occurred inland, often in river valleys (Anderson 1984:82). There are two sites dating to this time period on the Seward Peninsula: the Trail Creek Caves site (Larsen 1968; Vinson 1993) and the Serpentine Hot Springs Fluted Point site (Keene et al. 2009).
1

All radiocarbon dates cited in this thesis are listed as calibrated dates and are converted to calendar years before present (B.P.).

30 Northern Archaic tradition, 6,000-3,000 BP. Distinctive artifacts of the Northern Archaic tradition include asymmetrical projectile points with deep, wide sidenotches and convex bases; large unifacially-flaked knives; unifacially-flaked endscrapers; and, after about 4,500 years ago, stemmed projectile points (Esdale 2008; Harritt 1994). Typical dwellings were characterized by semisubterranean house floors and stone-lined tent rings; both probably reflected skin-covered tents with willow frames and unlined central hearths (Anderson 1984). Although there are currently no sites recorded for this period on the Seward Peninsula, Esdale (2008:10) has noted numerous potential sites. Arctic Small Tool tradition, 4,200-1,000 BP. The Arctic Small Tool tradition is composed of four sequential cultures, which may or may not be related. They are the Denbigh Flint Complex, the Choris culture, the Norton-Near Ipiutak culture, and the Ipiutak culture. These cultures provided the oldest-known coastal settlements in northwestern Alaska. Denbigh Flint Complex. The Denbigh Flint Complex existed between 4,200 and 3,500 years ago (Giddings 1950). The artifact assemblage included burins, flaked stone projectile points, side-blade insets, and end-blade insets (Harritt 1994). Dwellings were shallow, semisubterranean sod houses with short entrance tunnels. House floors were either square or round, and had large, stone-lined central hearths. Stone-lined, skincovered tents were also used seasonally (Anderson 1984). Archaeological sites on the Seward Peninsula with Denbigh Flint complex components included Cape Espenberg, Trail Creek Caves, Kuzitrin Lake, and Agulaak Island.

31 Choris culture. The Choris culture, first defined by Giddings (1957), lasted from approximately 2,700 to 2,400 years ago (Mason 2010:74). Artifact assemblages from Choris sites included pottery, burins, flaked-stone projectile points, side-blade insets, end-blade insets, and in the later period, ground slate tools (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010). Dwellings were large, semisubterranean sod houses. House floors were oval with stonelined and stone-paved central hearths. Circular tents were also used seasonally (Anderson 1984). Sites dating to this period are on the Seward Peninsula at Cape Espenberg, Trail Creek Caves, and Agulaak Island. Norton-Near Ipiutak culture. The Norton-Near Ipiutak culture is a combination of two regional phases (Giddings and Anderson 1986; Larsen and Rainey 1948) that lasted from 2,400 to 1,300 years ago (Mason 2010:74). Recently, the Near Ipiutak culture has been subsumed completely into the Norton culture (Mason 2010). Artifact assemblages include slab knives, fiber-tempered pottery, toggling harpoons, ground slate tools, side-blade insets, end-blade insets, stone netsinkers, and oil lamps (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010). Dwellings varied, depending on region, between large semisubterranean sod houses with long entrance tunnels and small semisubterranean sod houses with short entrance tunnels. House floors varied between square and round in shape, usually with central hearths (Anderson 1984). Sites with Norton or Near Ipiutak components on the Seward Peninsula are at Trail Creek Caves, Kugzruk Island, Ikpek, Cape Espenberg, Agulaak, Cape Nome, and Gungnuk.

32 Ipiutak culture. The Ipiutak culture was first defined by Larsen and Rainey (1948). It lasted from approximately 1,800 to 1,100 years ago (Mason 2010:75). The artifact assemblage is similar to the Norton-Near Ipiutak assemblage except for its lack of pottery, ground slate tools, or oil lamps. Additional common artifacts include birch-bark containers, open-work carvings, and tools decorated with incised line patterns (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010). Dwellings were square to round semisubterranean sod houses with short entrance tunnels (Anderson 1984). Seward Peninsula sites with Ipiutak components, both coastal and inland, are at Trail Creek Caves, Cape Espenberg, and Deering. Northern Maritime tradition, 1,500-150 BP. The Northern Maritime tradition, originally defined by Collins (1964), is composed of three related cultures: the Punuk, Birnirk, and Western Thule cultures. The details of this tradition are not well understood; Jensen (2009:78) has called for a better consensus on what cultural labels in the tradition actually mean. Punuk. The Punuk culture, identified by Collins in the 1920s and 1930s on St. Lawrence Island, dates between approximately 1,100 and 700 years ago (Mason 2010:77). Punuk artifact assemblages include pottery, oil lamps, atlatl counter weights, ground-slate harpoon end-blades, bola weights, drum handles, and bow guards. Dwellings had slab stone floors and used whalebone for house supports (Mason 2010). Only Kurigitavik Mound in Wales on the Seward Peninsula has positively identified Punuk components (Harritt 1994:247).

33 Birnirk. The Birnirk culture, first defined by Mathiassen (1930), was a coastal culture that existed from approximately 1,300 to 700 years ago (Mason 2010:78). Birnirk artifact assemblages include flaked end-blade and side-blade insets, flaked semilunar knife blades, burin-like tools, ground-slate ulus, open socket harpoon heads, ground slate harpoon end-blades, and sand/gravel-tempered pottery (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010). Dwellings were small semisubterranean sod houses with long entrance tunnels. Houses were square and occasionally had small kitchens attached to the main room. Skin tents were also used seasonally (Anderson 1984). Archaeological sites at Cape Nome and Cape Prince of Wales, and the Birnirk Burial Mound in Wales (before it eroded away) have Birnirk components. Western Thule. Although hotly debated by archaeologists, the Western Thule culture occurred from 1,000 to 150 years ago or the time of Euroamerican contact. The term Thule refers to a cultural pattern recognizable from Alaska to Greenland. The Thule culture was first defined by Therkel Mathiassen (1927) in his report on the archaeology of the Central Eskimos based on data collected during the Fifth Thule Expedition across Canada. Mathiassen (1927), noting the Asian traits of some of the artifacts and the apparent importance of whaling, suggested that its origins would be found in Alaska. The term Western Thule was first used by Larsen and Rainey to describe one of the cultures they identified during their excavations at Point Hope between 1939 and 1941 (Bockstoce 1979; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Larsen and Rainey 1948). The

34 first Western Thule material, however, was identified at Kurigitavik Mound in Wales by Jenness in 1926 and labeled as Alaskan Thule types (Jenness 1928; Morrison 1991). Since its identification in Alaska, the chronology of the Western Thule culture has been debated by numerous authors. Most archaeologists agree that the Western Thule culture first appeared around 1,000 years ago (Anderson 1984; Bockstoce 1979; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994; Harry et al. 2009; Mason 2010). Although the exact origin of Western Thule is unknown, its beginnings have recently been suggested to date to as early as 1500 B.P. (Park 2010). Consensus on its origin is more firm, however, than on what happened after its initial development. Western Thule culture has been defined as being supplanted by descendant cultures anywhere from around A.D. 1500 (Bockstoce 1979; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Park 2010) to A.D. 1700 (Mason 2010) or even A.D. 1900 (Arutiunov and Fitzhugh 1988). Giddings and Anderson (1986) suggested that the Western Thule phase ends around 550 years ago, when the archaeological assemblages from Cape Krusenstern demonstrate a decline in whaling and a decline in settlement complexity. They described this ensuing cultural pattern, which appears like the Western Thule except for the decline in whaling and settlement size, as the Kotzebue Period. The Kotzebue period lasts until the historic period (Giddings and Anderson 1986). Both Bockstoce (1979) and Anderson (1984) believed that shortly after the initial development of Western Thule the culture developed into regionally specific phases, such as the Cape Nome Phase at Cape Nome (Bockstoce 1979) and the Nukleet Culture at

35 Cape Denbigh (Giddings 1964). Stanford (1976) and Morrison (1991) disregarded these regional phases, and instead loosely divided the Western Thule culture into Early and Late periods, ending with the historic period. Harritt (1994) embraced the idea of regional patterns and developed a cultural sequence for the Seward Peninsula based primarily on data from excavations in the Bering Land Bridge National Park along the southern shore of Kotzebue Sound. He labeled the regional Thule culture, identified by Stanford (1976) and Morrison (1991) as Late Western Thule, as the Imuruk Period (Harritt 1994:277), based on distinct subsistence patterns (Harritt 1994:270). Within the Imuruk period are the Wales Phase and the Espenberg Phase (Harritt 1994:277-279). The Wales phase belongs to the Seward Marine tradition, which corresponds to Rays (1964) whaling pattern of subsistence, while the Espenberg phase belongs to the Seward Strand tradition, which corresponds with her small sea mammal pattern of subsistence (Harritt 1994:278-279). Although they do not always agree on the specific sequence and chronology of the Western Thule culture, most archaeologists do agree on the types of cultural material that characterize it. Of the more than 150 artifact types specified by Mathiassen (1927) as characteristic of the Thule culture in Canada, most also apply to Western Thule culture (Mathiassen 1930). These include, but are not limited to, sand/gravel-tempered pottery, thin open-socket harpoons, large whaling harpoons, umiaks, kayaks, ground slate tools, baleen wolf-killers, decorated needle-cases, seal scratchers, leisters, netsinkers, fish lures, and carved ivory figurines. Settlements occurred both coastally and inland, with

36 deep semisubterranean sod houses with long entrance tunnels. House floors included both single-room and multiple-room plans, often with central hearths. Skin tents were also used seasonally. Overall, the Western Thule culture involved a rich, complex pattern of living focused on sea mammal subsistence but included technology for hunting land mammals and birds (Anderson 1984; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994; Mason 2010; Mathiassen 1927). A less contentious term often equated with the later Western Thule culture is late prehistoric. This phrase refers to sites belonging to the immediate forbearers of the Iupiaq people, usually dating to between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries A.D. (Anderson 1984). The term protohistoric is sometimes used to refer to sites dating to the time between the late prehistoric and historic periods, when western trade goods were becoming common in the artifact assemblages but actual contact with Russians and Euroamericans was rare, or had not occurred locally. Historic Period. The exact start of the historic period in northwestern Alaska is debated. Some equate its beginning with the year 1778, when Captain James Cook landed on the northern Alaska mainland (Anderson 1984); others point to 1789, the year the Russians opened the Anyui Market on the Kolyma River in Siberia (Morrison 1991). In any case, the late eighteenth century signifies the burgeoning of the trade of Euroamerican goods to the Alaska Native peoples in northwest Alaska, although trade items such as tobacco and guns were still rare until the mid-nineteenth century, when New England whalers frequented the coast (Anderson 1984; Morrison 1991). By the end

37 of the nineteenth century, western traders, prospectors and missionaries frequented northwest Alaska year-round, and western trade goods were commonly used by Alaska Native peoples (Anderson 1984). Previous Archaeological Research. The Seward Peninsula has 454 recorded sites (excluding traditional cultural places) with prehistoric or protohistoric components (AHRS 2011). Diamond Jenness undertook the first archaeological investigation on the Seward Peninsula in 1926. Jenness (1928) identified and explored some of the large, ancient village sites visible around the modern communities of Wales and Teller. Ale Hrdlika (1930) surveyed along parts of the Norton Sound coast in 1926. In 1928 and 1929, Henry Collins (1929, 1930) surveyed the coast around Norton Sound and up around the Bering Sea coast to Shishmaref, identifying and testing many important sites. In 1936, Collins (1940) excavated sites at Cape Prince of Wales. In the 1940s, Louis Giddings, Wendell Oswalt, Froehlich Rainey, and David Hopkins undertook archaeological surveys and excavations on the Seward Peninsula (Giddings 1964). Some, such as Helge Larsen, identified and excavated significant sites like the Ipiutak ceremonial house in Deering (Larsen 1951). These individuals were also involved, along with Gerald Henderson and James VanStone, with the Bering Strait Expedition of 1950, the first large scale, collaborative archaeological investigation in the Seward Peninsula region (Giddings 1964). In 1958, Giddings surveyed Cape Espenberg, and in 1959 he continued Collins investigation of the Cape Prince of Wales area (Giddings 1967). Larsen (1968) excavated the inland Trail Creek caves in 1961.

38 Archaeological work continued steadily after that, with surges in the 1970s and 1980s, due in large part to federal requirements under the National Historic Preservation Act, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act, and the creation of the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve in 1980, which prompted two of the largest surveys on the Seward Peninsula in 1974 (Powers et al. 1982) and 1985 (Schaaf 1988, 1995). Most recently, excavations have been conducted in Wales (Harritt 2004, 2010), Deering (Bowers 2009), Serpentine Hot Springs (Keene et al. 2009), and Cape Espenberg (Foin et al. 2011; Mason and Alix 2012). Previous archaeological research in the general Nome vicinity includes Hrdlikas (1930:90) brief survey of Safety Sound in 1926; and limited excavations around Cape Nome and Safety Sound in 1950 by Rainey, in 1951 by Hopkins, in 1960 by Frederick Hadleigh-West (Bockstoce and Rainey 1970:42-43), and in 1969 by Joan Townsend (Townsend 1969:4-5) and John Bockstoce (Bockstoce 1979:24). More thorough excavations at Cape Nome and Safety Sound were conducted by Bockstoce between 1970 and 1974 (Bockstoce 1979:27-29), and at Safety Sound by Howard Smith in 1977 (Smith 1985:2). Archaeological research on the Seward Peninsula has identified numerous Western Thule sites and site components. These include, but are not limited to, the Cape Nome Beach sites and the Ayasayuk site near Nome (Bockstoce 1979); the Nuk site at Safety Sound (Smith 1985); the Mitletavik site at Lopp Lagoon (Collins 1929; Harritt

39 1994); the Gungnuk site at Cape Darby (Giddings 1964); the Deering Archaeological District (Bowers 2006, 2009); the Beach, Hillside and Kurigitavik Mound sites at Wales (Collins 1937; Harritt 2004); the Uqshoyak site at Tin City (ENRI 2003; Harritt 2004); the Cloud Lake Village near the headwaters of the Inmachuk River (Powers et al. 1982); the Kitluk River site at the mouth of the Kitluk River west of Cape Espenberg (Saleeby and Demma 2001); and 58 settlements (not including seasonal camps or lithic scatters) identified in the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve (Harritt 1994). Summary The Seward Peninsula is a diverse ecoregion of northwest Alaska supporting numerous flora and fauna. Archaeological research has been conducted on the Seward Peninsula since the 1920s. Currently, the Alaska Heritage Resources Survey lists over 400 archaeological sites with prehistoric and/or protohistoric components on the peninsula. One of these sites is the Snake River Sandspit site, in the city of Nome on the southern coast of the peninsula. The documented prehistory of the Seward Peninsula dates back 10,000 years. American Paleoarctic, Northern Archaic, Arctic Small Tool, and Northern Maritime traditions have been identified on the peninsula. The Snake River Sandspit site is one of many sites on the peninsula which belong to the Western Thule culture, part of the Northern Maritime tradition.

