lNclus KNe\z

Ralph

E.

lvletts, S.J.

CI

? 7,
a

{- W
JSEA

o z

%roarlorr"d

.S

Washington, D.C. 1995

JSEA wishes to thank Jesuit High School, Portland, Oregon for the cover photo of students and teacher. JSEA also wishes to thank Richard Blinn, S.J. for his photo of Ignatius teaching catechism from Azpeitia, Spain.

THE DEAN

Design By: GROUP, II.CORPONATED

1995 Jesuit Secondary Education Association First Printing, October 1995

D-d;r *lco'
Ignatius Knew is dedicated to all those in Jesuit education whom I have had the pleasure of working with during the last seven years as a member of the Jesuit Secondary Education Association (JSEA) staff. Seven years ago when I started working for JSEA, I could not have written this book. Through my interactions with you individually and in the presentations I have done, your questions and comments have helped me sharpen and refine my understanding of what Ignatius knew about human learning. The clearer my understanding of the lgnatian concept of learning became the more I perceived that today's educational research is (re)discovering many of Ignatius'basic insights about human learning. This process began with my work with the Jesuit schools of the United States Assistancy, and in the last two years continued through my contacts with Jesuit education around the world. I am particularly indebted to my colleagues in Jesuit education from Latin America, whose questions and probings during my work with them, both in the Course for the Directors of the Schools in Rio de Janeiro in August 1993 and my inclusion as part of the resource team for the first ever meeting of all the educational apostolates of the Peruvian province in July 1994, rther sharpened my thinking. So it is with heartfelt gratitude to all of you and your dedicated work in Jesuit education throughout the world that I
dedicate lgnatius Knew.

cLrr o*,L.9

e rrt e r)c s

Many people have helped shape this final version of Ignatius Knew.I am very grateful for the helpful comments from the consultant members of the Commission on Research and Development (CORD): Nora Cronin, PBVM; Dick Gedrose; Tim Lannon, S.J.; Carolyn Lausch; Bob Perrotta; and Robert Walsh, S.J. I also owe a very special debt of thanks to Charlie Costello, S.J., Howard Gray, S.J., Walter Farrell' S.J., and John Padberg, S.J. who took the time to provide me with insights and comments about the Spiritual Exercises which were most helpful in expanding my knowledge and understanding of the methodology of the Spiril ual Exercises. Finally, I must thank the CORD office stafi Frank Turnbull, S.J. and Joe O'Connell, S.J., for all their help with proofreading, corrections, and clarifying questions and discussions throughout the process of writing this book. Without all the assistance everyone has given me, Ignatius Knew would not be in the shape it is in today.

Ralph E. Metts, S.J. Education Association Jesuit Secondary

Septembe 1995

C,ol1*
FORORD.
CHAPTER
.

of

ConTer'cs
xl

TERMINOLOGY: A PRELECTION A PROCESS BOOK ..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''. ' IGNATIAN PEDAGOGICAL PARADIGM. . . . PRELECTION OF IGNATIAN TERMINOLOGY ' PRELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY'

ESTABLISHING THE CONTEXT . '

10

CIIAPTER

PRELECTON. . SPIRITUAL EXERCISES: WHOLE PERSON INVOLVEMEN1 " " ACTION. SPIRITUAL EXERCISES: EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION, PERIOD THE STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER
PREPARATION FOR PRAYER. POINTS THE NIGHT BEFORE Ignatius' Methodology. . . . An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching

II

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY IN THE

SP/R

ITUAL EXERCISES ' '

'
.

11

ll

l3

l3 t4

l5
15

t5

l6
16

Ignatius'Methodology. ' ' ' An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching-'^'----THE SECOND PRELUDE_GRACE SOUGHT Ignatian Methodology . . .' An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching-' '-'--:^:. PREPARATION FOR PRAYER: CONCLUSION POINTS FOR PRAYER. ' . STRUCTURE OF THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER. . . ,
Meditation Contemplation . .
.

PREPARATORY PRAYER . . Ignatius'Methodology. . . ' An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching' ' ' ' ' --'.' ^-' PLACE THE FIRST PRELUDE-COMPOSITION OF

l6 l7

t7 t7
18 18 18

l8
19

,19 .21 .21

22

t9

Application of the Senses' An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching EXAMINATION OF CONSCIENCE. . ' Ignatius'Methodology. . ' ' An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching -'^'-'-^- --:-^,,' IGNATIN METHODS OF PRAYER: CONCLUSION CONCLUSION OF PRAYER

25 25

26

CHAPTER

EVALUATTON... ......33 CHAPTER III IGNATIUS KNEW HOW THE BRAIN WORKS . . . . . . .35 PRELECTON.. .......35 IGNATIANINDIFFERENCE. ........36 BRAIN-BASEDEDUCATION .....,..37 We Have Two Types of Memory: Spatial Memory System and Taxon Memory . . . . . 40 SpatialMemory ........41 TaxonMemory ........42 LEFTAND RIGHTHEMISPHERE RESEARCH ......42
IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITH BRAIN-BASED EDUCATIONANDLETTANDRIGHTHEMISPHERERESEARCH .

REFLECTON ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGYAND THE CLASSROOM. . . .

IgnatianMethodology.... An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching REVIE\ry AT THE END OF THE PRAYER PERIOD Ignatian Methodology . . . . An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching ANNOTAnONS . CoNCLUSION.. REFLECTIONAND REPETITION....

coLLoQtrY

II

continued

.......26
... .,.. ... ... . .27 . .27 . .27

.....26

. .26

......27

.......30
. . . . 31

...30

APPLICATIONOFTHESENSES... Memory Left to Right Hemisphere Summary

Taxon to Spatial

IGNANAN MEDITATION, CONTEMPLAflON AND

IGNATIANANNOTATIONS. The Unique Individual with a Unique Brain. Active Involvement in the Learning Process IGNATIANPREPARATIONFORPRAYER Ignatian Preparation for Prayer: AWhole Brain Process. . . . Summary

.......45 ...,..45 ,......47

.......47
. . . .47

. . . .45 . . . .46

Meditation:TwoTypesofMemoryandLeft/RightHemisphere... .....48

......48

Contemplation: Two Types of Memory and Left/Right Primary Role of Spatial Primary Role of the Right

....50

. . .49 . . .49

Hemisphere

Application of the Senses: Two Types of Memory and

Summary

Memory Hemisphere

.......50
. . . . 51 . . . . . 5l

....52

IGNATIANCONCLUSIONOFPRAYER.

