1
Atomic absorption spectrometry
Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is ananalytical technique that measures theconcentrations of elements. Atomic absorption is sosensitive that it can measure down to parts per billionof a gram (
µ
g dm
–
3
) in a sample. The techniquemakes use of the wavelengths of light specificallyabsorbed by an element. They correspond to theenergies needed to promote electrons from oneenergy level to another, higher, energy level.Atomic absorption spectrometry has many uses indifferent areas of chemistry.
Clinical analysis.
Analysing metals in biologicalfluids such as blood and urine.
Environmental analysis.
Monitoring ourenvironment –
eg
finding out the levels of variouselements in rivers, seawater, drinking water, air,petrol and drinks such as wine, beer and fruit drinks.
Pharmaceuticals.
In some pharmaceuticalmanufacturing processes, minute quantities of acatalyst used in the process (usually a metal) aresometimes present in the final product. By usingAAS the amount of catalyst present can bedetermined.
Industry.
Many raw materials are examined andAAS is widely used to check that the major elementsare present and that toxic impurities are lower thanspecified –
eg
in concrete, where calcium is a majorconstituent, the lead level should be low because it istoxic.
Mining.
By using AAS the amount of metals such asgold in rocks can be determined to see whether it isworth mining the rocks to extract the gold.
Figure 2
atoms there is in the vapour, the more radiation isabsorbed. The amount of light absorbed isproportional to the number of lead atoms. Acalibration curve is constructed by running severalsamples of known lead concentration under the sameconditions as the unknown. The amount thestandard absorbs is compared with the calibrationcurve and this enables the calculation of the leadconcentration in the unknown sample.Consequently an atomic absorption spectrometerneeds the following three components: a light source;a sample cell to produce gaseous atoms; and a meansof measuring the specific light absorbed.
The light source
The common source of light is a ‘hollow cathodelamp’
(Fig. 1
). This contains a tungsten anode and acylindrical hollow cathode made of the element to bedetermined. These are sealed in a glass tube filledwith an inert gas
–
eg
neon or argon
–
at a pressure of
How it works
Atoms of different elements absorb characteristicwavelengths of light. Analysing a sample to see if itcontains a particular element means using light fromthat element. For example with lead, a lampcontaining lead emits light from excited lead atomsthat produce the right mix of wavelengths to beabsorbed by any lead atoms from the sample. InAAS, the sample is atomised
–
ie
converted intoground state free atoms in the vapour state
–
and abeam of electromagnetic radiation emitted fromexcited lead atoms is passed through the vaporisedsample. Some of the radiation is absorbed by the leadatoms in the sample. The greater the number of
Figure 1
+-1. IonisationNe
°
Ne
+
+-2. SputteringNe
+
+-3. ExcitationM
*
Ne
+
+-4. EmissionM
°
M
*
M
°
M
°
Light
between 1 Nm
–
2
and 5 Nm
–
2
. The ionisation of somegas atoms occurs by applying a potential difference of about 300
–
400 V between the anode and thecathode. These gaseous ions bombard the cathodeand eject metal atoms from the cathode in a processcalled sputtering. Some sputtered atoms are inexcited states and emit radiation characteristic of themetal as they fall back to the ground state
–
eg
Pb*
→
Pb +
h
(
Fig. 2
). The shape of the cathodeconcentrates the radiation into a beam which passesthrough a quartz window, and the shape of the lampis such that most of the sputtered atoms areredeposited on the cathode.
ν
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