40 Chapter Four: Snake River Sandspit Site Background The Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146) was discovered during construction of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Nome Navigation Improvements Project. The project began in 1996, when it was determined that the City of Nome was inadequately served by its harbor, constructed between 1917 and 1923. In 1998, the Alaska State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) agreed with USACEs determination that there were no historic properties in the area affected by construction of harbor improvements. However, USACE supplied archaeological monitors during construction in 2005 and 2006 (Cassell et al. 2007; Pipkin 2005), and three features and associated materials representing an unknown, post-review archaeological site were identified. Field Methods Acting as a subcontractor for USACE, Mark Pipkin (2005) initially identified House A, a partial semisubterranean house, during archaeological monitoring of construction in May 2005. The profile of House A was measured and photographed. Pipkin selectively collected 53 diagnostic artifacts from the house fill, but no faunal remains. One charcoal sample was collected from the floor of the house for radiocarbon dating. Once USACE and the SHPO were apprised of the discovery, the State designation NOM-00146 (NOM-146) was applied to the site. In late July 2006, while monitoring construction work at the site, USACE District Archaeologist Margan Grover (2006) identified a scatter of prehistoric artifacts and animal bones in a darkly-colored stain uncovered by a bulldozer pass. Construction

41 was halted, and Grover tested the area with shovel-skimming and troweling, identifying a distinct 2 x 3 m stain in the sand matrix along with potsherds and seal and bird bones. The site was flagged, and the City of Nome, the SHPO, and the Nome Eskimo Community were notified of the discovery of a new feature of NOM-146. An initial 50 x 50 cm test pit was excavated with shovel and trowel (Test Pit 1), and the area was more thoroughly shovel-skimmed to define site boundaries. A second 50 cm x 50 cm test pit (Test Pit 2) was excavated to the south of the first test with shovel and trowel. In addition to animal bone, Test Pit 2 yielded burned wood and a vertical wooden post. Further delineation of site boundaries took place with a backhoe. The sand matrix around the feature was then excavated with the backhoe to a depth of approximately 1 m, revealing a partial semisubterranean house. The excavation of this new feature, House B, followed its delineation. Excavation involved USACE archaeologists Margan Grover and Helen Lindemuth and volunteers Karlin Itchoak, Al Sahlin, and Boogles Johnson of the Nome Eskimo Community. Using the southeast corner of the pedestal for the datum point, arbitrary sections were delineated every 20 cm along the top of the feature, running north to south. Six 6 m-long sections and one partial section were excavated with shovels and trowels. All excavated sand was dry-sifted through a 6.34 mm (-inch) screen. Subsequently, a second dark stain with scattered faunal remains and prehistoric artifacts was identified while monitoring construction about 15 m north of House B. Three 50 x 50 cm test pits were excavated. Faunal remains and artifacts were recovered

42 only from Test Pit A. The surrounding overburden was then carefully removed with a bulldozer. The cultural layer was thin and, due to lack of structural wood materials, was identified as a midden. All visible material was excavated, and multiple test pits were dug to determine the edges of the midden. A datum point was selected, and a 1 x 1 m grid was established to excavate the feature. Mark Cassell was subcontracted by USACE to continue archaeological monitoring while the midden was excavated (Cassell et al. 2007). Excavation occurred with the assistance of multiple USACE archaeologists, biologists, and chemists, Cassell, and volunteers from Nome Eskimo Community, the City of Nome, and Kawerak, Inc. The site was initially divided into Layers 1 and 2, separated by a deposit of wood and vegetative debris. As excavation progressed, the layer of vegetative debris disappeared, and no additional layers were identified. In most areas of the site, the cultural layer was at or below the water line. Excavation occurred during low tide, as most of the units became flooded at high tide. The elevation below ground surface of all unit corners was noted insofar as possible. In all, 75 m2 yielded cultural material. Approximately 80 m2 were excavated with shovels and trowels and dry-sifted through a 6.34 mm (-inch) screen. Excavation was completed by the end of August 2006. Site Description The Snake River Sandspit archaeological site consists of a semisubterranean house discovered in 2005 (House A), and a semisubterranean house (House B) and

43 midden discovered in 2006. All three features were more than 5 m below the surface of the Snake River Sandspit, buried in a sandy matrix. House A. House A was approximately 6 m wide and 1 m deep (Figure 4.1). A single vertical post about 1.2 m long and 0.15 m in diameter was at the east end of the house. Several prehistoric artifacts and faunal remains were observed in the house fill, including seal bones, bird bones, potsherds, an ivory wedge, an antler point, and a drilled rib. Fifty-three artifacts were selectively collected from the house fill, and a charcoal sample was collected from the house floor for radiocarbon dating. Pipkin (2005:20) estimated that only one-third of the feature was intact at the time of its discovery.

Figure 4.1: Profile of House A, NOM-146(a). From Pipkin (2005:15). House B. House B was approximately 6 m long, 1 m deep, and between 1.5 and 2.5 m wide (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Fourteen vertical posts were spread throughout the feature. Deteriorated wooden floor boards and other wooden structural elements were identified. A total of 456 artifacts and 3,752 faunal remains (not including mollusks)

44 were recovered from inside the feature. Four bulk samples, four charcoal samples, one peat sample, and one vegetation sample were also collected.

Figure 4.2: Plan view of House B, NOM-146(b). From Eldridge (2012).

45

Figure 4.3: Photograph of House Bs west profile. Adapted from Grover (2007). Midden. The midden deposit, consisting of a thin layer of organic material, wood debris, faunal remains, and artifacts, was approximately 15 m north of House B (Figure 4.4). Within the midden, a small accumulation of unbroken hunting weapons, including an intact atlatl, was found near a large whale humerus and vertebra. The humerus appeared to have been purposefully outlined with smooth, multi-colored beach pebbles, perhaps marking the existence of the hunters cache. A total of 639 artifacts and 4,828 faunal remains (excluding mollusks) were recovered from the midden. Nine peat samples and one wood sample were also collected.

46

Figure 4.4: Plan view of the midden, NOM-146(c). From Eldridge (2012).

47 Radiocarbon Dating Radiocarbon ages were obtained from four carbon samples collected from NOM146; the radiocarbon dates were calibrated with the Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration and Paleoclimate Research Package (CalPal 2011). One charcoal sample from the floor of House A produced a date of cal A.D. 1675126 (24060 B.P.; Beta-206697). A charcoal sample from the hearth feature of House B produced a date of cal A.D. 1810101 (13040 B.P.; Beta-222485). Charcoal collected from the floor of House B produced a date of cal A.D. 1813102 (11050 B.P.; Beta-222486). Finally, peat from the cache feature within the midden produced a calibrated date of cal A.D. 1662122 (25050 B.P.; Beta-222487). All four dates overlap over a period of 73 years, between AD 1711 and AD 1784 (Figure 4.5).
2000 1950 1900 1850 1800 1750 1700 1650 1600 1550 1500 1450 1400 House A House B House B NOM-146 Carbon Samples Midden

Figure 4.5: Calendrical date ranges of radiocarbon samples from NOM-146. From left to right, error bars represent 126 years, 101 years, 102 years, and 122 years. From Eldridge (2012).

Calendrical Years AD

48 Overview of Artifact Assemblage The site produced 1,148 artifacts (Table 4.1). Approximately one-quarter of the artifacts were not analyzed (n=268, 23.3%), consisting of 13 artifacts from House B (2.9% of the feature) and 255 artifacts from the midden (39.9% of the feature). Based on material type, at least 12 of the 13 unexamined artifacts from House B and 219 of the 255 unexamined artifacts from the midden were from a historic context. These historic artifacts are probably not associated with the intact cultural layers of House B and the midden. They may have been mixed with the prehistoric site during the excavation. Table 4.1: Number of artifacts from NOM-146. House A 53 Recovered: 0 Unexamined: 53 Analyzed: Source: Eldridge (2012) House B 456 13 439 Midden 639 255 381 Total 1,148 268 873

Seven examined artifacts (four from House B and three from the midden) are historic, including a cut nail, three unidentified metal fragments, two shards of worn brown glass, and a thin button made from mother-of-pearl. The button, however, with hand-drilled central holes, may be a pre- or protohistoric trade good. These artifacts may have been mixed with the prehistoric site during excavation or historic use and were not included in the analysis. The analyzed artifacts were separated into functional classes based on the generally understood use of each artifact. These classifications include: personal adornment and ceremonial use, which includes all decorative items, carved figurines, and

49 items possibly used in ceremonies; warfare, which encompasses objects used solely during raiding or warfare (Table 4.2); household equipment, which includes items used on a daily basis by all members of the household, often, though not always, inside the house itself; tools, items used to make things, cut things, or obtain plants; transportation, which includes items such as sled pieces or kayak parts (Table 4.3); fishing equipment, which includes items used for catching fish; hunting equipment (marine) are items used to obtain sea mammals; hunting equipment (terrestrial) are objects used to obtain land mammals and birds (Table 4.4); manufacturing, which are all scraps, preforms and debitage (only two of which were stone); and unidentified are objects of unknown function (Table 4.5). Table 4.2: Personal adornment, ceremonial and warfare artifacts from NOM-146. Artifacts Personal Adornment/ Ceremonial Object: Blue Bead Perforated Tooth Labret Bird Figurine Whale Figurine Seal Figurine Human Figurine (ivory) Human Figurine (wood) Needle Case Pendant Drum Handle Total: Warfare: Armor Slate Total: Source: Eldridge (2012) House A House B Midden

0 0

1 3 2 1 1 1 1 10 1 1

1 1 1 3 0

50 Table 4.3: Household equipment, tools, and transportation artifacts from NOM-146. Artifacts Household Equipment: Potsherd Pottery Vessel Boiling Stone Ice-scoop Rim Stone Lamp Bucket Handle Spoon Snowbeater Snow Shovel Total: Tools: Bow Drill Insert (stone) Drill Tool Ground-slate Ulu Ground-slate Blade/Ulu Chipped-stone Blade Hammerstone Rootpick Hide Scraper Awl Bodkin Needle Needle Case Thimble Holder Tool Handle Adze Head Wedge Whetstone Total: Transportation: Sled Piece Kayak Cleat Umiak Cross-brace Total: Source: Eldridge (2012) House A 49 1 50 1 1 0 House B 223 2 3 1 2 1 1 233 1 3 2 7 1 2 4 6 1 1 2 1 5 1 6 12 55 7 1 8 Midden 214 1 1 3 1 220 4 2 1 1 1 4 4 1 18 10 1 11

51 Table 4.4: Fishing and hunting artifacts from NOM-146. Artifacts Fishing Equipment: Net-sinker (stone) Net-sinker (organic) Net-float (wood) Net Gauge Marlinspike Fishing Lure Fishing Weight Compound Fish Hook Fish Spearpoint Total: Hunting Equipment (Marine): Toggling Harpoon Head Harpoon Foreshaft Harpoon Socketpiece Ground-slate End-blade Atlatl (wood) Atlatl nock pin Seal Net-sinker Total: Hunting Equipment (Terrestrial): Bow Cable Stop Arrow/Spearpoint Bird Blunt Arrow/Spear Socketpiece Bola Weight Gorget Total: Source: Eldridge (2012) House A 1 1 House B 26 3 1 2 1 33 Midden 7 1 1 2 1 1 13

1 1 2

5 1 1 1 1 1 10

1 9 1 1 12

11 1 1 9 22

52 Table 4.5: Manufacturing and unidentified artifacts from NOM-146. Artifacts Manufacturing: Scrap Preform Debitage Total: Unidentified: Total: Source: Eldridge (2012) House A 1 1 0 House B 11 23 13 47 24 Midden 17 21 25 63 17

Implications of Artifact Assemblage Late Western Thule culture. As discussed in Chapter Three, Western Thule culture is defined here as occurring between A.D. 950 and 1800. The composition of the artifact assemblage from NOM-146, including harpoon heads, fixed projectile points, fishing equipment, pottery, and decorative or ceremonial objects, is indicative of Late Western Thule culture. Of the six harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146, five have closed sockets. All sealing harpoon heads dating from the late fifteenth to the early nineteenth century recovered from Cape Krusenstern and the Choris Peninsula had closed sockets (Giddings and Anderson 1986). Some of those closed-socketed heads also had bifurcated spurs, similar to a few harpoon heads collected by Nelson (1899) and some excavated by Ford (1959) in the Barrow area (Giddings and Anderson 1986:56). Barbed harpoon heads with closed sockets, such as those described by Giddings (1964:38) from Nukleet and the Intermediate Kotzebue Period (1952, Pl. XXXVIII:4) are thought to be characteristic of late prehistoric western Alaska (Giddings 1964:38). The Nuwuk type of harpoon head,

53 identified by its closed socket, occasionally bifurcated dorsal spur, small, round line holes with a groove for the line extending dorsally, and an end-blade slot parallel to the line hole (Ford 1959:93; Stanford 1976:22), were found in both the early and late Thule levels at Walakpa (Stanford 1976:102), Old Kotzebue period sites around Kotzebue (Giddings 1952; VanStone 1955), and late prehistoric sites at Point Barrow (McGhee 1974:45). Two of the closed-socket harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146 have bilateral barbs, line holes parallel to the plane of the point and barbs, and bifurcated dorsal spurs. They display a mixture of characteristics from heads collected historically from Point Barrow by P. H. Ray (Mason 1902), excavated from Nukleet and Kotzebue by Giddings (1952, 1964), and excavated from Point Barrow by Ford (1959). The third harpoon head from NOM-146 fits nicely into the Nuwuk type; it has a closed socket, a small round line hole with a groove extending dorsally, an end-blade slot parallel to the line hole (complete with triangular ground-slate end-blade), and incised decoration including a Yshape over the line hole. The fourth and fifth harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146 represent previously undocumented variations. Both have closed sockets, but one is selfbladed perpendicular to the line hole (Figure 4.6), and the other, which is small (only 3.46 cm long), has an end-blade slot perpendicular to the line hole and thin channeling carved along the sides (Figure 4.7).

54

Figure 4.6: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00293]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Figure 4.7: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00671]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012). The sixth harpoon head recovered from NOM-146 has an end-blade slot parallel to the line hole, but its line hole is large and round, and it has a sliced socket, similar to a closed socket except for a small, narrow opening on one side (Figure 4.8). A harpoon recovered from a house on Cape Krusenstern, dating between A.D. 1300 and 1400, also has a sliced socket (Giddings and Anderson 1986:61). This sliced form of socket commonly occurs around the Bering Strait from late prehistoric to historic times (Morrison 1991:33). None of the harpoon heads have the rivet-holes for end-blades commonly seen toward the end of the late prehistoric period or the historic period, and only one of them have the large, gouged line hole common to those times (Morrison 1991:33).

55

Figure 4.8: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00088]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012). Five of the fixed organic points (used with either arrows or spears) from NOM146 belong to the Late Thule or Thule-like type of pile (Morrison 1991:20). They all display one unilateral barb, square shoulders, and a conical tang. Another, fragmentary point has a single unilateral barb, and can probably be included with the other five. This type of projectile point has been identified from late prehistoric levels at Kurigitavik Mound (Collins 1940), around Point Barrow (Stanford 1976), and at Cape Prince of Wales (Morrison 1991). Twelve of the fixed organic points recovered from NOM-146 had multiple small barbs, either unilaterally or bilaterally placed. These are most likely prongs for fish leisters, a common Western Thule artifact type (Mathiassen 1930:94; Ford 1959:149). Thirty-seven netsinkers for fish nets came from NOM-146. Although netsinkers are found in most Thule sites, they seem to be more prolific in sites after AD 1400 (Giddings and Anderson 1986:113). A single fish-shaped ivory lure was also found at NOM-146 (Figure 4.9). This type of lure or line sinker is common in late prehistoric sites around the Bering Strait area (Morrison 1991:24) and was used into the historic period (Nelson 1983 [1899]).