Left/RightHemisphere .....52 SpatialMemoryandRightHemisphereProcessing ........53 Summary ....53 ........53

CHAPTER

continued The colloquy: spatial Memory and Left/Right Hemisphere skills

A Concluding Spatial Memory Technique V/hole Brain Involvement Post Prayer Reflection
'

III

54 54 54
55 55 55 55 55

CONCLUSION .. ..AN IGNAIIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING'' PREPARAflONS. . THE REFLECTION

REFLECTION ON IGNAIIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. . . '

coNcLUSION......

56
56 57

EVALUATION...
IV

..;...

CHAPTER

PRELECTION. . LEARNING STYLE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITH LEARNING STYLE AND WITH GARDNER'S MULTIPLE

IGNATIUS KNE\ry ABOUT MULTI.DIMENSIONAL LEARNING . . . 59

59

60

&

IGNAIIANANNOTATIONS..

INTELLIGENCES

The Unique Individual with Unique Learning Whole Person lnvolvement: Learning Style and Multiple lntelligences PREPARATION FOR Preparation and the Three Learning

Preferences

69 IGNATIAN MEDITAflON, CONTEMPLATION AND APPLICATION OF THE SENSES' ' ' ' ' " " " 69 Ignatian Meditation: Memory, Understanding, and Will "

PRAYER. Channels' PreparationandMultiplelntelligences. " Summary Summary

""

' . ' ' ' ' 66 .. " '67 ' ' ' ' ' ' 67

" " 67 " " 68 " " " 68 " '68

' ' '69

Contemplation: Imagination, Understanding, and

Summary

Will Exercises

'"""71

Application of the Senses: Imagination and

SummarY

Witl

"""'73

' ' '71

' ' ' ' ' ' '73

IGNAIIANCONCLUSIONTOPRAYER. The Colloquy and Interpersonal Intelligence The Colloquy and the Three Learning Channels' CONCLUSION.. ..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING'" PREPARATTONS. REFLECTION... CONCLUSION.. EVALUATION...

Musical intelligence: The Missing Intelligence in the Spiritual

' ' ' ' ' '74 " " " ' '75 ' ' ' '75 ' ' ' ' '75 '' " '76 ' ' ' '76

"""'73

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. ' '

'

"""''76 " '77 " '77 '""'78

' ' ' '77

CHAPTER

V IGNATIANAND CURRENT EDUCATIONALPARADIGMS . . . . .. . 81 ,... ...8I PRELECTION.. .....83 CURRENTEDUCATIONALTHEORYAND RESEARCH ........83 HIGHERLEVELTHINKINGSKILLS ....84 TEACHINGFORTHINKING.. ....84 TeachingasEnculruration.. .....85 TEACHINGOFTHINKING.. ...86 TEACHINCABOUTTHINKING AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY . . . . . . 87 TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS .. '87 IgnatiusandTeachingrThinking.. ....... ' 87 IgnatiusandTachingo/Thinking.... . . . 88 Ignatius and Teachin g about Thinking
TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND ..AN IGNATTAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''.

TV/OINTEGRATEDAPPROACHESTOLEARNING., ATLASCOMMUNITIES. . . . . 9I ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY ATLASCOMMUNITIESANDGOFORTHANDTEACH.... ....9I " . .93 DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING . . . .95 IGNATIUS AND THE DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING , . .96 DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING AND IGNATIAN PEDAGOGY

" " " . 88 ......89 '"..'"89

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM. . . . . . . . . . IOl " lo2 EVALUATION " FOR CHAPTERS III-V. ' ' . IO3 AN IGNATIAN REPETITION

CHAPTER

JESUIT EDUCATION AND IGNATIAN EDUCATION . . . ..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ABOUT AN IGNAflAN CLASSROOM'' PREPARATION FOR THE REFLECTION THE MATN PART OF THE REFLECTION. .

VI

IGNATIAN EDUCATION

107
108

110

lt1
111

REVIEV/ A LIST OF IGNATIAN PRINCIPLES A LIST OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND LEARNING THEORY CLASSROOM VIGNETTES . . . . . . . . CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 1 . . . . CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 2 . . . . . . CLASSROOMVIGNETTE 3 . . . . . CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 4 CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 5 CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 6 CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 7 CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 8 . . . . CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 9 . . . . CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 10 . . . . . . . .
.

coLLoQUY

..

fi2

lt2
il3
114

ll6
tt7 lt7
118 119

ll8 il9
t20

t2l t2l

122

CONCLUSION

t22

APPENDIX APPENDIX

A IGNATIAN TERMINOLOGY B EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY.

t25
.. 13s

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

.....

t{l
145

o-,vor-
Throughout the process of writing this book, I have received many helpful comments both about its contents and structure. Within those comments there have been some divergent opinions, particularly about both the structure and the content of the book. In an attempt to deal with some of these divergent opinions I would like to offer you some options for reading lgnatius Knew.

STRUCTURE
Several people have suggested that the first half of Chapter VI. "Ignatian Education," should be at the beginning of the book. Other people believe that the frrst half of Chapter VI should remain where it is because it serves as a synthesis of all that has preceded it. I have wrestled with this question and have, in fact, tried structuring this book both ways. If you ae familiar with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) terminology, part of the reactions to the placement of the first half of Chapter VI may be the difference between the Intuitive's style of processing information and the Sensate's style. My own sensate preference ultimately retained Chapter VI as originally written. However, if you process information intuitively you may well prefer to read the start of Chapter VI first and then return to the start of the book. If you prefer to process information more with the right hemisphere than with the left hemisphere, you will probably instinctively read the last chapter first since the right hemisphere processor usually needs to see the whole picture to know where the pieces fit. One technique for seeing the whole picrure is to read the
end of a book first.

CONTENT
The other area where there has been a variety of reactions to lgnatius Knew is both the way and the depth I have selected to discuss Ignatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises. For those who know the Exercises well, there may be certain aspects of lgnatius' methodology which I have neglected or not discussed in detail. From the start I knew that I was going to have to be selective in what I chose to discuss. I knew that I could not possibly include all the aspects of the Spiritual Exercises in great detail and depth. The principle which guided my choice for both what I included and for how I discussed it was that I am writing this primarily for an audience who has some, little, or no familiarity with the Spiritual Exercises. My purpose was to keep the explanations of Ignatius' methodology as simple as possible and to highlight the major elements of his methodology. In doing this, I have knowingly eliminated some areas which might have been developed more fully. I made that decision based upon the reactions of lay colleagues who read and commented on the manuscript. What I heard from many of them is that lgnatius Knew is readable and intelligible and it helped them clarify and unify key Ignatian ideas and concepts.