56

Figure 4.9: Ivory Fishing Lure from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00303]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012). Like all Western Thule pottery, the pottery recovered from NOM-146 was variously tempered with organic and inorganic materials (Harry et al.2009:292). Most of the potsherds were tempered with mixtures of sand and gravel, though some appear to have grass incorporated in addition to the sand mixture. Although most of the pottery recovered from the site was plain, a small number of specimens were striated ware and some had pie-crust rims (Margan Grover, personal communication 2012; Figure 4.10). Anderson et al. (2011) identified four common decorative styles around the Seward Peninsula: linear stamp, check stamp, curvilinear stamp, and striated. The single unbroken pottery vessel from NOM-146 (Figure 4.11) is approximately 7 cm high and 6 cm in diameter, or slightly smaller than the average coastal Western Thule cooking pot (Harry et al. 2009:294).

57

Figure 4.10: Striated potsherd with pie-crust rim from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00378].

Figure 4.11: Pottery vessel from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00304].

58 Half a light blue glass bead was found in situ at NOM-146. This type of bead, a Euroamerican trade item, might be expected in sites as early as ca. AD 1650 (Morrison 1991:104), and is often found at late prehistoric sites in northwestern Alaska (Powers et al. 1982:181). Amulets and perforated teeth are also common in Western Thule sites (Mathiassen 1930:94); three perforated teeth (two caribou, one pinniped) were found at NOM-146. Carvings of zoomorphic figurines are often found in late prehistoric sites (Morrison 1991:45). Three zoomorphic figurines (seal, ptarmigan, and beluga) were recovered from NOM-146 (Figure 4.12), as were two human figurines. One of the human figurines, carved from ivory, has a realistic facial expression and arms with defined fingers (Figure 4.13 ). Human figurines carved with realistic facial expressions and arms are characteristic of the Thule period (Fitzhugh et al. 2009:113; Morrison 1991). Common decorative patterns found throughout the late prehistoric and earlier periods include incised lines and the circle-and-dot motif (Giddings 1964:117; Mathiassen 1930:95). An ivory kayak cleat recovered from NOM-146 has six circle-dots carved into it.

59

Figure 4.12: Seal figurine from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00310], 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Figure 4.13: Ivory Human Figurine from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00022]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

60 Artifacts associated with dog traction and archery are common in Thule culture sites of all ages, as are ground-slate ulus (Giddings and Anderson 1986; Mathiassen 1930; Sheppard 1986). Two marlinspikes and one bow cable stop were found at NOM146. Numerous fragments of sled shoes and sled arches were also found, indicating the use of dog traction. And at least two ground-slate ulus were recovered from the site. Many more artifacts identified by Mathiassen (1930:93-95) as belonging to the Western Thule culture, such as snow shovels, snowbeaters, atlatls, and spoons, were also recovered from NOM-146. Moreover, no tobacco paraphernalia were found at the site, corroborating a late precontact occupation (Morrison 1991:105). Season of Site Occupation. One of the most common indirect methods for determining season of site occupation is examining the season of artifact use (Monks 1981:218; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:103). The composition of the artifact assemblage from NOM-146 includes equipment used during both times of ice and snow and ice-free months, indicating that people inhabited the site at various times throughout the year, if not year-round. Snow- and ice-related artifacts from NOM-146 include multiple ice-scoop rim fragments, a broken snow shovel, a snowbeater, and sled pieces. Additionally, artifacts associated with hunting or fishing that usually occurs during the winter, such as the fish-shaped line sinker which was probably used for jigging for tomcod and sculpin through the sea ice, corroborate a winter presence (Bockstoce 1979:92; Morrison 1991:57; Nelson 1899:175).

61 Artifacts used during the summer and autumn months recovered from NOM-146 include multiple root picks (used to dig up edible plants) and items associated with the kayak or open-water style of hunting, such as the atlatl, the loose harpoon foreshaft, and the large, heavy harpoon socketpiece. Additionally, equipment used to hunt migratory birds, such as the bird blunt arrowhead, the bola weight, and the multiple gorgets (commonly used for seagulls), could have been used at any time between the birds arrival in spring and their departure in autumn. The multiple netsinkers and net gauges also indicate occupation during the predominantly ice-free months (Bockstoce 1977:50; Nelson 1899:186). Summary Two partial house features and a midden identified as the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146) were discovered in 2005 and 2006 during construction of improvements to the Nome Harbor. In 2006, a house feature (House B) and the midden were excavated with the help of numerous volunteers. The remains of House A and House B were roughly the same size and contained artifacts, faunal remains, and structural wood including vertical posts. The midden, north of House B, contained artifacts, faunal remains, and wood. Four radiocarbon dates are used to suggest that the site was occupied around A.D. 1750. Most of the artifacts recovered from NOM-146 artifacts were analyzed, just over half of which came from House B. Artifacts were divided into nine functional classification groups: household equipment, fishing equipment, marine hunting

62 equipment, terrestrial hunting equipment, tools, transportation, warfare, personal adornment/ceremonial objects, and manufacturing. Artifact types fit with other late Western Thule assemblages; no Euroamerican goods were identified. Based on the seasonal functions of the artifacts, it appears that the site was occupied throughout the year.

63 Chapter Five: Snake River Sandspit Site Methods Laboratory Methods In 2006, all recovered materials from the second semisubterranean house and the midden were shipped to Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska, and inventoried. The faunal remains, specifically, were organized by provenience, counted, and placed in plastic bags. In 2007, all materials were shipped to the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum in Nome, Alaska. In 2009, most of the faunal remains from NOM-146 stored at the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum were shipped to the University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA) for analysis, which took place between 2009 and 2011. 2 Faunal specimens were separated into individual skeletal elements, and most were placed into individually-labeled airtight, plastic bags. 3 The only deviation from this occurred with rib elements that lacked a proximal end (head) and some small fish and bird bone fragments. Those specimens were organized by provenience and were placed together by lots into similar bags. Data collected during analysis and entered into a Microsoft Excel database included the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum accession number and Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS) number; provenience information including the feature, unit or section of the site, area within the unit or section, and the stratigraphic level; biological information including taxon, skeletal element, side of body (i.e., left/right), portion of bone, and age of the animal; modification information
2 3

Analysis was facilitated by a Loan Agreement among the City of Nome, USACE, and UAA.

Sorting and data entry were assisted by Erika Malo, Staff Sergeant Eric Smith, Heather Smith, Department of the Army interns Jessequa Parker, Hillary Palmer, and Dominique Cordy, and Nick Riordan and Tom and Nancy Eldridge.

64 including the presence and location of butchering, gnawmarks, and degree of burning; and additional comments by the excavators and analyst. Taxonomic Classification. The faunal remains were initially sorted into the basic biological categories of invertebrate phylum (mollusks) and vertebrate classes (birds, mammals, and fishes) based on morphology. Specimens were then organized by skeletal element and then separated into taxon based upon morphology. Each specimen was analyzed with the use of comparative collections and osteological manuals (Bensley 1910; Cannon 1987; Cohen and Serjeantson 1996; Crockford 2009; Foster 1991; Gilbert 1990; Gilbert et al. 1996; Kasper 1980; McGowan and Bengston 1997; Olson 1996a, 1996b; Post nd; Schmid 1972; Smith 1979). Comparative specimens were from the UAA Laboratory of Anthropology, the Alaska Consortium of Zooarchaeologists, and the Museum of the North Departments of Ornithology and Mammalogy. The comparative collections available to me did not contain all the species found today on the Seward Peninsula. Few species in the collections were represented by more than one specimen, a limitation that raised some concerns about my ability to differentiate between inter- and intra-species variations. There are few published osteology manuals that depict Alaskan species. The scientific and common names for mammals during identification followed MacDonald and Cook (2009); bird names followed Armstrong (2010) (with anatid subfamilies and tribes following Livezey [1997]); and fish names followed Mecklenburg et al. (2002).

65 Quantification. Mammal, bird, and fish bone fragments were counted. Fragments of mollusk shells recovered from the site were not counted; instead, they were divided by provenience and identifiable type and were weighed using an Ohaus Dial-OGram balance with 0.01 g precision. The Number of Individual Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) were calculated for the vertebrate faunal assemblage. MNI was determined by counting the most common skeletal element for a taxon, while accounting for side of body, portion of bone, and degree of epiphyseal fusion. Small bone fragments (midshaft, proximal, or distal) were excluded from the count because of an inability to determine if such fragments came from the same specimen or represented separate specimens. Only complete specimens and fragmentary specimens representing approximately three-fourths of the element were included in calculation of the MNI. The only exception to this was when a small fragment was clearly representative of a separate specimen based on the degree of epiphyseal fusion. For example, a fragmentary specimen representing less than three-fourths of the element was included if it was the only example of a specific age category for that taxon, such as neonatal or juvenile. MNI was calculated both for the total site assemblage and for the separate house and midden assemblages. Ageing. The identified mammal taxa in the collection demonstrated a large range of age at death. Due to the restriction on destructive testing of the assemblage 4,

Destructive testing was not allowed by the Loan Agreement.

66 specimens were aged by identification of epiphyseal fusion, with the exception of tooth eruption in a single bear specimen. Appropriate published ageing sequences were available for hares (Lechleitner 1959; Tiemeier and Plenert 1964), cervids (Purdue 1983), small seals (Stor 2000, 2002), canids (Sumner-Smith 1966), and bears (Andrews and Turner 1992; Stiner 1998). An effort was made to distinguish between all other juvenile (unfused epiphyses/unerupted teeth) and adult specimens (fused epiphyses/worn teeth). Bone fragmentation was taken into account in age-at-death determinations; for example, if the proximal end of a phocid ulna was fused, but the distal end was absent, the specimen age was identified as unknown, as the distal end of the ulna fuses after the proximal end, and without knowing the distal fusion stage it is impossible to positively identify age-at-death (the specimen could be as old as a young adult or as young as a yearling). If distal and proximal ends of the specimen were missing or badly damaged, age-at-death was also identified as unknown. Following published literature (e.g., Popkin et al. 2012; Spiess 1979:93; Walker 1987:8), I recorded four stages of epiphyseal fusion: 1) unfused, 2) partially fused, 3) mostly fused, and 4) fused. In unfused specimens, epiphyses were completely detached from diaphyses. Epiphyses were attached to diaphyses in both the partially and mostly fused specimens, but the line of fusion was still completely visible or somewhat visible, respectively. The epiphyses of fused specimens were joined completely to the diaphysis and no line of fusion was visible. These data, taken together, were used to create the

67 following mammalian age classes: neonatal, yearling, juvenile, young adult, adult, and old adult. Season of Death. The two most common methods of interpreting season of site occupation with faunal remains are presence of taxa and markers of physiological events (Monks 1981). Using published life-history reconstructions of Alaska animals (e.g., Kessel 1989; Wynne 2007), I applied migratory data for the birds and sea mammals represented in the assemblage, and data about birth times for the neonatal mammals represented in the assemblage to calculate the season of death for many of the archaeofaunal specimens. Perthotaxic Analysis. The faunal remains from NOM-146 were examined for modification, including cut-marks, gnawmarks, burning, digestion, and breakage. Modification indicates how the animal was killed, butchered, and disposed (Reitz and Wing 2008:168-170). When present, the number, orientation, and location of cut-marks were noted. The number and location of gnawmarks were noted. The color and location of burning was noted. Evidence of digestion was also noted. The fragmentation of each specimen was recorded in terms of five categories: 1) proximal fragment present (diaphysis and distal end missing); 2) proximal end missing; 3) distal fragment present (diaphysis and proximal end missing); 4) distal end missing; and 5) mid-shaft fragment present (distal and proximal ends missing).

68 Summary All materials recovered from NOM-146 were inventoried between 2006 and 2007. Between 2009 and 2011, most (99.8%) of the archaeofauna were examined. All specimens were analyzed using four comparative skeletal collections and multiple osteological manuals. Biological (taxon, skeletal element, element side, element portion, age) and perthotaxic aspects (butchery, gnawing, burning) were described. Mollusk specimens were weighed, and the NISP and MNI of vertebrate specimens were calculated. After analysis, all faunal remains were given accession numbers and returned for curation to the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum in Nome, Alaska.

69 Chapter Six: Snake River Sandspit Site Results Archaeofauna All faunal remains collected from NOM-146 were analyzed, excluding one bulk sample of 14 specimens from the midden that was not provided. Mollusks and an arthritic horse (Equus sp.) specimen were not included in the analysis (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1). House B accounted for 43.7% of the total NISP, while the midden accounted for 56.2%. More than half of the vertebrate remains (n=4,522) were identified to at least taxonomic family. Table 6.1: Number of vertebrate fauna from NOM-146. NISP House B 3,754 Midden 4,828 No Provenience 8 Entire Site 8,590

Fishes 6% Birds 17% Unidentified Mammals 34%

Terrestrial Mammals 15% Marine Mammals 28%

Figure 6.1: Percentages of Number of Identified Specimens from NOM-146.

70 Birds. The NISP for birds was 1,446, representing 16.8% of the collection (Table 6.2). House B accounted for 54.7% of the avian assemblage, while 45.6% of the assemblage came from the midden. One specimen had no provenience. Sixteen taxa of birds were identified, not including unidentified bird (Aves); unidentified bird specimens accounted for 48.3% of the avian assemblage. Unidentified bird made up over 80% of the 342 total axial elements (sternum, vertebra, ribs, synsacrum, and pelvic girdle). Common and scientific names follow Armstrong (2010), while names of anatid subfamilies and tribes follow Livezey (1997). Table 6.2: Bird remains from NOM-146.
Common Name Goose Swan Duck Sea Duck Eider Ptarmigan Loon Albatross Shearwater Cormorant Gull Kittiwake Alcid Murre Puffin Snowy Owl Unidentified Total: Taxon Anserini Cygnus sp. Anatini/Aythyini Mergini Somateria sp. Lagopus sp. Gavia sp. Diomedeidae Puffinus sp. Phalacrocorax sp. Laridae Rissa sp. Alcidae Uria sp. Fratercula sp. Bubo scandiacus Aves House B
NISP MNI

Midden
NISP MNI

Entire Site
NISP

4 1 44 22 11 201 16 2 9 29 5 5 60 2 2 379 792

1 1 4 4 2 17 3 1 2 5 2 1 5 1 1 -

2 1 8 2 2 242 13 2 2 26 19 4 7 2 2 319 653

1 1 1 1 1 19 2 1 1 2 5 1 2 1 2 -

6 2 52 24 13 443 29 2 2 11 55 24 9 67 4 4 699 1,446

Ptarmigan. The ptarmigan, either willow or rock (Kessel 1989), was the most numerous bird taxon, accounting for 30.6% of the avian NISP. Wing elements (humerus,

71 radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) made up 36.3% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 30%. The most numerous element was the humerus (n=66), followed by the tibiotarsus (n=65). Over half of the ptarmigan specimens (54.6%) were from the midden. The most common element from House B was the right humerus, while the most common element from the midden was the left tibiotarsus. Murres. Murres, either common or thick-billed (Kessel 1989), made up 4.6% of the avian NISP. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) made up 29.9% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 22.4%. The most numerous element was the tibiotarsus (n=10), followed by the mandible (n=9). Most of the murre specimens (~90%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right mandible, while the most common element from the midden was the right tarsometatarsus. Gulls. Gulls made up 3.8% of the avian assemblage. Over half of the specimens (52.7%) matched the glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens) comparative specimen. Others are most likely mew, glaucous, Sabines (Xema sabini), or ivory gulls (Kessel 1989), none of which were available in the comparative collections. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) were 65.5% of the NISP, and leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 16.4%. The most numerous element was the ulna (n=15), followed by the humerus (n=9). Over half of the gull specimens

72 (52.7%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right ulna, while the most common element from the midden was the left carpometacarpus. Ducks. Ducks, encompassing both dabbling and diving ducks (Livezey 1986:740), accounted for 3.6% of the avian assemblage. They were most likely northern pintails, green-winged teals (Anas crecca), American wigeons (A. americana), northern shovelers (A. clypeata), or greater scaups, although other species do occur in small numbers in the region (Kessel 1989). Comparative specimens of most of the above species were not available. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) represented 38.5% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) represented 15.4%. The most numerous element was the radius (n=7), followed by the scapula (n=6). Most of the dabbling duck specimens (84.6%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right ulna. Loons. Loons, likely either Pacific loons (Gavia pacifica) or red-throated loons (although three other loon species do occur in small numbers [Kessel 1989]), were 2.0% of the avian assemblage. Comparative specimens of neither the Pacific nor red-throated loon were available. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) and leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) were 31.0% of the NISP. The most numerous element was the coracoid (n=5), followed by the carpometacarpus (n=4). More than half of the loon specimens (55.2%) were from House B. The most common element from House B is the right tibiotarsus, while the most common element from the midden is the left coracoid.

73 Sea Ducks. Black scoters (Melanitta nigra), surf scoters (M. perspicillata), white-winged scoters (M. fusca), long-tailed ducks, harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus), common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula), and red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) are the most common sea ducks in the region (Kessel 1989). Sea ducks accounted for 1.7% of the avian assemblage. Multiple specimens matched the comparative specimens of the long-tailed duck (n=11), harlequin duck (n=6), redbreasted merganser (n=2), common goldeneye (n=2), and Barrows goldeneye (B. islandica) (n=2). Wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) represented 45.8% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus) represented 16.7%. The most numerous element was the carpometacarpus (n=6), followed by the humerus (n=5). Most of the sea duck specimens (91.7%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right humerus. Kittiwakes. Kittiwakes, probably the black-legged kittiwake (Kessel 1989), made up at least 1.7% of the avian assemblage. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) represented 41.7% of the NISP, while leg elements (tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 37.5%. The most numerous element was the tibiotarsus (n=7), followed by the coracoid (n=4). Most of the kittiwake specimens (79.2%) were from the midden. The most common element from House B was the left tarsometatarsus, while the most common element from the midden was the left tibiotarsus. Eiders. Eiders, most likely common or king (although both Stellers [Polysticta stelleri] and spectacled [Somateria fischeri] eiders also occur in small numbers in the

74 region) (Kessel 1989), accounted for fewer than 1% of the avian assemblage. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) represented 46.2% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tarsometatarsus) represented 30.8%. The most numerous elements were the radius and tarsometatarsus (n=3). Most of the eider specimens (84.6%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right radius. Cormorants. Cormorants represented less than 1% of the avian assemblage. Although Kessel (1989) notes only the pelagic cormorant (Phalacrocorax pelagicus) occurring around the Seward Peninsula, and numerous specimens matched the comparative pelagic cormorant (n=7), one specimen clearly matched the comparative double-crested cormorant (P. auritus). Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna) represented 45.5% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tarsometatarsus) represented 36.4%. The most numerous element was the humerus (n=3), followed by the femur (n=2). Most of the cormorant specimens (81.8%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right humerus. Alcids. Alcids from the site most likely represented least auklets, crested auklets, or parakeet auklets (although multiple guillemot and murrelet species also occur in small numbers in the region [Kessel 1989] and one specimen clearly matched a comparative ancient murrelet [Synthliboramphus antiques]). Alcids accounted for fewer than 1% of the avian assemblage. Wing elements (humerus) made up 55.6% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur) accounted for 1.1%. The most numerous element was the humerus (n=5), followed by the sternum (n=3). The sternal fragments (MNI=2) are smaller than

75 the comparative marbled and ancient murrelets. Over half of the alcid specimens (55.6%) were from House B. Geese. Geese accounted for less than 1% of the avian assemblage. Snow geese, Canada geese, and brants are the most common species in the area, although other species do occur in small numbers (Kessel 1989). Two specimens matched the Canada goose comparative specimen. There were three wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) and one leg element (tarsometatarsus). The most numerous element was the humerus (n=2). Over half of the goose specimens were from House B. Puffins. Puffins, either horned or tufted (Fratercula cirrhata) accounted for less than 1% of the avian assemblage (Kessel 1989). One each of the following elements were identified: femur, humerus, radius, and ulna. The specimens were divided equally between House B and the midden. Snowy Owls. Less than 1% of the avian assemblage was made up of snowy owl specimens. Three wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) and one leg element (tarsometatarsus) were identified. There were two specimens each in House B and the midden. The right humerus was the most common element from the midden and the most numerous element at the site (n=2). Swans. Two swan specimens were identified. A fragment of a right ulna was found in House B, and the proximal fragment of a left humerus was found in the midden. The ulnar fragment matched the comparative tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus), a common species on the Seward Peninsula (Kessel 1989).

76 Albatross. The two albatross specimens were from the midden. A complete phalanx and proximal fragment of a left scapula were matched to a comparative blackfooted albatross specimen (Phoebastria nigripes). Although no albatross species is listed in Kessel (1989), small numbers of short-tailed albatrosses were observed during six decades of boat-based surveys in the Bering Strait near the Seward Peninsula (USFWS 2006a), and they were the dominant bird taxon of the north Pacific ocean until the late 19th century (Yesner 1976:263). Shearwaters. The two shearwater specimens were from House B. A complete right humerus and right ulna were compared to but did not match a comparative shorttailed shearwater specimen (Puffinus tenuirostris), the only species of shearwater listed by Kessel (1989). They most likely represent sooty shearwaters (P. griseus); although no comparative specimens were available, small numbers of sooty shearwaters were observed during three decades of boat-based surveys in the Bering Strait near the Seward Peninsula (USFWS 2006b). Mammals. Almost half (44.5%) of the approximately 6,600 mammal remains could not be categorized by the analyst into as either land or sea mammals, and were assigned to Mammalia or Carnivora taxonomic categories. Of these unidentified mammals, five specimens had no provenience. More than half (60.8%) of the NISP were recovered from the midden. Fewer than 1% of the specimens were carnivore teeth, 13.0% were skull fragments, 15.0% were vertebral fragments or epiphyses, and 27.1% were rib fragments.

77 Terrestrial Mammals. The NISP for terrestrial or land mammals is 1,286, representing 15.0% of the collection. Fourteen taxa were identified, not including unidentified land mammal (Table 6.3). Unidentified land mammals represented 1.8% of the terrestrial mammal assemblage. Table 6.3: Terrestrial mammal remains from NOM-146.
Common Name Rodent Ground Squirrel Small Rodent Muskrat Hare Tundra Hare Fox/Hare Fox Canid Canine Dog Bear Caribou/Muskox Caribou Unidentified Total: Taxon Rodentia Spermophilus parryii Cricetidae Ondatra zibethicus Lepus sp. Lepus othus Vulpes/Lepus spp. Vulpes sp. Canidae Canis sp. Canis l. familiaris Ursus sp. Artiodactyla Rangifer tarandus land mammal House B NISP MNI 2 1 34 6 1 1 1 1 23 1 192 7 28 1 53 2 3 1 71 2 17 2 1 1 62 2 11 499 Midden NISP MNI 4 1 35 4 3 2 11 2 18 1 264 8 47 1 143 8 16 1 93 3 15 2 1 1 2 1 123 2 12 787 Entire Site NISP 6 69 4 12 41 456 75 196 19 164 32 1 3 185 23 1,286

Note: MNI calculated without taking age into consideration. Tundra Hares. The tundra hare, the most numerous taxon, represented 35.4% of the land mammal assemblage. Hare (Lepus sp.), probably tundra hare, represented an additional 3.2%. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum, innominate) represented 49.1% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) are 50.9%. The most numerous element was the tibia (n=59), followed by the femur (n=44). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (57.9%). The most common element from House B

78 was the right mandible, while the most common element from the midden was the left humerus. Although most specimens were too fragmentary to age, 18.4% were from adults (n=84) and 9.6% were from juveniles (n=44) (Table 6.4). Table 6.4: Age categories of NOM-146 non-canid land mammal remains. Taxon Neonatal Neo/Juv Rangifer tarandus 1 Lepus othus Ondatra zibethicus 2 Spermophilius parryii 1 Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae. Juvenile 17 30 19 Adult 63 72 16

Foxes. Arctic and/or red foxes represented 15.2% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum, innominate, baculum) represented 62.2% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) accounted for 37.8%. The most numerous elements were skull and mandible fragments (n=20), followed by ribs (n=19). Most of the specimens were from the midden (73.0%). The most common element from House B was the right humerus, while the most common element from the midden was the left mandible. Although most of the specimens were too fragmentary to age, 27.6% were from adults (n=54), 1.0% were from young adults (n=2), and 6.1% were from juveniles (n=12) (Table 6.5). Table 6.5: Age categories of NOM-146 canid remains. Taxon Neonatal Neo/Juv Juvenile Canis sp. 1 11 37 Canis l. familiaris 1 1 Vulpes sp. 9 Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae. Young Adult 1 2 Adult 9 18 45

79 Caribou. Caribou represented 14.4% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, antler, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, innominate) represented 39.5% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, podial, metapodial, phalanx) accounted for 60.5%. The most numerous element was the first phalanx (n=22), followed by antler fragments (n=20), which were differentiated from antler blanks and preforms (artifacts) by their fragmentary nature. Over half of the specimens were from the midden (66.5%). The most common element from House B was the right radius (MNI=2), while the most common element from the midden was the right first phalanx (n=12, MNI=2). Although more than half of the specimens were too fragmentary to age, 36.2% were from adults (n=67), 1.0% were from young adults (n=2), and 12.4% were from juveniles (n=23) (Table 6.4). Canines (Canis sp.). Canines, which are possibly wolves but most likely dogs, represented 12.8% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum, innominate) represented 51.8% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) represented 48.2%. The most numerous element was the rib (n=15), followed by the skull (n=13). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (56.7%). The most common element from House B was the right humerus, while the most common element from the midden is the left ulna. More than half o f the specimens were aged (53.7%). Twenty-one (12.8%) of the canine specimens were from adults,

80 3.7% were from young adults (n=6), 29.3% were from juveniles (n=48), 6.7% were from neonate/juveniles (n=11), and 1.2% were from neonates (n=2) (Table 6.5). Foxes/Hares. Specimens of either foxes or tundra hares accounted for 5.8% of the land mammal assemblage. The skeletal elements of the tundra hare are the same size as those of the fox; when elements are fragmentary or unfused, it is difficult to differentiate between them. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, rib, and vertebra) represented 53.3% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) represented 45.3%. The most numerous element was the rib (n=26), followed by the tibia (n=10). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (62.7%). Although most of the specimens were too fragmentary to age, one specimen was identified as adult and four were from juveniles. Arctic Ground Squirrels. Arctic ground squirrels represented 5.4% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, rib, vertebra, innominate) represented 50.7% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and tibia) accounted for 49.3%. The most numerous element was the mandible (n=12), followed by the femur (n=9). An almost equal number of specimens came from House B and the midden. The most common element from House B was the right mandible, while the most common element from the midden was the left femur. Over half of the specimens were aged (52.2%). Of those, adult specimens accounted for 23.2% (n=16), 27.5% were from juveniles (n=19), and one specimen was from a neonate/juvenile (Table 6.4).

81 Hares. Hare specimens, all but one of which were loose teeth, represented 3.2% of the land mammal assemblage. One complete, adult right third metacarpal was much smaller than those from tundra hares. It was more robust, but the same length as the comparative snowshoe hare. More than half of the hare specimens came from House B (56.1%). Dogs. Dogs represented at least 2.5% of the land mammal assemblage. Specimens were identified as dogs rather that Canis sp. if skeletal elements were as robust as the comparative wolf specimens and as short as the comparative red fox specimen. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula) represented 21.9% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, metapodial) accounted for 78.1%. The most numerous element was the tibia (n=5), followed by the scapula (n=4). Over half of the specimens were from House B (53.1%). The most common element from House B was the left ulna, while the most common element from the midden was the right femur. Over half of the specimens were aged (62.5%). Of those, over half (56.3%) were from adults (n=18), one was from a juvenile (3.1%), and one was from a neonate/juvenile (3.1%) (Table 6.5). Canids (Canis or Vulpes spp.). Canids, which may be wolves, dogs, or foxes, represented 1.5% of the land mammal assemblage. All canid specimens were teeth, 84.2% of which came from the midden. Muskrats. Muskrats represented less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, innominate) accounted for 75% of the NISP,

82 while appendicular skeletal elements (tibia, metapodial) represented 25%. The most numerous elements were the mandible and scapula (n=3), followed by the tibia (n=2). All but one specimen were from the midden. The most common element from the midden was the right tibia. Although most specimens are too fragmentary to age, two (16.7%) are from juveniles (Table 6.4). Rodents. Unidentified medium-sized rodents represented less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage. All elements were from the appendicular skeleton. The most numerous element was the metapodial (n=4). Over half of the specimens (66.7%) were from the midden. Small Rodents. Less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage was composed of very small rodents: three mandibles and one radius from a lemming or vole. Most of the specimens (75.0%) were from the midden. The most common element in the midden was the right mandible. Caribou/Muskoxen. Three specimens, representing less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage, are most likely caribou since muskoxen are thought to have been rare, and were extinct on the Seward Peninsula by the 19th century. Two of the three appendicular skeletal elements came from the midden. Bears. One bear element was identified from the midden. It was a fragmentary right maxilla with an unerupted first canine and unerupted fourth premolar. Based on tooth eruption, the specimen was a neonate.

83 Marine Mammals. The NISP for marine or sea mammals is 2,375, representing 27.6% of the collection. Two specimens had no provenience. Nine taxa were identified, not including unidentified sea mammal (Table 6.6). Unidentified specimens accounted for less than 1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Table 6.6: Marine mammal remains from NOM-146.
Common Name Pinniped Walrus Seal Bearded Seal Small Ice Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Whale Beluga Unidentified Total: Taxon Pinnipedia Odobenus rosmarus Phocidae Erignathus barbatus Phocini Phoca largha Pusa hispida Cetacea Delphinapterus leucas sea mammal House B NISP MNI 20 1 2 1 304 2 34 2 553 8 6 1 154 8 19 1 7 1,099 Midden NISP MNI 27 1 14 2 220 1 50 3 684 19 13 2 219 12 32 1 3 1 12 1,274 Entire Site NISP 47 16 524 84 1,239 19 373 51 3 19 2,375

Note: MNI calculated without taking age into consideration. Small Ice Seals. The most numerous category of sea mammal was the Phocini tribe, which includes the ringed seal, ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) and spotted seal around the Seward Peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009; Wynne 2007). Small ice seals accounted for 52.2% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, costal process, vertebra, sacrum, innominate, baculum) represented 57.5% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) represented 42.5%. Of the appendicular elements, metatarsals (n=136) outnumbered metacarpals (n=52) by more than 2:1.