Finally, I made a conscious effort throughout the book to relate what I say about Ignatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises to the two main documents about Jesuit education today: Go Forth andTeach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education an"d Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach. Since both documents derive from the principles and methodology of the Spiritual Exercises,I wanted to make sure that I stressed the linkage.
jt

cerhope that the decisions I have made in writing |gnatius Knew will be helpful to you' the reader I tainly welcome any comments you may wish to make about lgnatius Knew. Now, however, it is time to find out what Ignatius did know and how we can apply that information in our classrooms.

*:t

CHAPTER I

etc..blushir,l

c1ne C once;xc

Nors

sense

of the sentence. There are a multitude of possible direct objects you could have supplied to finish this title. You might have simply added "what" and a question mark in your mind. If you did that, you are ready to begin reading, because you have alerted your mind to pay attention for answers to that "what" question. You might have thought, "I have no idea what Ignatius knew." You might have also added a personal comment such as, "I do not know, and do I really cae?" but if you are reading this far you have formulated some type of question in your mind for which you are seeking further explanations or answers. The title, "Ignatius Knew," purposely raises some questions, which hopefully will be answered during the remainder of this book' I had some specifrc questions in my own mind when I created this title. A few of these questions are: What did Ignatius with his sixteenth century knowledge of human understanding and leaming know that exists in twentieth century educational psychology and learning theory? What connections can be made between the Ignatian methodology of the Spiritual Exercises and current educational psychology and learning theory? What are the differences between an Ignatian educator in a Jesuit school and any other educator? V/hat already is occurring in the classroom that is Ignatian in its orientation? Are there other techniques that could be used in the classroom which would make it more lgnatian? There are certainly other questions which may come to mind as you begin to think about the relationship between the methodology of St. Ignatius Loyola in his Splrirual Exercises and current educational psychology and learning theory. These questions begin to establish a general context for the discussion that will occur here, but there are some additional considerations which will help to define further the context of this book.

o what did St. Ignatius Loyola know? The title has no direct object and whether you were aware of it or not you supplied some type of direct object to make

CONTEXT
The context in which this exploration will occur is the context in which we live and work. We are reaching the end of a century and the beginning of a new century' A great preoccupation exists about life in the next century' How will it be the same or different from the twentieth century? What will change? What new attitudes and skills will be needed to adapt to life in the twenty-first century? This concern is particularly evident in the educational world. Professional literature abounds with books and articles about the competencies needed to live in this rapidly approaching new century. Evaluations of education, its successes and failures, appear regularly in both profes-

sional literature and popular presses. The call for reform in education appears regularly in our newspapers and television programs. The "reform movements" in education in the United States are many. Besides what is generally occurring in education,

Jesuit education throughout the world has undertaken an examination of its philosophy and methodologies. Two recent documents, Go Forth an Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education' and Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach,' beckon educators in Jesuit schools throughout the world to examine reflectively their experience of what it is that makes Jesuit education, Jesuit education. Just as the Ratio Studiorum of 1599 established the norms and guidelines for Jesuit education for the next four centuries, these two documents are asking Jesuit educators worldwide to examine Jesuit education from the point of view of its basic characteristics and methodologies and to reemphasize a philosophy and methodology which are distinc-

tively Ignatian. Ignatian Pedagogy presents these challenges:

(21)

. . . Since the publication in 1986 of The Characteristics of Jesuit Education, a frequent question of teachers and administrators alike in Jesuit schools has been: "How can we achieve what is proposed in this document, the educational formation of youth to be men and women for others, in the face of present day realities?" The answer necessarily must be relevant to many cul'rures; it must be usable in different situations; it must be applicable to various disciplines; it must appeal to multiple styles and preferences. Most importantly, it must speak to teachers of the realities as well as the ideals of teaching. All of this must be done, moreover, with particular regard for the preferential love of the poor which characterizes the mission of the Church today. It is a hard challenge and one that we cannot disregard because it goes to the heart of what is the apostolate of Jesuit education' ' ' '

(ZZ) The first decree of the 33rd General Congregation of the Society of Jesus, "Companions of Jesus Sent into Today's World," encourages Jesuits in the regular apostolic discernment of their ministries, both traditional and new' Such a review, it recommends, should be attentive to the Word of God and

shoutd be inspired by the lgnatian tradition. In addition, it should allow for a transformation of peoples' habitual patterns of thought through a constant interplay of experience, reflection and action. It is here that we find the outline of a model for bringing The Characteristics of Jesuit Education to life in our schools today, through a way of proceeding that is thoroughly consisrenr with the goal of Jesuit education and totally in line with the mission of the Society of Jesus. We turn our consideration, then, to an Ignatian paradigm that gives preeminence to the constant interplay of EXPERIENCE' REFLEC-

TION andACTION'

Fonh ondTeach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Hucation is the United States version of T Clwracteristics of Jesuit Education (Rome, 1986). This document is known aslhe Characteristics of Jesuit Hucation tluoughout the world, but in the United States frequently is called Go Fonh ald Teach. Republished in Foundations (JSEA: Washington, DC, 14)' pp. 129'169.
I Go
2

lgnatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach is published in the United States in Foundations (JSEA: Washington, DC, 1994), pp.237-271.

TERMINOLOGY: A PRELECTION
You may have noticed that we are already using specifically Jesuit and Ignatian terminology. That, too, is part of the context of our discussion. It may be helpful if you take a few moments now and reflect about how many of the terms on the list of Jesuit and Ignatian terminology you know and understand (page 8-9). Additionally, you might also want to think about what each of these terms means regarding your work as an Ignatian educator. A glossary of these terms can be found in Appendix A. How did you do? Do not worry if there are several terms that you did not know. Part of the purpose of this work is to familiarize you with this terminology and to help you gain a fuller undersnding of what these terms mean and how they apply to and are used in Jesuit education.
Besides some basic Jesuit and Ignatian specialized vocabulary used throughout this book, there will be some specialized educational vocabulary. Take a few moments and see what you know about each of these terms (page l0). A glossary of these terms can be found in Appendix B.