84 The most numerous element was the rib (n=185), followed by the thoracic vertebra (n=140). Over half of the small ice seal specimens came from the midden (55.2%). The most common element from both House B (MNI=8) and the midden (MNI=19) was the atlas (C1) vertebra. About half of the specimens are too fragmentary to age. Of the aged specimens, fewer than 1% were from old adults (n=8); 16.1% were from adults (n=200); fewer than 1% were from young adults (n=11); 25.3% were from juveniles (n=314); 5.6% were from yearlings (n=70); and fewer than 1% were each from neonate/yearlings or neonates (n=8) (Table 6.7). Table 6.7: Age categories of NOM-146 pinniped remains.
Taxon Pinnipedia indef. Odobenus rosmarus Phocidae indef. Erignathus barbatus Phocini indef. Phoca largha Pusa hispida Neonatal Neo/Year Yearling Juvenile Young Adult 19 Adult Old Adult 1 4 3

2 2 1 6 -

1 2 2 2 7 1

3 70 6

5 1 226 18 160 19

5 3 157 12 61 8 176

Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae Seals. Seals in the family Phocidae, which around the Seward Peninsula include the small ice seals and the bearded seal (MacDonald and Cook 2009; Wynne 2007), accounted for 22.1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, rib, costal process, vertebra, sacrum, innominate) comprised only 16.8% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (radius, ulna, tibia, podial, metapodial, phalanx) comprised 83.2%. Most of the elements (77.5%) were phalanges, which could

85 not be separated by genus due to a combination of lack of fusion, fragmentation or inaccessibility of comparative specimens. The most numerous element was the phalanx (n=289), followed by the ossified costal process (n=73). Over half of the specimens (58.0%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the left fourth metatarsal. Only one fourth of the specimens (25.2%) were too fragmentary to age. Of the other specimens, 30.0% were from adults (n=157), 44.1% were from juveniles (n=231), and fewer than 1% each were from neonate/yearlings and neonates (n=2) (Table 6.7). Ringed Seals. Ringed seal specimens accounted for at least 15.7% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, innominate) represented 31.1% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial) represented 68.9%. Almost half of the appendicular elements were flipper bones (n=116). The most numerous element was the humerus (n=36), followed by the mandible (n=35). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (58.7%). The most common element from House B was the left humerus (MNI=8), while the most common element from the midden was the left femur (MNI=12). Over half of the specimens were aged (59.0%). Of those, fewer than 1% of were from old adults (n=3); 47.5% were from adults (n=177); 3.8% were from young adults (n=14); 5.1% were from juveniles (n=19); 1.6% were from yearlings (n=6); and one specimen was from a neonate/yearling (Table 6.7).

86 Bearded Seals. Bearded seal specimens made up at least 3.5% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, vertebra, innominate) represented 39.3% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial) accounted for 60.7%. The most numerous elements were the radius, thoracic vertebra, and lumbar vertebra (n=7), followed by the fourth metatarsal (n=5). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (59.5%). The most common element from House B was the left navicular, while the most common element from the midden is the left radius. One-third of the specimens were too fragmentary to age (33.3%). Of the aged specimens, one was from an old adult (1.2%); 31.0% were from adults (n=26); 28.6% were from juveniles (n=24); two specimens were from yearlings (2.4%); two were from neonate/yearlings (2.4%); and one was from a neonate (1.2%) (Table 6.7). Whales. Whales, including both small and large species, accounted for 2.1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, and vertebra) comprised only 11.8% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, phalanx) comprised 80.4%. The most numerous elements were vertebrae (n=29). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (62.7%). About one-third of the specimens were too fragmentary to age (35.3%). Three of the specimens (5.9%) were from adults, 3.9% were from young adults (n=2), 45.1% were from juveniles (n=23), and 9.8% were from neonate/juveniles (n=5).

87 Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds, including all seals and walruses, represented 2.0% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, rib, costal process, and vertebra) represented 55.3% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (ulna, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) accounted for 44.7%. There were only two nonflipper appendicular elements. The most numerous element were the phalanx (n=8), and rib (n=7). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (57.4%). Although more than half of the specimens were too fragmentary to age (53.2%), 12.8% of the pinniped specimens were from adults (n=6), 21.3% were from juveniles (n=10), 8.5% were from neonate/yearlings (n=4), and two specimens were neonatal (4.3%) (Table 6.7). Spotted Seals. Spotted seal specimens made up less than 1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, innominate) represented 42.1% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (radius, ulna, femur, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial) represented 57.9%. The most numerous element was the skull (n=5), followed by the femur (n=3). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (68.4%). Although more than half of the specimens are too fragmentary to age, 42.1% were identified as adults (n=8) (Table 6.7). Walrus. Walrus specimens accounted for less than 1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, vertebra, innominate, baculum) accounted for all but one specimen of the NISP: a left metacarpal. The most numerous element was the scapula (n=4), followed by the sternabra (n=3). Most of the specimens were from the midden (87.5%). The most common element from the midden

88 was the left scapula. Half of the specimens were aged; three (18.8%) each were from adults and juveniles, while two specimens were from neonate/yearlings (12.5%) (Table 6.7). Belugas. Beluga specimens represented less than 1% of the sea mammal assemblage. The three identified specimens included two humeri (probably left and right) and a vertebra. One humerus was from a juvenile. Fishes. The NISP for fishes is 540, representing 6.2% of the overall vertebrate assemblage (Table 6.8). Four taxa (following Mecklenburg et al. 2002), not including unidentified fish (Actinopterygii), were identified. Unidentified bony fish specimens accounted for 51.3% of the fish assemblage. The most numerous family was the Gadidae, or cods (36.1% of the fish assemblage). They were followed by the Salmonidae family (1.0% of the fish assemblage), which includes salmon, trout, whitefish, Arctic char, grayling, Dolly Varden, and steelheads; the Cottidae family (fewer than 1% of the assemblage), which includes Irish lords and sculpins; and the Pleuronectidae family (fewer than 1% of the assemblage), the flat fishes. Table 6.8: Fish remains from NOM-146.
Taxon Actinopterygii Salmonidae Gadidae Cottidae Pleuronectidae Total: House B NISP 73 47 97 3 220 MNI 1 20 1 NISP 204 9 98 8 1 320 Midden MNI 1 7 1 1 Entire Site NISP 277 56 195 11 1 540

89 Mollusks. An NISP was not calculated for mollusk remains; instead, specimens were weighed. A total weight of 25.15 g was obtained. Gastropods accounted for 9.6 g, bivalves accounted for 3.5 g, and Mytilidae specimens, or mussels, accounted for 5 g. All mollusk specimens were fragmentary. Perthotaxic Data Only 3.7% of the vertebrate remains from NOM-146 had indications of having been cut with a man-made implement (Table 6.9). Of those, small ice seals in general had the greatest number of cut bones, followed by ringed seal. The highest percentage of visible bone cutmarks belonged to the Artiodactyla (which probably represent caribou) and swan; however, since there are only three Artiodactyla specimens and two swan specimens identified from the entire site, these percentages are not particularly significant. It is more important to note that 33.3% of the whale remains (NISP=51) and 20.2% of the bearded seal remains (NISP=84) had visible cutmarks.

90 Table 6.9: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with cutmarks, in descending order of %NISP.
Common Name Caribou/Muskox Swan Whale Bearded Seal Walrus Goose Ringed Seal Spotted Seal Dog Small Ice Seal Eider Pinniped Murre Caribou Tundra Hare Duck Seal Fox Fox/Hare Unidentified Mammal Canine Unidentified Bird Ptarmigan Total: House B NISP %NISP 1 100% 1 100% 4 21.1% 1 2.9% 1 25% 20 13.0% 2 11.8% 38 6.9% 1 9.1% 2 10.0% 4 6.7% 4 6.5% 11 5.7% 1 2.3% 3 <1% 2 3.8% 14 1.2% 11 15.5% 2 <1% 2 <1% 125 3.3% Midden NISP %NISP 1 50% 13 40.6% 16 32.0% 3 21.4% 34 15.5% 2 15.4% 1 6.7% 63 9.2% 1 3.7% 5 4.1% 11 4.2% 1 12.5% 8 3.6% 2 1.4% 1 2.1% 20 1.1% 6 6.5% 3 <1% 191 4.0% Entire Site NISP %NISP 2 66.7% 1 50.0% 17 33.3% 17 20.2% 3 18.8% 1 16.7% 54 14.5% 2 10.5% 3 9.4% 101 8.2% 1 7.7% 3 6.4% 4 6.0% 9 4.9% 22 4.8% 2 3.8% 11 2.1% 4 2.0% 1 1.3% 34 1.2% 17 1.0% 5 <1% 2 <1% 316 3.7%

Note: Excludes unidentified mammal ribs. Only 16 bird specimens had cutmarks (1.1% of the total avian assemblage). Over half were wing elements (56.3%), the majority of which were distal wing elements (55.6%; i.e., radius, ulna, carpometacarpus). Of the non-wing elements, most were tibiotarsi (57.1%). Marine mammals had 208 specimens with cutmarks (8.8% of the sea mammal assemblage), 58 terrestrial mammal specimens had cutmarks (4.5% of the land mammal assemblage), and 34 of the unidentified mammal specimens had cutmarks (1.2% of the unidentified assemblage). For all mammals, the most common cut elements were

91 vertebrae (46.6% of marine, 31.0% of terrestrial, and 85.3% of unidentified cut mammal specimens). The second and third most common elements for marine mammals were mandibles (16.8%) (Figure 6.2) and flipper bones (10.1%). The second most common cut element for land mammals were foot bones (22.4%). The third most common elements were humeri and radii (both 8.6%). No cutmarks were identified on fish specimens.

Figure 6.2: Compilation of cutmarks from 12 complete right ringed seal mandibles; 1:1 scale.

The number of specimens with evidence of carnivore gnawing was 8.5% of the NOM-146 vertebrate assemblage (Table 6.10). Of those, the greatest number of gnawed bones belonged to small ice seals. Only 2.3% of total avian assemblage (NISP=33) and 3.1% of the unidentified mammal specimens (NISP=91) had been gnawed. Higher percentages of the marine and terrestrial mammal assemblages had gnawmarks (19.4% and 11.6%, respectively). Most of the gnawed birds bones (69.7%) were wing elements, mostly humeri (NISP=20). The most commonly gnawed elements for marine and

92 unidentified mammals were vertebrae (30.2% and 79.1%, respectively). The second most commonly gnawed marine mammal elements were flipper bones (13.9%). The most commonly gnawed land mammal elements were foot bones (17.4%) followed by humeri and innominates (both 12.1%). No gnawmarks were identified on any fish remains. Table 6.10: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with gnawmarks, in descending order of %NISP.
Common Name Beluga Swan Spotted Seal Walrus Bearded Seal Dog Sea Mammal Canine Land Mammal Whale Ringed Seal Pinniped Small Ice Seal Caribou Tundra Hare Fox Muskrat Eider Seal Gull Ptarmigan Unidentified Mammal Fox/Hare Duck Unidentified Bird Total: House B NISP %NISP 4 66.7% 10 29.4% 8 47.1% 4 57.1% 27 38.0% 4 36.4% 6 31.6% 29 18.8% 6 30.0% 94 17.0% 10 16.1% 14 7.3% 2 3.8% 1 9.1% 14 4.6% 1 3.4% 13 6.5% 30 2.6% 3 <1% 280 7.5% Midden NISP %NISP 2 66.7% 1 100.0% 5 38.5% 7 50.0% 26 52.0% 5 33.3% 3 25.0% 8 8.6% 3 25% 9 28.1% 60 27.4% 5 18.5% 159 23.2% 20 16.3% 29 11% 16 11.2% 1 9.1% 17 7.7% 2 7.7% 6 2.5% 61 3.4% 2 4.3% 1 12.5% 5 1.6% 453 9.4% Entire Site NISP %NISP 2 66.7% 1 50.0% 9 47.4% 7 43.8% 36 42.9% 13 40.6% 7 36.8% 35 21.3% 7 30.4% 15 29.4% 89 23.9% 11 23.4% 253 20.4% 30 16.2% 43 9.4% 18 9.2% 1 8.3% 1 7.8% 31 5.9% 3 5.5% 19 4.3% 91 3.1% 2 2.7% 1 1.9% 8 1.1% 733 8.5%

Note: Excludes unidentified mammal ribs

93 Few of the vertebrate faunal remains from NOM-146 were burned and/or calcined (Table 6.11). The greatest number of burned bones belonged to unidentified mammals, which comprised 1.7% of the total unidentified assemblage. Fewer than one percent of the land mammal assemblage was burned, as was only 1.6% of the marine mammal assemblage. For both marine and land mammals, the most commonly burned elements were vertebrae (65.8% and 85.7%, respectively). No fish or bird remains were burned. Table 6.11: NISP and %NISP of burned NOM-146 faunal remains, in descending order of %NISP.
Common Name Walrus Whale Bearded Seal Small Ice Seal Pinniped Canine Unidentified Mammal Fox Tundra Hare Caribou Seal Ringed Seal Total: House B NISP %NISP 8 1.4% 1 1.4% 17 1.5% 1 1.9% 1 1.6% 1 <1% 1 <1% 30 <1% Midden NISP %NISP 1 7.1% 2 6.3% 3 6.0% 20 2.9% 1 3.7% 2 2.2% 32 1.8% 1 <1% 1 <1% 1 <1% 64 1.3% Entire Site NISP %NISP 1 6.3% 2 3.9% 3 3.6% 28 2.3% 1 2.1% 3 1.8% 49 1.7% 2 1.0% 1 <1% 1 <1% 1 <1% 2 <1% 94 1.1%

Intrasite Faunal Analysis The vertebrate archaeofauna are fairly evenly distributed between the midden and House B: 54.8% of the birds came from the house feature, while 61.2% of land mammals, 53.6% of sea mammals, and 59.3% of fishes came from the midden. In all, 43.7% of the vertebrate remains came from House B and 56.2% came from the midden. In terms of perthotaxic events, 3.3% of the vertebrate remains from House B were cut,

94 while 4.0% of those from the midden had cutmarks. A greater percentage of the vertebrate remains from the midden were gnawed (9.4%) than from House B (7.5%). Additionally, a greater percentage of the midden had been burned (1.3%) in comparison to only 0.5% of those remains from House B. More than half of the vertebrate taxa are from the midden (Tables 6.12 and 6.13). Only three specific taxa were evenly distributed between the features: puffin (NISP=4), snowy owl (NISP=4), and swan (NISP=2). Table 6.12: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in House B, in descending order of %NISP. Common Name Shearwater Sea Duck Murre Duck Eider Salmon Cormorant Goose Seal Hare Alcid Loon Dog Gull House B NISP 2 22 60 44 11 47 9 4 304 23 5 16 17 29 %TotalNISP 100.0% 91.7% 89.6% 84.6% 84.6% 83.9% 81.8% 66.7% 58.0% 56.1% 55.6% 55.2% 53.1% 52.7%

95 Table 6.13: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in the midden, in descending order of %NISP. Common Name Beluga Albatross Bear Flat Fish Muskrat Walrus Canid Kittiwake Tiny Rodent Fox Sculpin Spotted Seal Rodent Caribou/Muskox Caribou Fox/Hare Whale Bearded Seal Ringed Seal Tundra Hare Pinniped Canine Small Ice Seal Ptarmigan Ground Squirrel Cod Midden NISP 3 2 1 1 11 14 16 19 3 143 8 13 4 2 123 47 32 50 219 264 27 93 684 242 35 98 %TotalNISP 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 91.7% 87.5% 84.2% 79.2% 75.0% 73.0% 72.7% 68.4% 66.7% 66.7% 66.5% 62.7% 62.7% 59.5% 58.7% 57.9% 57.4% 56.7% 55.2% 54.6% 50.7% 50.3%

Season of Site Occupation In addition to the indirect seasonality suggested by the functions of artifacts from NOM-146 in Chapter Four, direct seasonality indicators were identified from the site archaeofauna. The NOM-146 faunal remains lend themselves to the two most common methods of determining season of site occupation (presence/absence, physiological

96 events) as discussed in Chapter Two. For the purposes of this thesis, winter is defined as the months of October (shikovik or freeze-up season in Iupiatuun [Ellanna and Sherrod 2004:118]), when modern shore fast ice usually forms (Burch 1998:300; Koutsky 1981:10; Ray 1984:285), through April; summer is defined as the months of May (sukloavik or when the ice has gone out in Iupiatuun [Ellanna and Sherrod 2004:117]), when shore fast ice usually begins to break up (Burch 1998:297; Koutsky 1981:10; Ray 1984:285), through September. Winter Occupation. Ptarmigan live on the Seward Peninsula year-round (Kessel 1989:131, 134; Figure 6.3). During the summer ptarmigan occupy the lowlands for breeding and hatching. Between the end of July and September they form into large postbreeding flocks, before moving to their wintering grounds in the highlands (Kessel 1989:131-135). Oquilluk (1973:99) notes that ptarmigan were traditionally most commonly hunted during midwinter on the Seward Peninsula. Snowy owls, which usually arrive on the peninsula around May and depart in October, will over-winter on the peninsula if prey species are having a boom year (Kessel 1989:225-226; Figure 6.3).