A PROCESS BOOK

I need

to address another component for establishing the context for our discussions of what Ignatius knew. This is a process book. By that I mean spread throughout this book are various reflection exercises. Our discussions will assume that you have completed these reflection exercises. So I urge you to take all the time you need to complete the reflections contained in this book so that you will have a reflective experience to bolster your understanding of Ignatius' knowledge of current educational psychology and learning theory.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Our first reflection exercise in this book is one which I call "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching." This reflection is a critical one because it is the cornerstone upon which we will base the bulk of our future discussion about what Ignatius knew about current educational psychology and learning theory. You will find the steps for completing this reflection listed in the table beginning on the next page. I recommend ihut you set aside at least thirty minutes to complete this reflection. The column of the table containing Ignatian terminology is listed for future reference. If you do not understand it, do not worry about it, since the Ignatian terminology will be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters of this book.

tNa3;1art KNe\2

AN Icu.trIAN REFLEcTIoN oN TBACHING

Reflection Purpose
Steps to Follow in the Reflection Process

I would like you now to spend time thinking

about yourself as teacher. You can choose to reflect about either three s[ages in your life as a teacher or three particular days in your life as a teacher. If you choose to reflect about the stages of your life as a teacher, you might wish to think about your first year of teaching, a time in the middle of your teaching career, and finally a recent time in your teaching career. If you choose to reflect about three particula days in your teaching life, choose a day

Points the night before

on which things simply did not go well, an average teaching day where some things went well, some so-so, and some not that well, and lastly a day on which you were at your teaching best. If you decide to reflect about a difficult, average, and an excellent day in your
teaching life, please do these is the order listed here from difficult to good.

youa tim | St"p l. Remember quickly,when well'learned Spend and activities for I something easily, occasion' When the reflection I some time finding such an

Preparatory

Preludes: Preparatory Prayer

you have found such an occasion, take some time and enjoY it.

Preparatory

activities I continued I

S,.p 2. Now see yourself present. at several classes you have taught and attended in your lif". Take a few seconds and recall both
those classes you have taught and attended'

Composition of Place

ercoblsh-g "

arnlc-rt

An IcurrIAN REFLEcTIoN oN TEACHING coNT'D

Reflection Purpose
Preparatory

Norrs

Steps to Follow in the Reflection Process

Step 3. Ask yourself what it is you may want to learn about yourself as a teacher while you

Ignatian Tenninology
Grace sought

activities continued

during prayer

are doing this reflection. Are there any specific areas where you would like more under standing or appreciation of yourself as teacher? set up some purpose or form some questions for yourself to guide you through the reflection in the next step.

The refection

itself

will be three parts to this step. The directions will be the same for each part.
Step 4. There

Points for and

methods of prayer

A. In your imagination make yourself present in your classroom. See, hear, and feel what is occurring around you while you are teaching. You can do this two different ways. one way is to place yourself right in the event as an actor taking part in a play. The second way is to watch yourself in the event as if you were a camera following the action which is happening. (You can learn something by using both methods of looking at a past event.) B. V/hen something strikes you ls significant or important for you, stop and reflect about it. What is its mean ing for your life as a teacher in the past, present, and future? Does this idea suggest any additional ideas you might want to

consider? What does what you have learned from this experience suggest to you about your future teaching work? If something strikes you as extremely important, spend all the time you
need to think about

covering all the points listed here.

it without worrying about

C. Repeat this process for either the three stages of your teaching career or the three
different teaching days.

ICNCIUs KNC\V

Nores

AN ICNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING CONT'D

Reflection Purpose
Concluding activities for the reflection

Steps to Follow in the Reflection Process

Step 5. Once you have had sufficient time to reflect about each of these points, conclude this exercise by having an imagined conversation with a respected teacher from some occasion in your life. Simply hold a conversation with that respected teacher sharing with him or her all that you have learned about yourself by doing this exercise. Notice any effect this conversation has on the overall experience of the exercise.

Ignatian Terminology
Colloquy

Reflecting

on I St"p 6. After you have completed the exerthe reflection I cise, spend a few moments thinking about the
processes

you used during the exercise. Which ones were particularly helpful for
you? Which ones were less helpful? If you did a similar exercise in the future, are there

Post prayer analysis

things you learned from doing this exercise which would be important to use again? Are there things which may not have worked that well here, but which you might want to try in a different time and context?

for our disThe exercise which you just completed is an important part of the context what Ignatius knew and its relationship to current educational psy-

cussion about grounding chology and learning theory. It provides us with a common experience for because our discussion. We will refer ro this exercise frequently throughout this book used during a prayer it contains many of the basic elements of Ignatian methodology you period in the Spiritual Exercises. If you have not made the Spiritual Exercises, now have a basic, but limited, experience of Ignatian prayer methodology.

scoStirhi-g

clte Conre-*c

IGNATIAN PEDAGOGICAL PARADIGM

One final point is necessary for establishing the context of this book. It is the Ignatian PedagogicalParadigm of context, experience, reflecton, action, and naluatioz presented inlgnatian Pedagog. This paradigm is important to the context of this book because

Norts

interplay of experience, reflection, and action as the means for evaluating one's life and how one lives and will live it in a personal relationship with God. While we will explore this paradigm in more detail in later chapters, it is important to have a basic understanding of how these dynamic elements work. Ignatian Pedagog describes the interaction of experience, reflection and action in the Spiritual Exercises in this way:

it closely models the Spiritaal

Exercses

of St. Ignatius, which stress the continual

(25) A fundamental

dynamic of the Spirinral Exercises of Ignatius is the continual call to reflect upon the entirety ofone's experience in prayer in order to discern where the Spirit of God is leading. Ignatius urges reflection on human experience as an essential means of validating its authenticity, because without prudent reflection delusion readily becomes possible and without careful reflection the signih cance of one's experience may be neglected or trivialized. Only after adequate reflection on experience and interior appropriation of the meaning and implications of what one studies can one proceed freely and confidently toward choosing appropriate courses of action that foster the integral growth of oneself as a human being. Hence, reflection becomes a pivotal point for Ignatius in the movement from experience to action, so much so that he consigns to the director or guide of persons engaged in the Spirintal Exercises primary responsibility for facilitating their progress in reflection.

Ignatian Pedagogt also briefly describes how these iyna-i" elements of experience, reflection, and action are at work in the classroom:

(28)

Starting with EXPERIENCE, the teacher creates the conditions whereby students gather and recollect the material of their own experience in order to distill what they understand already in terms of facts, feelings, values, insights and intuitions they bring to the subject matter at hand. l,ater the teacher guides the students in assimilating new information and further experience so that their knowledge will grow in completeness and truth. The teacher lays the foundations for learning how to learn by engaging students in skills and techniques of REFLECTON. Here memory understanding, imagination and feelings are used to grasp the essential meaning and value of what is being studied, to discover its relationship to other facets of human knowledge and activity, and to appreciate its implications in the continuing seach for truth. Reflection should be a formative and liberating process that so shapes the consciousness of students-their habitual attitudes, values and beliefs as well as ways of thinking-that they are impelled to move beyond knowing to ACTION. It is then the role of the teacher to see that the opportunities are provided that will challenge the imagination and exercise the will of the students to choose the best possible course of action to flow from and follow up on what they have learned. What they do as a result under the teacher's direction, while it may not immediately transform the world into a global community ofjustice, peace and love, should at least be an educational step in that direction and toward that goal even if it merely leads to new experiences, further reflections
and consequent actions within the subject area under consideration.