97

Figure 6.3: Bird presence on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska (solid line = most common; dashed line = uncommon). Compiled from Kessel (1989). A complete age range for pinnipeds was identified. Although the published pinniped epiphyseal fusion sequences are extensive, Stor (2000:207) cautions against age estimation of lone seal elements past the first year of life (Figure 6.4). In addition to the lack of epiphyseal fusion in some elements, the cortex of the bones can often be differentiated during the first few months of life due its rough texture without clear morphological features (Stor 2000:207). Certain morphometrics of small ice seal femora have also been correlated with age (Stor 2002).

98

Unfused Epiphyses in Small Ice Seals

Humerus (Distal) Radius (Proximal) Femur (Proximal) Scapula (Glenoid Tubercle) 1st Metacarpal (Distal) Lumbar Vertebra (Arch) Thoracic Vertebra (Arch) Cervical Vertebra (Arch) Innominate (Acetabulum) 1st/2nd Phalanx (Distal) 0 2 Unfused 4 6 8 10 12

Unfused or Fusing

Figure 6.4: Possible ages (in months) of skeletal elements indicative of yearling status. Compiled from Stor (2000). The remains of small ice seals from NOM-146 include unfused elements indicative of yearling status (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). Sixty-three specimens suggest an age younger than twelve months (proximal femora, proximal radii, distal humeri). Two specimens suggest an age likely younger than six months (scapula glenoid tubercle). And four specimens indicate an age likely younger than four months (vertebral arch/centrum).

99

Figure 6.5: Small ice seal femora. Ages from left to right: neonate, yearling (around 6 months old), yearling (around 6 m.o.), yearling (around 10 m.o.), juvenile, adult, adult. Ages based off of Stor (2000, 2002).

Figure 6.6: Small ice seal humeri. From left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult. Ages based off of Stor (2000, 2002).

100 All of the small seals around the Seward Peninsula give birth in April (Wynne 2007); therefore, it is probable that at least some pups were taken during the late spring before breakup. This conclusion is supported by 14 neonatal pinniped bones (MNI=2) in the assemblage (Figure 6.7). Additionally, morphometrics from some femora are correlated with modern specimens between six and ten months of age (Stor 2002:55), indicating that some yearlings were also harvested during early and mid-winter.

Figure 6.7: Presence of mammal neonates on the Seward Peninsula (solid line = most common birthing date; dashed line = uncommon birthing date). Compiled from Wynne (2007). Although large whale species were traditionally hunted during their migration north in the spring from Cape Prince of Wales, King and Sledge Islands (Burch 1980:295; Ray 1967:71, 1975:111), it is impossible to tell whether the large whale specimens recovered from NOM-146 are from individuals that were actively hunted or those that washed up dead on shore. Today, dead bowhead, gray, and killer whales

101 occasionally wash up on shore near Cape Nome throughout the ice-free months (Bockstoce 1979:13). Because there is no published sequence for caribou epiphyseal fusion, I compared the caribou specimens from NOM-146 to a sequence created for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Figure 6.8). The resulting ages are necessarily only suggestive; studies have shown that there can be between two and eight months difference in fusion times between white- and black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) (Purdue 1983:1211), and they are more closely phylogenetically related than either is to caribou. Purdue (1983:1210) also demonstrates a difference of three months or more between the sexes; many bones fuse earlier in females than in males.

Unfused Epiphyses in Caribou

Humerus (Proximal) Ulna (Distal) Tibia (Proximal) Femur (Distal) Radius (Distal) Femur (Proximal) Ulna (Proximal) Tibia (Distal) 1st Phalanx 2nd Phalanx Humerus (Distal) Radius (Proximal) 0 6 Unfused 12 Unfused or Fusing 18 24

Figure 6.8: Possible ages (in months) of certain caribou skeletal elements. Compiled from Purdue (1983).

102 The caribou remains from NOM-146 include a few unfused and partially fused specimens indicative of animals in their first year of life. Two specimens suggest an age between five and eight months (2nd phalanx), while four specimens suggest an age younger than eleven months (1st phalanx). Six specimens are at most around twenty months old, but probably younger (distal and proximal femora, distal radius). In Alaska, caribou give birth between late May and early June (Rearden 1981:90); therefore, some caribou were hunted during winter. Based on known tooth eruption sequences (Andrews and Turner 1992; Stiner 1998), the single bear specimen identified from NOM-146 is from a very young cub during its first winter as a neonate. Both polar and brown bear cubs are born between December and January, leaving the den around March or April (Rearden 1981:16-20; Wynne 2007:68-69); therefore, if the bear specimen represents a hunted rather than scavenged animal, one incidence of bear hunting at the site must have occurred during the winter (Figure 6.7). Published epiphyseal fusion sequences are available for the proximal humerus of black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus). Ages resulting from these data are only suggestive; unlike the black-tailed jackrabbit or snowshoe hare, tundra hares only give birth to one litter of leverets per year around May, indicating that their growth patterns differ from their faster-breeding relatives (Rearden 1981:148). According to Tiemeier and Plenert (1964), who used more than 900 jackrabbit specimens in their calculations in comparison to Lechleitners (1959) three, the proximal epiphysis of the humerus begins

103 to fuse around six months of age. In tundra hares, this would occur in November. Of the tundra hare humerus specimens from NOM-146 (n=33), a little over one-third had intact proximal ends (n=12). Of those, nine were fused and three were unfused proximal epiphyses (Figure 6.9).

Proximal Humerus MNI

Proximal Tibia MNI

Unfused Fused

Figure 6.9: Ratios of tundra hare epiphyseal fusion sequence elements at NOM-146. A study of cottontail rabbit epiphyseal fusion (Hale 1949:218) briefly mentions that the proximal tibia fuses shortly after the proximal humerus. If this pattern holds true for tundra hares, it is probable that their proximal tibial epiphyses begin to fuse in December or January. Of the tundra hare tibia specimens from NOM-146 (n=59), only one-third had intact proximal ends (n=20). Of those, ten were fused, two were unfused, and eight were proximal epiphyses (Figure 6.9). These data indicate that some tundra hare were harvested before November, though the large number of humeri and tibiae without intact proximal ends make it difficult to judge seasonal prevalence of acquisition.

104 Summer Occupation. All birds other than ptarmigan and owl identified in from the NOM-146 faunal assemblage are migratory species (Figure 6.3). Most arrive on the Seward Peninsula during the spring and stay through the summer to breed, brood, and molt. A few pass through on their way to and from breeding grounds further north during the spring and fall. The brant, snow goose, and Canada goose usually arrive in May and depart between September and October. Tundra swans arrive between late April and mid May, and depart by early October. Numerous duck species are found on the Seward Peninsula. In general, they arrive around early May and leave in September. Sea ducks usually arrive around late May and depart by October. Eider ducks (Somateria spp.), however, often stay through late November. Loons arrive on the peninsula between May and June and depart around September (Kessel 1989). The alcid specimens not identified as murres or puffins represent a number of different seabirds, all of which have slightly different migratory schedules. Some arrive in the region in April (e.g., Kittlitzs murrelet) while others do not arrive until June (e.g., pigeon guillemot). Most alcids leave around October. Both common and thick-billed murres arrive around late May and stay until freeze-up. Horned and tufted puffins arrive around late May and usually depart around September. The pelagic cormorant arrives around late April and often stays until freeze-up. Gulls arrive around early May and depart between August and September. Black-legged kittiwakes also arrive in May, but do not leave until September or October (Kessel 1989).

105 The few beluga remains from NOM-146 include unfused specimens, and many of the small, unfused whale bones unidentified to species likely also belong to juvenile beluga. Although there is no published epiphyseal fusion sequence for beluga, it is reasonable to suggest that completely unfused skeletal elements belong to beluga in their first year of life. Beluga give birth around July, therefore unfused elements suggest late summer harvests (Figure 6.7). Ethnographic Subsistence Data. Ethnographic information on seasonal rounds can be added to the above data to help establish site seasonality. As animal behavior will not have changed significantly over the past few hundred years (except for the intervention of the Little Ice Age), the timing of subsistence hunting will not have changed greatly either. Subsistence hunting practices of descendant communities provide helpful insights into the practices of their ancestors. Ethnographic information collected from the Norton Sound area can be extrapolated to help suggest the subsistence practices of the people who lived at NOM-146. Using ethnographic subsistence data from multiple sources to help elucidate the season of site occupation at an archaeological site differs from identifying the subsistence pattern of a prehistoric socioterritory in its generalized application. From interviews with local Iupiat hunters, Bockstoce (1979:12) created a seasonal round for the Cape Nome area. He found that caribou were usually hunted during the winter from November to March, although there was a short, late-summer hunting period as well (Bockstoce 1979:12; Oquilluk 1973:97). This corresponds with

106 the Iupiatuun word for the month of July, nuiaqtuvik, which translates to the time to hunt caribou, particularly fauns, for clothing (Burch 2006:32). Interviews done by Schaaf (1988:37) and Ray (1975:117) support Bockstoces findings, although Koutsky (1981:18) found that caribou were hunted in the foothills of the Nome, Fish River and Golovin areas whenever possible. Bockstoce (1979:12) and Ray (1975:113) both found that walrus and bearded seal were hunted as they followed the edge of the icepack during the fall (September and October) and the spring (April-June for bearded seal and May-July for walrus). Schaaf (1988:36) was told that walrus and bearded seal were hunted primarily during spring breakup, which is supported by Oquilluk (1973:99), and that smaller seals were hunted around freeze-up as well as spring breakup. This corresponds with Mayokoks report on spring subsistence (1951). Bockstoce (1979:12) was told that ringed seals were hunted all winter long, from October to May, which is supported by Koutsky (1981:17). Belugas were hunted during the spring and summer, from May to July (Bockstoce 1979:12; Koutsky 1981:18; Mayokok 1951; Schaaf 1988:36-37). Migratory waterfowl and seabirds were hunted from the time they arrived in the area around May until the time they departed, starting in August (Bockstoce 1979:12; Koutsky 1981:18; Schaaf 1988:36). Waterfowl were and continue to be especially numerous around Safety Sound (Ray 1975:116). Ptarmigan were snared throughout the year, but were a critical resource in winter (Burch 1980:276; Koutsky 1981:17; Oquilluk

107 1973:99; Ray 1975:117). And although all available owl species were utilized, snowy owls were preferred (Oquilluk 1973:230). Small terrestrial game was usually obtained in the fall and winter (Burch 1980:276; Koutsky 1981:17). Although snared year-round (Koutsky 1981:17-18), Arctic ground squirrels were especially sought during late spring or early fall when their fur was thickest (Ray 1975:117; Sheppard 1986:137). Similarly, hares were usually only sought during late winter and early spring (Koutsky 1981:17; Oquilluk 1973:99), in part due to the tularemia (rabbit fever) that is endemic to the population during the summer months and is potentially fatal to humans (Sheppard 1986:136). Tomcod were caught during winter, around February, while whitefish were caught in the fall (August and September) (Bockstoce 1979:12) and winter (Koutsky 1981:17; Ray 1975:114). Salmon were caught during their spawning runs between June and August (Bockstoce 1979:12; Koutsky 1981:18; Ray 1975:114; Schaaf 1988:36-37; Sheppard 1986; Thornton 1931). At Wales, flounder were fished in February, and sculpin were caught around March (Thornton 1931). In lagoons across the peninsula, flounder were speared through the ice (Ray 1975:114). Mollusks were collected from the beaches during the summer (Thornton 1931). This information is corroborated by other ethnographic studies (e.g., Burch 1980; Ray 1975). The faunal remains from NOM-146 indicate occupation of the site throughout the year, with an emphasis on winter dwelling. The extensive age range of most mammal species is indicative of year-round procurement. The existence of animal species hunted

108 primarily during the summer, such as beluga and migratory birds, demonstrate a summer component, but the animals with the greatest number of remains belonged to species hunted primarily during the winter: ringed seal, tundra hare, and ptarmigan. Summary Over 8,500 faunal remains were recovered from NOM-146, more than half of which were from the midden (56.2%). In all, more than half of the specimens were identified to taxonomic family or more specific levels (i.e., tribe, genus, species). Almost 17% of the faunal assemblage was composed of seventeen bird taxa. Fifteen taxa of terrestrial mammals accounted for 15% of the assemblage, and ten taxa of marine mammals accounted for more than 27% of the assemblage. Five taxa of fish comprised about 6% of the faunal assemblage. Over 25 g of mollusk fragments were recovered from the site. Almost four percent of the total vertebrate assemblage exhibited cutmarks, while over eight percent had been gnawed. Only 1.1% of the total vertebrate assemblage had been burned. Avifauna was more numerous in House B than the midden, while the majority of marine mammal, terrestrial mammal, and fish taxa (excluding salmon) came from the midden. There was slightly more gnawing and burning occurring in the midden archaeofauna, while the cutmarks were identified at a similar rate between the two features. Most of the rarer taxa were identified in only one feature: shearwater in House B, and albatross, bear, beluga and flat fish in the midden.

109 The presence/absence and physiological methods of seasonality combined with ethnographic data on seasonal rounds indicate that NOM-146 was inhabited throughout the year. Species indicative of winter habitation include ptarmigan, neonatal pinniped, ringed seal, tundra hare, and young caribou. Summer use is shown by the presence of migratory birds, young beluga, and salmon. The archaeofauna recovered from NOM-146 suggest a diet generally based on small sea mammals, with important seasonal concentrations of birds, and small terrestrial mammals, and fishes.