INAC|US KNe\V

Nors

(2g)Thecontinualinterpla'.then,ofEXPERIENCE'REFLECTIONandACTION an in the teaching_t.urning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of

as we accomIgnatian pedaggy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools a fully human person. It is pany the l"u-1n his or her journey of becoming bring to the subjects an Ignatian pedagogical paradigm which each of us can to be adapted and applied proi.J*, *L.un, lnowing that it needs

to our own sPecihc situations'

we reach und

in greater detail' as While lgnatian Pedagog, explores each of these dynamic elements these citations give us of context and evaluation. well as ih" t*o additional "l.rn"nt,the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm, which will a brief, initial understanding of become clearer as we proceed with this book' "Ignatius Knew," we will With all of this as the context for our discussion about what then its connection first explore lgnatius' methodology in the Spit'itua/ Exercise'c and with current educational psychology and learning theory'

PRnrBcuoN oF lcx.lru.u TnnuINoLoGY

St. Ignatius LoYola

Society of Jesus
Jesuits

Spiritual Exercises

- Annotations - Nineteenth Annotation Retreat o Points - Preludes - Composition of Place - Grace Sought o Meditation ' Contemplation - ApPlication of the Senses o Examination of Conscience - RePetition - Colloquy - Principle and Foundation - The First Week - The Second Week

PnnrrcrloN oF IcNATIAN

TERMINoLoGY coNT'D

Norrs

- The Kingdom - The Two Standards - Three Classes of Persons - Three Ways of Being Humble - Election ' Discernment o The Third Week ' The Fourth Week > Conremplatio ad Amorem (The Contemplation to Attain the Love of God) - Finding God in AllThings
Ratio Studiorum (1599)

' ' o -

Prelection Repetition

Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education

Cura Personalis (Personalized Care and Concern) Active Learning

Reflection Faith that Does Justice

Men and Women for Others

Preferential Option for the Poor

Apostolic Instrument in the Service of the Church

Excellence

Magis (More)
Collaboration

Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach

Context Experience Reflection

Action
Evaluation

rqNcrus KNe\t

Nores

PnelncrloN oF EDUCATIoNAL Tr:RiulnoLOGY

Brain-Based Education

Spatial Memory
Taxon Memory

Hemispheric Processing

Left Hemisphere Processing

Right Hemisphere Processing

Leaming Style

= Visual Learners ' Auditory Learners - Kinesthetic Learners - Linguistic Intelligence ' Musical Intelligence ' Logical-Mathematical Intelligence - Spatial Intelligence - Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence o Interpersonal Intelligence - Intrapersonal Intelligence '
Teachingr Thinking
Teaching o/Thinking Teaching about

Multiple Intelligences

Higher Level Thinking Skills

T\inking

Metacognition
Teaching as Enculturation

Experiential-Based Learning

' -

ATLAS Communities
Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Learning

Authentic, Performance-Based, Alternati ve Assessment

Cooperative Learning

ro

CHAPTER II

lqr,o.,''t (T)ecl-odoLo91 ' e-. Spric*o,L e-*.-cses

ou have already taken the Jesuit and Ignatian terminology prelection in the previous chapter as paft of establishing the context for exploring the connection psybetween Ignatian methodology in the Spirituat Exercises and current educational primary purpose is the exploration, chology and learning theory. This chapter, whose explanation, and increased understanding of basic Ignatian terminology, has the fol-

lowing objectives:

To explain the Ignatian terminology found in the prelection To relate that terminology to "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" To discuss Ignatian methodologY To begin a process of reflection about Ignatian methodology and the Ignatian educator

To begin raising some questions about Ignatian methodology and what takes place in the classroom

PRELECTION
questions: As you recall the various stePs in that exercise, think about the following

Teaching'" Take a few minutes and reflect on the exercise, "An Ignatian Reflection on

this How many different kinds of intellectual functioning did you use while doing
exercise?

How does this exercise involve the whole person in the reflection process?

rNclus KNew

Nores

What steps and/or types of intellectual functioning in the process were the easiest for you? Because they were easy for you, what does this suggest to you about your own intellectual functioning and leaming preferences?

What steps and/or types of intellectual functioning in the process challenged you? Do you ur" uny of these types of intellectual functioning in other areas of your tifei Wnat do you think would happen if you started to use and develop some of these areas that are challenging for you?

If

you are familiar the Spiritual Exercises, how does this reflection exercise apiroximate Ignatian prayer methodology for you? Is there anything missing?

t2

lqnecion 'llerhodoL<'91- in c4re SPricuol e-xercses.

SPIRITUALEXERCISES:wHoLEPERSONINVOLVEMENT
exercises' designed to The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius Loyola are a series of life to help order her help the retreatant{ look reflectively at the experiences of her well the life in greaterdedication and service to God. Ignatian Pedagogt' describes purposes and methodologies of the Spiritual Exercises"

Norts

(24)Ignatius,spiritualExercisesisalittlebookthatwasnevermeanttoberead'at

used as a way to least as most books are read. It was intended' rather' to be prayer wherein they might proceed in guiding others through experiences of

meetandconverse_*iththelivingGod,comehonestlytogripswiththetruthof theirvaluesandbeliefs,andmakefreeanddeliberatechoicesaboutthefuture constructed and annocourse of their lives. The Spiritual Exercises. carefully engagingthebody,mind'heartandsoulofthehumanperson'Thustheyoffer
beimagined,feelingstobeevaluated,possibilitiestobeexplored'optionstobe

of the spirit wholly devotional practices. They are, instead, rigorous exercises

merely cognitive activities or tated in Ignatius' little manual, are not meant to be contemplated, scenes to not only matters to be pond"red, but also realities'to be reached and choices of considered, alternatves to be weighed' udgments to be individuals to seek and action to be made-all with the .^p,.,,.d aim of helping

findthewillofGodatworkintheradicalorderi.ngoftheirlives.

exercises that engage not The emphasis placed on the idea of completing a series of first imporjust the mind, ut also the body, heart, and soul of the person provide the believed that learning' espetant insight into Ignatius' concption of learning' Ignatius for Ignatius cially in the spintual life, did not occur solely in the mind. Learning the fact that and recognizes requires that the entire person interact with the material with all types of mental processes' Thus' for God works through the entire person body, heart, and soul must something to be learned and understood completely, the

u""ofnpunyanyintellectualknowledgeaboutaparticularsubjectmatter.