110 Chapter Seven: Seward Peninsula Comparative Sites Archaeofaunas As shown in Chapter Three, numerous Western Thule sites have been identified on the Seward Peninsula. Unfortunately, few of those sites have been excavated, and even fewer have had the recovered archaeofauna analyzed. The following sites have published faunal analyses (Figure 7.1): the Nuk site (SOL-002); Ayasayuk (NOM-009); Uqshoyak (TEL-155); Kurigitavik Mound, Beach and Hillside sites of the Wales Archaeological District (TEL-079, TEL-026, and TEL-025); three sites in the Ikpek area (TEL-086, TEL-093, and TEL-104); the Kitluk River site (KTZ-145); three sites at Cape Espenberg (KTZ-087, KTZ-088, and KTZ-101); Western Thule Houses 1 and 2 of the Deering Archaeological District (KTZ-300 and KTZ-301, respectively); Cloud Lake Village (BEN-033); the Salix Bay site (BEN-106); and Kuzitrin Lake West Village (BEN-053).

111

Figure 7.1: Location of Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula used in intersite comparisons. Assemblages containing a minimum NISP of approximately 300 to 400 specimens are usually large enough to accurately represent the major taxa utilized at the site (Amorosi et al. 1996:134). Of the 18 published Western Thule archaeofaunal assemblages on the Seward Peninsula, three have too few specimens to accurately portray the subsistence practices. Therefore, the archaeofaunal data from SOL-002 (Smith 1985:15) and from TEL-086 and TEL-093 (Saleeby 1994:331-334) are not reported here. Ayasayuk (NOM-009). NOM-009 is near Cape Nome on the northern coast of Norton Sound. A one-meter-wide trench of unknown length was excavated through the

112 midden in 1974 (Bockstoce 1979). The underlying features were identified as not more than five hundred years old while some unexcavated portions of the site were occupied into historic times (Bockstoce 1979:81). Due to slumping and erosion, no stratigraphy was determined and the age of the recovered artifacts was identified only on the basis of the artifact typology (Bockstoce 1979). A total NISP of 1,598 faunal remains were recovered from the site (Bockstoce 1979:84; Table 7.1). Table 7.1: NOM-009 vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale (Large) Beluga Walrus Bearded Seal Small Ice Seal Dog Caribou Unidentified Mammal Duck Goose Swan Jaeger Salmon Source: Bockstoce (1979). NISP 11 2 5 101 943 1 18 465 30 2 1 1 7

Uqshoyak (TEL-155). TEL-155 is on an eroding bluff on the Bering Sea coast, southeast of Wales. Its archaeofauna were recovered in 2000 and 2002 from multiple units around and in two house features (ENRI 2003:19-20). The site was dated radiometrically to between A.D. 1440 and 1640 (ENRI 2003:33). The total vertebrate NISP for the site was 9,784 (ENRI 2003:73-84; Table 7.2 and Table 7.3). Some of the faunal remains identified from the site were likely either misidentified or represent long-

113 distance trade items. Beaver do not occur on the western Seward Peninsula, and are thought not to have occurred anywhere on the peninsula until recently (MacDonald and Cook 2009:78). Moose were not known to occur on the Seward Peninsula until after the 1940s (Burch 1998:293; MacDonald and Cook 2009:217; Oquilluk 1973:231). Dalls sheep, the only sheep species that inhabits Alaska, do not occur on the Seward Peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009:232) (although Oquilluk [1973:231] lists them as a subsistence species for the Qaviaragmiut). And Cape Prince of Wales and the northern coast of Norton Sound are the northernmost limits of the ranges of both northern fur seal and Stellers sea lion (MacDonald and Cook 2009:176-178).

114 Table 7.2: TEL-155 mammal remains. Taxa Whale Baleen Whale Beluga Porpoise Walrus Northern Sea Lion Alaska Fur Seal Bearded Seal Spotted/Harbor Seal Ringed Seal Ice Seal Pinniped Unidentified Sea Mammal Unidentified Carnivore Brown Bear Dog Canine Canid Arctic Fox Caribou Moose Even-Toed Ungulate Sheep Beaver Arctic Ground Squirrel Alaska Vole Rodent Unidentified Land Mammal Unidentified Mammal Source: ENRI (2003). NISP 253 1 1 1 165 8 8 63 2,469 123 2,001 657 464 2 1 99 43 8 58 112 1 1 1 1 78 2 4 12 2,304

115 Table 7.3: TEL-155 bird and fish remains.

Taxa Marbled Murrelet Rhinoceros Auklet Common Murre Auklet Puffin Alcid Common Teal Surface Feeding Ducks Canada Goose Goose White-winged Scoter Surf Scoter Scoter King Eider Anatid Gull Glaucous Gull Albatross Cormorant Common Loon Loon Raven Ptarmigan Unidentified Bird Unidentified Mammal/Bird Pacific Halibut Pacific Cod Unidentified Fish NISP 2 3 15 8 3 14 2 24 3 13 73 3 22 226 17 15 1 4 73 1 1 6 23 253 3 1 2 32

Source: ENRI (2003). Wales Hillside Site (TEL-025). TEL-025 is in the village of Wales, located on Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea. The site was radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 980 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna included here are from a preliminary presentation on faunal remains recovered from the site in 1996, 1998, and 1999 (Russell and Harritt 2011). Although a total NISP of 519 was reported (Russell and Harritt

116 2011:9), between 464 and 505 specimens were listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:12-20, 53). An NISP of 231 vertebrates was listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:12-20; Table 7.4). Table 7.4: TEL-025 vertebrate remains.
Taxa Walrus Bearded Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Ice Seal Unidentified Carnivore Bear Canine Canid Caribou Even-Toed Ungulate Unidentified Mammal Scoter Murre Alcid Unidentified Bird NISP 31 2 1 3 64 2 2 5 1 8 10 95 3 1 2 9

Source: Russell and Harritt (2011). Wales Beach Site (TEL-026). TEL-026 is west of TEL-025, in the village of Wales on Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea. The site radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 1485 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna described here were from a preliminary presentation on faunal remains recovered from the site between 1998 and 2001, and in 2004 (Russell and Harritt 2011). Although a total NISP of 18,249 was reported (Russell and Harritt 2011:23), between 13,878 and 25,987 were listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:26-35, 53). Of those, an NISP between 12,665 and 23,884 belonged to vertebrates (Russell and Harritt 2011:26-35, 53; Table 7.5). Large whale elements were not collected during excavation and are therefore not included in the data (Russell and Harritt

117 2011:34). The specimens identified as rabbit are most likely snowshoe or tundra hare, because rabbits are nonnative to Alaska (MacDonald and Cook 2009:121). The faunal remains identified as Arctic hare are most likely snowshoe or tundra hare (also known as Alaska Arctic hare), because Arctic hares do not occur in Alaska (MacDonald and Cook 2009:123). Table 7.5: TEL-026 vertebrate remains.
Taxa
Whale Baleen Whale Beluga Walrus Bearded Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Ringed/Spotted Seal Ice Seal Bear Dog Canine Arctic Fox Red Fox Canid Caribou Even-Toed Ungulate Arctic Hare Rabbit Lemming Auklet Murrelet Alcid Gull Scoter Duck Loon Snowy Owl Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish

NISP 37 43 3 1,285 48 3 39 116 9,883 6 17 365 30 26 5 5 4 16 9 1 267 9 51 11 72 30 1 1 263 11

Source: Russell and Harritt (2011).

118 Kurigitavik Mound (TEL-079). TEL-079 is near the village of Wales on Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea, northeast of TEL-026. The site was dated radiometrically to between A.D. 1045 and 1475 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna included here were from a preliminary presentation on faunal remains recovered from the site between 1998 and 2006 (Russell and Harritt 2011). Although a total analyzed NISP of 19,268 was reported (Russell and Harritt 2011:38), between 10,282 and 15,578 specimens were listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:41-51; 53). Of those, between 8,910 and 13,255 were vertebrates (Russell and Harritt 2011:41-51, 53; Table 7.6). No large whale elements were collected during excavation and are therefore not included in the data (Russell and Harritt 2011:51). The bird remains identified as velvet scoter are more likely white-winged scoter, since velvet scoters do not inhabit Alaska (Armstrong 2010).

119 Table 7.6: TEL-079 vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale Baleen Whale Porpoise Walrus Bearded Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Ice Seal Pinniped Bear Dog Canine Arctic Fox Red Fox Canid Caribou Surf Scoter Velvet Scoter Scoter Anatid Alcid Unidentified Bird Source: Russell and Harritt (2011). NISP 79 92 7 1,745 61 137 193 2,951 1,899 156 13 516 45 15 11 148 22 28 57 109 52 295

Ikpek Area Site (TEL-104). TEL-104 is on the coast of the Chukchi Sea, between the Lopp and Ikpek lagoons. The site was radiometrically dated to between A.D. 1250 and 1650 (Harritt 1994:207). The archaeofauna were excavated in 1989 from multiple features (Harritt 1994:192). A total NISP of 473 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby 1994:331-333; Table 7.7).

120 Table 7.7: TEL-104 vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale Beluga Walrus Bearded Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Brown Bear Caribou Deer Family Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Fish Source: Saleeby (1994). NISP 1 4 1 2 221 75 3 5 3 157 1

Kitluk River Site (KTZ-145). KTZ-145 is on a coastal dune at the mouth of the Kitluk River. It is approximately 40 km west of Cape Espenberg. A badly eroded village site, the remaining partial house and midden features were excavated in 1993. Based on the artifact assemblage, the site was dated to ca. A.D. 1800 (Saleeby and Demma 2001:229). A total of 10,708 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby and Demma 2001:234; Table 7.8). Two identified specimens either represent trade items or are misidentified. Beaver do not occur on the western Seward Peninsula and until recently did not occur anywhere on the peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009:78), and Dalls sheep do not occur on the Seward Peninsula; their nearest identified range is north of the study area on the Lisburne Peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009:232).

121 Table 7.8: KTZ-145 vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale Walrus Bearded Seal Ribbon Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Unidentified Seal Mammal Wolf Dog Canine Arctic Fox Red Fox Fox Caribou Dalls Sheep Tundra Hare Snowshoe Hare Hare Beaver Muskrat Arctic Ground Squirrel Brown Lemming Vole Unidentified Mammal Dabbling Duck Gull Jaeger Grouse/Pheasant Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Unidentified Bone Source: Saleeby and Demma (2001). NISP 103 43 24 7 57 870 580 120 2 15 5 192 39 35 416 1 62 2 3 1 14 4 1 6 7,805 5 2 1 1 117 142 18

Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-087). KTZ-087 is on a dune formation at Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Test excavations of four features at the site

122 (Feature 10, 12, 47, and 50) were completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68, 81). Features 10 and 12 were dated to ca. A.D. 1275 (Harritt 1994:87), while Features 47 and 50 were dated to ca. A.D. 1440 (Harritt 1994:96). A total NISP of 576 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby 1994:331; Table 7.9). The single mammoth specimen identified from the site must represent a curated artifact, as the species is not known to have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the early Holocene (MacDonald and Cook 2009:54). Table 7.9: KTZ-087 vertebrate remains. Taxa Walrus Bearded Seal Ribbon Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Caribou Mammoth Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Source: Saleeby (1994). NISP 42 3 11 224 73 26 1 163 32 1

Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-088). KTZ-088 is on a dune formation at Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Archaeofaunal data are available from two separate excavations. Test excavations of three features (Feature 1, 24, and 30) were completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68, 96), and Feature 33 was excavated in 2010 (Foin et al. 2011). Radiometric dates were acquired for Features 24, 30, and 33. Feature 24 was dated to between A.D. 1550 and 1850 (Harritt 1994:105). Feature 30 was dated to between A.D. 1200 and 1300 (Harritt 1994:108). Feature 33 was dated to between A.D.

123 1675 and 1800 (Foin et al. 2011:30). It is important to note, however, that Feature 30 is actually part of KTZ-087 (Owen Mason, personal communication 2010), and therefore the inclusion of its faunal remains in the site assemblage may skew the data. A total NISP of 1,679 vertebrate remains were excavated in 1988 (Saleeby 1994:333; Table 7.10). The mammoth or mastodon specimen must be a curated artifact; mammoths are not known to have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the early Holocene (MacDonald and Cook 2009:53-54). A preliminary examination of the archaeofauna excavated in 2010 reported an NISP of 4,209 vertebrate remains (Foin et al. 2011; Table 7.11). Table7.10: KTZ-088 (1988 excavation) vertebrate remains. Taxa Walrus Bearded Seal Ribbon Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Brown Bear Canine Arctic Fox Red Fox Caribou Vole/Lemming Mammoth/Mastodon Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Source: Saleeby (1994). NISP 8 10 1 947 119 2 3 2 1 26 1 1 554 3 1

124 Table 7.11: KTZ-088 (2010 excavation) vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale Unidentified Seal Canid Fox/Hare Caribou Arctic Ground Squirrel Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Source: Foin et al. (2011) NISP 3 4,003 7 7 67 3 19 100

Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-101). KTZ-101 is on a dune formation at Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Test excavations of five features (Feature 1, 2, 3, 14, and 15) were completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68-69). Three features yielded radiometric dates: Features 2, 3, and 15 all dated to around A.D. 1650 (Harritt 1994:75, 80). A total NISP of 550 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby 1994:331-333; Table 7.12). The mammoth and/or mastodon specimens must be curated artifacts; mammoths are not known to have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the early Holocene (MacDonald and Cook 2009:53-54).

125 Table 7.12: KTZ-101 vertebrate remains. Taxa Whale Baleen Whale Walrus Bearded Seal Ribbon Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Polar Bear Brown Bear Canine Caribou Deer Family Tundra Hare Arctic Ground Squirrel Mammoth Mammoth/Mastodon Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Source: Saleeby (1994). NISP 1 1 10 19 1 273 49 1 1 3 40 2 1 1 1 3 125 17 1

Deering Western Thule House 1 (KTZ-300). KTZ-300 is in the village of Deering, located on the southern coast of Kotzebue Sound near the mouth of the Inmachuk River. The site was excavated in 1998 and 1999. It was radiometrically dated to around A.D. 1100 (Saleeby 2009:191). The analyzed vertebrate remains were sampled from the floor of the house feature (Saleeby 2009:191), and have a total NISP of 4,620 (Moss 2009:182; Saleeby 2009:192; Table 7.13). A total of twelve whale specimens were identified from both KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 (Strathe 2009:189).

126 Table 7.13: KTZ-300 vertebrate remains. Taxa Walrus Bearded Seal Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Ice Seal Canine Arctic Fox Caribou Hare Muskrat Unidentified Mammal Cormorant Pigeon Guillemot Ancient Murrelet Puffin Murre Alcid Black-legged Kittiwake Gull Jaeger King Eider Stellers Eider Long-tailed Duck Merganser Scoter Scaup Diving/Sea Duck Duck Goose Ptarmigan Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Unidentified Bone Source: Moss (2009) and Saleeby (2009). NISP 1 5 7 153 293 5 70 4 145 764 1 2,280 2 2 1 6 22 12 5 1 1 3 1 2 3 7 7 378 1 19 26 169 54 110

127 Deering Western Thule House 2 (KTZ-301). KTZ-301 is in the village of Deering, near KTZ-300. The site was excavated in 1998 and was radiometrically dated to around A.D. 1150 (Saleeby 2009:194). The vertebrate remains were sampled from bucketshots assumed to be from the floor of the house feature, and have a total NISP of 1,120 (Moss 2009:182; Saleeby 2009:195; Table 7.14). A total of twelve whale specimens were identified from both KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 (Strathe 2009:189). Table 7.14: KTZ-301 vertebrate remains. Taxa Spotted Seal Ringed Seal Small Ice Seal Ice Seal Brown Bear Canine Arctic Fox Caribou Hare Arctic Ground Squirrel Unidentified Mammal Puffin Murre Alcid Black-legged Kittiwake Gull Diving/Sea Duck Duck Goose Ptarmigan Unidentified Bird Unidentified Fish Unidentified Bone Source: Moss (2009) and Saleeby (2009). NISP 8 77 157 8 3 7 11 308 104 1 382 1 8 3 7 4 6 3 4 6 4 1 7

128 Cloud Lake Village (BEN-033). BEN-033 is on the edge of a small pond just east of Cloud Lake. It is about 15 km north of Imuruk Lake. In 1975, a 14 m-long trench was excavated through its largest house feature and a small midden (Adams 1982:143). The house was probably a qargi (Adams 1982:200), and based on the ceramic assemblage was dated to between the late1700s and early 1800s A.D. (Adams 1982:199). A total NISP of 6,643 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Adams 1982:186; Table 7.15). Probably 95% of the unidentified mammal bone is caribou (Adams 1982:187). Table 7.15: BEN-033 vertebrate remains. Taxa Bearded Seal Caribou Arctic Ground Squirrel Unidentified Mammal Anatid Source: Adams (1982). NISP 4 2,727 4 3,903 5

Salix Bay Site (BEN-106). BEN-106 is on Imuruk Lake. The site was radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 1450 (Harritt 1994:230). The archaeofauna came from a 1 x 2 m trench excavated in 1990 (Harritt 1994:232). A total NISP of 577 vertebrate remains were recovered (Saleeby 1994:331, 333; Table 7.16).