ACTION SPIRITUAL EnERCISES: EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION,

person must be involved in Equally important to the Ignatian belief that the whole occurs in an interplay of experithe learning process is lgntius' belief that learning directly from Ignati]us' Spiritual ence, reflection and uJ,ion. This belief derives experiences and reflects upon these Exercises where the retreatant begins with her with a variety of methods of prayer' experiences from a variety of perspectives and
according , The Latin sense of the word ..exercise" is that of "driving on" or "keeping busy" word that Ignatius had in mind when he talks

to webster,s Dictionary. It is this sense of the

o

about his SPiritual Exercises' Spiritual Exercises is "retreatant"--{ne who is The usual term used to identify one making the of one's life' Many times this occurs away in the process of looking at the spiritual dimensions withdraws a retreat house in the sense that one from one's daily routine*at a special location called prayer' to devote oneself to reflection and or retreats from one's usual surroundings in order t3

|NACIUS KNe\t

Nors

The result of these reflections on one's experiences leads to action. The three classic Ignatian questions of:

What have I done for Christ? What am I doing for Christ? What more can I do for Christ?

sum up this interplay well. Ignatian Pedagogy illustrates this process of experience, reflection and action in the Spiritual Exercises:

(25) A fundamental dynamic of the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius

call to reflect upon the entirety of one's experience in prayer in order to discern where the Spirit of God is leading. Ignatius urges reflection on human experience as an essential means of validating its authenticity, because without prudent reflection delusion readily becomes possible and without careful reflection the significance of one's experience may be neglected or trivialized. Only after adequate reflection on the experience and interior appropriation of the meaning and implications of what one studies can one proceed freely and confidently toward choosing appropriate courses of action that foster internal growth of oneself as a human being.

is the continual

With these two basic Ignatian themes in mind, whole person involvement and the interplay of experience, reflection, and action, it is time to examine closely the structure of an Ignatian prayer period to see how Ignatius uses this structure to develop these two themes.

THE STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD

breaks down an Ignatian prayer period into its various components and relates these components to the exercise, "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching."

Table

TABLE

SrnucruRg oF AN IcNATIAN PRAyER PIRIoD

Spiritual Exercises
l. Points the Night

"An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching"

Choice of the topic for the reflection Step

Before

2. Preparatory Prayer 3. First Prelude-Composition of Place

l.

Learning Ste

Step 2. Classes Taught and Attended

t+

Spiritual Exercises

"An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching"

Step 3. What do
I

4. Second Prelude-Grace

Sought
Three

I want to learn? of

Points

5. Points for Prayer-Usually

Step 4. Three stages or daYs

i
I

teaching The three divisions of SteP 4 touch all three of these tYPes of Prayer. They contain a mixture of the three types of prayer.

6. Types ofPrayer:

Meditation Contemplation Application of the Senses

7. Colloquy

Step 5. Conversation with a Master Teacher

8. Closing Prayer

Not used in this exercise.

Step 6. Reviewing the Reflection
Process

9. Review of the Prayer Session

explanation Each of these components of an Ignatian prayer period deserves some and comment.

PREPARATION FOR PRAYER

POINTS THE NIGHT BEFORE

Ignatius' MethodologY prayer n Ignatian prayer p"rioO begins with the preparation for the next morning's Exercises'describes this prepabefore one retires at night. Ignatius in his spiritual ration in this waY: sAll quotations, numeration, and terminology are from George E. Ganss, S'J',The Spiritual (st. Louis: Institute for Jesuit Exercises of saint lgnatius: A Translation and commentary Exercises referring to the book Sources, 1992). ln addition, Ganss'distinction of Spirituat

the Spiritual written by St. Ignatius and Spiritual Exercises referring to the process of making convention' Exercises will be used. See Editorial Note p. 221 fot a discussion of this

t5

rNcrus KNe\v

Norts

73 14

The First Directive. Upon going to bed at night, just before I fall asleep, I will think for the length of a Hail Mary about the hour when I should arise, and for what purposes: and I will briefly sum up the exercise I am to make.

The Second. Upon awakening, while keeping out any other thoughts, I will immediately turn my attention to what I will contemplate in the first exercise,
at midnight.

tinues upon awakening when one focuses one's attention on the subject matter of prayer to the exclusion of all other matters. Ignatius thus stresses setting a proper atmosphere for prayer through focusing the mind in a single direction. This focusing of the mind in a single direction is comparable to strategies that a coach employs to help athletes focus their attention on an impending game by excluding all distracting thoughts from their minds. It is also a strategy similar to one that many tutors and tutoring programs recommend for students having trouble with a particular subject. These programs regularly suggest that the student review the difficult material at the very end of the study period, try to remember the material just before retiring, and recall the material first thing in the morning after rising. This process also parallels previewing or surveying before reading a section of material. Previewing or surveying, along with setting up some questions to answer while you read, increases comprehension significantly for all types of reading. The Ignatian preparation process for prayer is a very sound psychological one because it focuses attention on the matter at hand and helps to direct one's undivided attention to the material to be considered in prayer.

The first step which Ignatius emphasizes in preparation for prayer is the recalling of the subject matter for the next day's prayer as one retires at night. This preparation con-

An lgnatian Reflection on Teching Besides the selection of a topic in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching," the first two paragraphs in Chapter I, which set up the context for the book, you began the process of focusing your mind on what it is Ignatius knew about current educational psychology and learning theory. These paragraphs also raised some questions for you to have in mind during your reading. While these paragraphs are different from the points the night before which Ignatius discusses, they are rooted in the same principles and theories that Ignatius stresses in his Spirirual Exercises. These basic principles are that comprehension and understanding increase significantly when one alerts one's mind to pay close attention to what follows. Ignatius knew and understood that careful preparation is an essential component in any learning process and adds three further steps to insure that careful preparation precedes the beginning of prayer.
PREPARATORY PRAYER

Ignatius' Methodology

The next step in the Ignatian preparation process for prayer is the preparatory prayer. Ignatius describes the Preparatory Prayer in this manner:

46

The Preparaton, Prayer is to ask God our Lord for the grace that all my intentions, actions, and operations may be ordered purely to the service and praise of the Divine Majesty.

George Ganss, S.J., in his edition of lgnatius' Spiritual Exercises, describes the function and importance of the preparatory prayer and the preludes:
The preparatory prayer and the preludes, each lasting a minute or so at the beginning of a prayer period, are means of recollecting oneself and performing the prayer in a better, reverential manner. Throughout lhe Exercises lgnatius considers them tobe of great importance.

Ignatius understood that taking the time to make the transition into prayer was particularly important to the whole process of prayer and helped to predispose one to pray better. Ignatius continues this preparation process with a preparatory prayer and the preludes, which immediately follow the preparatory prayer. The preparatory prayer irelps establish the proper atmosphere for prayer by having the person praying recall before God that everything that follows is directed by, to, and for God' The preparatory prayer is analogous to setting up a proper state of mind to cary out a specific task ciple because it continues to help the mind to both focus its attention and establish proper atmosphere for the upcoming prayer period'

such as reading, participating in a sport, listening to music, establishing an atmosphere for relaxation, etc. This type of transition process is also a sound psychological prin-

An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching Step I in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" partially replicates the establishment of a proper atmosphere for prayer which Ignatius creates through the preparatory prayer. In Step I you were asked to develop a state of learning excellence by recalling time when you learned quickly and effortlessly yet were able to recall important information later when you needed to use it' Proper learning states are a very important part of the learning process. Strong, positive learning states greatly facilitate learnng while negative learning states can greatly hinder leaming. The purpose of the learning state in the reflection exercise was to help you predispose yourself to learn quickly and effortlessly in the steps which followed.

THE FIRST PRELADE-COMPOSITION OF PIACE

Ignatius' MethodologY
prepaThis First prelude, called the Composition of Place, adds another dimension to the and ration process for prayer. Ignatius asks that the person praying take a few moments this way: begin to use her imagination. Ignatius describes the Composition of Place in

4'l

The First Prelude is a composition made by imagining the place. Here we should take notice of the following. when a contemplation or meditation is about something that can be gazed on. for example, a contemplation of christ the our Lord, who is visible, the composition will be to see in the imagination
Ladyhappenstobe,inaccordancewiththetopicldesiretocontemplate.

physical place where that which I want to contemplate is taking place. By physical plac I mean, for instance, a temple or mountain where Jesus Christ or Our

Ganss, endnote

#32,P' 155t7

rNcrus KNew

Norps

When a contemplation or meditation is about something abstract and invisible, as in the present case about the sins, the composition will be to see in the imagination and to consider my soul as imprisoned in this corruptible body, and my whole compound self as an exile in this valley [of tears] among brute animals. I mean, my whole body as composed of soul and body.

The Composition of Place provides a concrete and imaginative context for prayer especially if the material for prayer is abstract, like the general notion of sin. The Composition of Place marks the frrst, but not the last time, Ignatius uses the imaginative powers of the mind during prayer. It is a starting point for involving the whole mind in prayer and alerts the mind that it will be expected to use many different faculties during the prayer that follows. The use of the whole person and whole mind in prayer will be expanded during the actual points for prayer. The Composition of Place also begins to move the mind into the actual subject matter of the prayer and, to some degree, begins the actual prayer process. It is yet another piece in the process of focusing the mind to the matter at hand-prayer.

An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching Step 2 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" attempts to create an experience similar to the Ignatian Composition of Place. Since the reflection centers upon you as teacher, you are asked to see yourself present at those classes you have taught and attended. Step 2 assists the mind in moving easily into the process of reflecting about teaching by placing you in that context. Step 2 helps involve your imagination in the reflection process for the first time and to begin to activate other intellectual faculties rather than just verbal reasoning. THE SECOND PRELUDE-GRACE SOUGHT Ignatian Methodology The final part of preparation for prayer which Ignatius stresses is some statement of the grace one seeks from the prayer period. Ignatius states it this way:

48

The Second Prelude is to ask God our Lord for what I want and desire. What I ask for should be in accordance to the subject matter. For example, in a contemplation on the Resurrection, I will ask for joy with Christ in joy; in a contemplation on the Passion, I will ask for pain, tears, and suffering with Christ suffering.

The Second Prelude is simply a statement of purpose for this period of prayer and marks the conclusion of the Ignatian preparation processes for prayer. The stating of a "grace sought" forces the mind to answer the question, "What is it that I would like to have happen during this prayer period?" It serves to help focus the mind on what its purpose is for praying about these particular points. Once one has completed this Second Prelude, the preparation stages for prayer are finished and one is ready to begin the process of praying.

An lgnatian Retlection on Teching Step 3 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" parallels the

Second Prelude-Grace the mind to pay attention for specific information during the next Sought. Step 3 alerts

IE

ch

Spirrcucl e-xecses

It serves the same purpose as the questions you might formulate before you begin to read about a particular topic. When the mind has some sense of direction and purpose, it is much easier for it to attend to the task at hand. This is a very effective technique for focusing attention and facilitating retention of
sections of the reflection.

material learned.

PREPARATI ON F OR PRAYER : CONCLU SI ON

It is clear from the various

techniques which Ignatius stressed as part of the preparation for prayer that he had an intuitive knowledge of how the human mind works efficiently. Ignatius suggests a series of preparatory steps which help to focus the mind

involving the whole person and the whole mind in the prayer process. For Ignatius prayer is not simply a matter of verbal reasoning, but of involving the whole mind' specially the imagination. Many of these preparatory techniques which Ignatius stressed in the making of the Spiritual Exercises are the same as effective learning techniques stressed in educational psychology and learning theory today. We will explore this connection in greater detail in Chapters III, IV and V

on the task. With his preparatory techniques Ignatius also begins the process of

POINTS FOR PRAYER

STRACTURE OF THE SPIRITUAL EXERCISES
Before we look at what Ignatius says about prayer in his points for praye it will be helpful to get a basic overview of the structure of the Spirirual Exercises. Besides the baslc structure for prayer, Ignatius also has an overall structure in his Spiritual Exercises.Ignatius begins his Spiritual Exercises with what he calls the Principle and Foundation. Ignatius writes:

23

Human beings are created to praise, reverence' and serve God our Lord, and by means of doing this to save their souls. The other things on the face of the earth are created for the human beings, to help them in the pursuit ofthe end for which they are created'

From this it follows that we ought to use these things to the extent that they help us tward our end, and free ourselves from them to the extent that they
hinder us from it. To attain this it is necessary to make ourselves indifferent to all created things' in regard to everything which is left to our free will and is not forbidden.