129 Table 7.16: BEN-106 vertebrate remains. Taxa Wolf Red Fox Caribou Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Bird Source: Saleeby (1994). NISP 1 1 386 187 2

Kuzitrin Lake West Village (BEN-053). BEN-053 is on Kuzitrin Lake. Excavated in 1990, archaeofauna were recovered from test pits in two features. The site was radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 1450 (Harritt 1994:223). A total NISP of 759 vertebrate remains were recovered from the two features (Saleeby 1994:331, 333; Table 7.17). Table 7.17: BEN-053 vertebrate remains. Taxa Caribou Deer Family Arctic Ground Squirrel Unidentified Mammal Unidentified Bird Source: Saleeby (1994). Regional Analysis The major taxa components of the NOM-146 archaeofaunal assemblage are most similar to those of three sites on the Seward Peninsula: KTZ-300, KTZ-301, and KTZ145. All four assemblages demonstrate a varied subsistence strategy. At NOM-146, pinniped remains make up 41% of the identified NISP, birds make up 26%, and noncaribou or canine land mammals make up 15% (Figure 7.2). At KTZ-300, non-caribou NISP 488 2 1 247 21

130 or canine land mammals make up 34% of the identified NISP, bird remains account for 33%, and pinnipeds 21% (Figure 7.3). The people at KTZ-301 put slightly more emphasis on caribou, with 42% of the identified NISP contributed by those remains, 34% by pinniped remains, and 16% by non-caribou or canid land mammals (Figure 7.4). At KTZ-145 there was a greater focus on pinnipeds (58% of the identified NISP), although caribou and other land mammals account for 15% and 13% of the assemblage, respectively (Figure 7.5). It is important to note that, although NOM-146, KTZ-145, and the two sites in Deering are on opposite sides of the Seward Peninsula, they are all located on coastal sand dune or spit formations at river mouths emptying into shallow (between 9 - 15 m) water (NOAA 2004, 2007).

Fish Land Mammal

NOM-146
Pinniped

Canine Caribou Whale

Bird

Figure 7.2: Composition of NOM-146 archaeofauna; NISP=5,605 (unidentified remains not included).

131

Fish Land Mammal

Pinniped

KTZ-300

Canine Caribou

Bird

Figure 7.3: Composition of KTZ-300 archaeofauna; NISP=2,230 (unidentified remains not included).

Fish Land Mammal

KTZ-301
Canine Pinniped

Caribou

Bird

Figure 7.4: Composition of KTZ-301 archaeofauna; NISP=731 (unidentified remains not included).

132

Fish Land Mammal Canine

KTZ-145

Caribou

Pinniped Bird Whale

Figure 7.5: Composition of KTZ-145 archaeofauna; NISP=2,765 (unidentified remains not included). Ten archaeofaunal assemblages from nine of the sites on the Seward Peninsula were heavily dominated by pinniped remains. Pinniped remains accounted for 78% of the identified NISP at TEL-155 (Figure 7.6), and more than 80% of the identified NISP of three site assemblages: TEL-079 (Figure 7.7), KTZ-101 (Figure 7.8), and KTZ-087 (Figure 7.9). Pinniped remains accounted for 90% of the identified NISP from both TEL025 and TEL-026 in Wales (Figures 7.10 and 7.11). Pinniped remains contributed 92% of the identified NISP at NOM-009 (Figure 7.12), and 95% at TEL-104 (Figure 7.13). Both the 1988 and 2010 excavations of KTZ-088 recovered archaeofaunal assemblages heavily skewed towards pinnipeds (97% and 95% of the identified NISP, respectively) (Figures 7.14 and 7.15). All of the sites are located on the coast. Except for one site, none are close to the mouths of rivers. The site that is located at a river mouth, TEL-155, has the lowest percentage of pinniped remains of the nine sites.

133

Canine Caribou Bird Whale

Land Mammal

Fish

TEL-155

Pinniped

Figure 7.6: Composition of TEL-155 archaeofauna; NISP=9,784 (unidentified remains not included).

Canine Caribou Bird Whale

Land Mammal

TEL-079

Pinniped

Figure 7.7: Composition of TEL-079 archaeofauna; NISP=8,910 (unidentified remains not included).

134
Land Mammal Fish

Canine Caribou Bird Whale

KTZ-101

Pinniped

Figure 7.8: Composition of KTZ-101 archaeofauna; NISP=421 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

Caribou Bird

Fish

KTZ-087

Pinniped

Figure 7.9: Composition of KTZ-087 archaeofauna; NISP=412 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

135
Caribou Canine Land Mammal Bird

TEL-025

Pinniped

Figure 7.10: Composition of TEL-025 archaeofauna; NISP=335 (unidentified remains not included).

Canine Land Mammal Caribou Fish Bird Whale

TEL-026

Pinniped

Figure 7.11: Composition of TEL-026 archaeofauna; NISP=12,665 (unidentified remains not included).

136
Canine Land Mammal Caribou Fish Bird Whale

NOM-009

Pinniped

Figure 7.12: Composition of NOM-009 archaeofauna; NISP=1,133 (unidentified remains not included).

Caribou Whale

Land Mammal Fish

TEL-104

Pinniped

Figure 7.13: Composition of TEL-104 archaeofauna; NISP=316 (unidentified remains not included).

137
Caribou Bird Whale Canine Land Mammal Fish

KTZ-088 (2010)

Pinniped

Figure 7.14: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 2010; NISP=4,209 (unidentified remains not included).

Caribou Canine Land Mammal Bird Fish

KTZ-088 (1988)

Pinniped

Figure 7.15: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 1988; NISP=1,124 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

138 The archaeofaunal assemblages of the three sites in the interior of the Seward Peninsula understandably have few, if any, marine mammal specimens. Most of the faunal remains at all three sites are from caribou. At BEN-053, 96% of the identified NISP belong to caribou (Figure 7.16), and caribou specimens contributed over 99% of the identified NISP at both BEN-106 and BEN-033 (Figures 7.17 and 7.18). All three sites are located by upland lakes or ponds, more than 45 km from the coast.

Land Mammal

Bird

BEN-053

Caribou

Figure 7.16: Composition of BEN-053 archaeofauna; NISP=512 (unidentified remains not included).

139
Canine Land Mammal Bird Fish

BEN-106

Caribou

Figure 7.17: Composition of BEN-106 archaeofauna; NISP=390 (unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Bird Land Mammal

BEN-033

Caribou

Figure 7.18: Composition of BEN-033 archaeofauna; NISP=2740 (unidentified remains not included).

140 Summary Archaeofaunal analyses on assemblages large enough for regional analysis were available for 16 Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula. Most of the sites were on the coast; however, three were in the interior uplands. The faunal remains from the three upland sites were composed primarily of caribou. The assemblages from nine of the coastal sites were heavily skewed toward pinniped remains, while the faunal remains from one coastal site were only slightly skewed towards small sea mammals. Three sites, including NOM-146, demonstrated a varied subsistence strategy; the most common taxon only accounted for about 40% of the assemblage. The caribou-heavy sites and those sites with varied subsistence had more geographic similarity than sites that relied on pinnipeds. The varied sites were at river mouths that emptied into shallow water.

141 Chapter Eight: Discussion Site Comparisons to Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns The Western Thule sites described above are in five of the traditional socioterritories identified by Ray (1964, 1967, 1975) and Burch (1980, 1988, 1998, 2006) (Figure 8.1). Only three of the 16 archaeofaunal assemblages (NOM-009, BEN-053, and KTZ-145) strongly adhere to the general historic subsistence patterns associated with the territories within which they are located. The three sites around Wales (TEL-025, TEL026, and TEL-079) may or may not follow the whaling pattern associated with the Kingikmiut territory; the fact that no large whale skeletal specimens were included in the preliminary analyses of their assemblages greatly limits our understanding of the importance of whales in the subsistence practices of these sites.

142

Figure 8.1: Location of comparative Western Thule sites and traditional Iupiaq territories. Map based off of Grover (2005) and Schaaf (1995). The other assemblages recovered from the Kingikmiut territory (TEL-104 and TEL-155) suggest less emphasis on whaling than expected. Burch (2006:48) notes, however, that historically most Kingikmiut whaling was based out of Wales, and after the early spring bowhead hunt, people dispersed to seek walrus and other game. The people who inhabited TEL-104 and TEL-155 may have also traveled to Wales for seasonal whaling.

143 It can be argued that KTZ-145, the only site in the Tapqagmiut territory, does follow the small sea mammal pattern, but with its slight emphasis on pinniped remains its focus is far less obvious than the sites on Cape Espenberg or Cape Nome. All four assemblages from the three sites on Cape Espenberg noticeably follow the small sea mammal pattern. The similarity between the two faunal assemblages recovered from KTZ-088 more than 20 years apart strengthens this interpretation. As noted in Chapter Two, the Pittagmiut territory does not fit a single subsistence pattern. This is supported by the large quantity of pinnipeds recovered from Cape Espenberg, the extreme bias towards caribou seen at BEN-033 and BEN-106, and the near impartiality demonstrated by the faunal remains from KTZ-300 and KTZ-301. This may indicate that the Pittagmiut Iupiat adhered to several different seasonal rounds, or that there were additional boundaries within the identified socioterritory. The faunal remains from KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 at Deering provide an interesting look at the differences between geographically and temporally close sites. While both sites demonstrated more of an equal emphasis on the major taxa than most of the comparative sites, the taxa that they favor are different. KTZ-301 showed a slight stress on caribou, followed by seal. The people at KTZ-300 appear to have been more interested in small terrestrial mammals and birds. Although the village of Deering is associated with the caribou hunting pattern (Ray 1964:71), Burch (2006:45, 48) noted an emphasis placed on seals in the fall and winter. With this in mind, the archaeofauna from

144 KTZ-301 are more consistent with the expected Deering pattern than those from KTZ300. The fact that at least one of the caribou-focused sites in the Pittagmiut territory was a permanent winter village (based off of the presence of a qargi) and therefore did not carry out winter sealing as suggested by Burch (2006:45) indicates that the people of BEN-033 and BEN-106 had more in common with the occupants of nearby BEN-053 then with the people of Deering or Cape Espenberg. The single archaeofaunal assemblage from the Qaviaragmiut territory (BEN-053) follows the expected caribou hunting pattern. The faunal remains from one of the two sites (NOM-009) in the Ayasaagiaagmiut territory follow the expected small sea mammal pattern. Although the archaeofaunal assemblage from NOM-146 has a slight emphasis on pinniped remains, it is not as much as one might expect for the small sea mammal pattern. The importance placed on birds at NOM-146 is greater than any comparative site other than KTZ-300. Although it would be easy to attribute the NOM-146 bird remains to the proximity of Safety Sound, NOM009 is closer to the sound and few avifauna were recovered from that site. It is interesting to note, however, that Ray (1964:71) was informed that historically villages were not established in the Safety Sound area unless ptarmigan and hare were found nearby. The large amount of tundra hare and ptarmigan recovered from NOM-146 endorse that oral tradition.

145 Summary. Although archaeofaunal assemblages from only three sites (NOM009, BEN-053, and KTZ-145) correspond robustly with their regions historic socioterritorial subsistence pattern, the faunal remains from six sites (TEL-104, TEL-155, KTZ-087, KTZ-088, KTZ-101, and KTZ-301) are consistent with detailed ethnographic reconstructions of historic subsistence for their particular areas within the territories. Because no large whalebone was included in the analyses, the archaeofaunal assemblages from the three sites at Wales were not comprehensive enough to test whether they adhered to the whaling subsistence tradition of the Kingikmiut territory. Of the remaining four sites, two (BEN-033 and BEN-106) seem to correspond more closely with a geographically similar site (BEN-053) then with the historic subsistence pattern of the area, and two (NOM-146 and KTZ-300) appear to have followed a more varied subsistence base than expected. Conclusion This thesis set out to explore the connection between Western Thule regionalization and the historic Iupiat socioterritories on the Seward Peninsula. Acknowledging the association between subsistence resources and cultural territories, zooarchaeological analysis of archaeofauna from the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM146) and intersite comparisons with published regional archaeofaunal assemblages were chosen as the methods to test the hypothesis. Rays (1967, 1975) identification of historic village subsistence patterns were extrapolated to the unique seasonal round of the

146 larger socioterritory (Burch 2006). Archaeofaunal assemblages were compared to the subsistence pattern expected of the territory within which sites were located. Potential distortions of the data include the fact that the major taxa of the archaeofaunal assemblages were identified by %NISP without taking the different meat weights and utility indices for the species into account. If meat utility indices had been generated, then the data may have resulted in better tests of goodness of fit with the ethnographic characterizations of subsistence. Many of the assemblages used in the regional intersite analysis represented only small, partial excavations of sites; sampling strategies may have affected the accuracy of the faunal representation. Additionally, some of the archaeofaunal data were obtained from preliminary faunal analyses; the data may change when the analyses are complete. Sixteen published faunal analyses from 15 sites were examined and compared to the archaeofaunal assemblage recovered from NOM-146. Assemblages from the three inland sites consisted almost entirely of caribou remains. Assemblages from nine of the 13 coastal sites were heavily skewed towards pinniped remains. Of the other four coastal sites, one was slightly biased towards pinnipeds, while the other three demonstrated more diverse emphasis on various species. NOM-146 was categorized as one of these sites: analysis suggested that although pinnipeds, especially small ice seals, were important to the people living at the Snake River Sandspit site, terrestrial mammals, birds, and fishes also played a significant role in their diet.

147 After taking the lack of whale bone collection at some sites into consideration, 13 of the 16 sites provided valid archaeofaunal assemblages to test the hypothesis. Nine of the sites corresponded with either the expected general socioterritorial subsistence pattern or a more specific ethnographic subsistence pattern within the region. Two sites fit more closely with the subsistence pattern of the closely neighboring territory (which may indicate a shifted boundary line), and two sites had a more varied assemblage than expected (although factoring meat utility into the data may alter this result). In general, the results of this thesis indicate that, in spite of any minor alterations that may have occurred as a result of recent climate change, regional subsistence practices on the Seward Peninsula have changed relatively little since Western Thule occupation.

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