consequently, on our own part we ought not to seek health rather than sickness, wealth rathei than poverty, honor rather than dishonor, a long life rather than a short one, and so on in all matters'
the Rather, we ought to desire and choose only that which is more conducive to which we are created. end for

t9

rNc:lus KNew

Nores

The Principle and Foundation contains the presuppositions which underlie the entire process of the Spiritual Exercises. Ganss describes the Principle and Foundation in this way:

By its clear statement of purpose of human existence on earth this Principle and Foundation orients the retreatant for his or her work during the Exercises and for living after they are finished. It is both the starting point of the Eercises and a

pr"*ir"

from which flow conclusions of the greatest importance for the spiritual life. It briefly presents God's plan of creating human beings who can use their freedom wisely to work out their spiritual $owth and eternal self-fulfillment: their happiness by glorifying God both on earth and in the beatific vision''

The principle and Foundation contains important Ignatian concepts. The first concept is that a person's ultimate end is to praise, reverence, and serve God. A second concept centers on how a person uses creation. A person should use created things insofar as they are helpful for her in achieving the ultimate goal of praising, reverencing, and serving God. If created things are not helpful in achieving this ultimate end' then a person should not use them. Another key Ignatian concept in the Principle and Foundation is indifferenc. Indifference stresses a basic attitude within a person for approaching creation. When a person is indifferent she approaches life without any pieOispositions in one direction or another, allowing herself to be open to doing the will of God in her life regardless of what direction it may take. We will discuss indifference in more detail in the next chapter'

Following upon this Principte and Foundation, Ignatius leads the retreatant through a series of exercises which he divides into "weeks." Each week has an organizing theme. The First Week focuses on sin, repentance for personal sin, and reconciliation between the retreatant and God. The Second Vy'eek asks the retreatant to reflect on the life of Christ from His birth until the beginning of the passion. The Second Week also contains some key exercises, like the contemplation on the Kingdom, which serves as a transition from the First Week to Second Week. The contemplation on the Kingdom asks the retreatant to see Christ as a King who is eminently worthy of following and imitation. It helps to establish a basic disposition toward the imitation of Christ that is rWeek. Another crucial to carry into the meditations about Christ's life in the Second of the key meditations of the Second Week, the Two Standards, reinforces this theme of the imitation of Christ. In the Two Standards, Ignatius has the retreatant consider the standard of Satan and the standard of Christ and reflect on which of these standards she wishes to follow. Ignatius includes two other exercises, Three Classes of persons and Three Ways of Being Humble, as part of the Second Week. Both of these greater imiexercises are designed to continue to help the retreatant become open to ration and service of Christ. The Third Week leads the retreatant through Christ's passion and death, while the Fourth Week focuses on the Resurrection and events associated with it.

'Canss, endnote #17, P.148'

20

ci (llecfioobg'l- in

he

icuJ

-xercises

The Spiritual Exercises conclude with the famous Contemplation to Attain Love

Norns

(Contemplatio ad Amorem). This exercise synthesizes for the retreatant the knowledge that God loves her. Given this knowledge of God's love for the retreatant, the retreatant reflects this love of God in the way she chooses to live in and interact with the world. The Contemplation to Attain Love contains the foundations for the unique Ignatian principle of "Finding God in All Things." For Ignatius, God is present in all of creation and all the works of the creatures of creation, not just in times of prayer and reflection. This notion of God's presence in all things is a fundamental principle

of Ignatian spirituality. IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER

part Once the preparations for prayer have been completed, it is time to begin the main of procesi. It is here that the notion of "exercise," meaning the involvement of the wtrote person in the process, occurs. One cannot simply read the Spiritual Exercises or suggestions for prayer. One must become actively involved in making the Spiritual Exercises if it is to have lasting and transforming effects. To involve the whole person in prayer, Ignatius introduces three methods of prayer used throughout the Spiritual Exercises-meditation, contemplation, and the application of the senses' Each of these types of prayer incorporates different mental functions in distinct ways.

Medindon During the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius teaches the retreatant a method of prayer called "meditation." Ignatius describes how a person meditates in his points for the meditation about sin:

50

The First Point wlll be to use my memory, by going over the first sin, that of the angels; next, to use my understanding, by reasoning about it; and then my will. My aim in remembering and reasoning about all these matters is to bnng
myself to greater shame and confusion, by comparing the one sin of the angels with all my otwn many sins. For one sin they went to hell; then how often have

I deserved hell for mY manY sins.

In other words, I will call to memory the sin of the angels: How they were created in grace and then, not wanting to better themselves by using their

were freedom to ieverence and obey their Creator and Lord, they fell into pride, hurled from heaven into hell. Next I changed from grace to malice, and were will use my intellect to ruminate about this in greater detail, and then move

myself to deeper emotions by means of my will!

facts for Ignatius suggests in these directions that the retreatant begin by recalling the the sin of the angels. The retreatant then moves to a relatively theoretical ui., recalls her "u"nt, consideration of what the ngels' sin means. Subsequently, the retreatant of own sins, initially focusing on a listing of personal sins and then on the meaning gain some insight and understanding of sin, these sins. When the retreatant begins to of personal she gradually moves away from rational considerations to an appreciation starts these sinfulness and its impact on her relationship with God. Once the retreatant associated with them, she moves deeper considerations and the emotional reactions 2l

rNcrus KNew

from merely considering sin in general or her specific sins to examining the consequences of sin and its effect upon her relationship with God.

becomes important to personalize these reflections and begin to relate them to oneself and one's personal reactions. The movement is also from sin in general to sin as it relates to the person and her relationship with God. When the retreatant begins to consider the implications of sin in her relationship to God, she begins to move to the area that Ignatius calls the will. The will is a key area for Ignatius because he believes that it is through the will that the retreatant begins to make changes in her life. The will is the area where action occurs in the lgnatian dynamic of experience, reflection, and action. By moving through these various cognitive processes during meditation, the retreatant employs a variety of mental faculties. The whole mind becomes involved during prayer, as well as the three dynamics of experience, reflection, and action of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm.

It is important to note the movement occurring in the meditation. One begins with memory, followed by rational considerations about sin. After these two steps, it

Contemplation

another form of prayer, contemplation, for the remainder of the Spiritual Exercises. In his contemplations on the Incarnation and the Nativity, Ignatius presents the basic techniques of contemplation. In the contemplation on the Nativity, Ignatius describes

After introducing the retreatant to meditation during the first week, Ignatius

uses

contemplation in this way:

ll4

The First Point.This is to see the persons; that is, to see Our Lady, Joseph, the maidservant, and the infant Jesus after his birth. I will make myself a poor, little, and unworthy slave, gazing at them, contemplating them, and serving them in their needs, just as if I were there, with all possible respect and reverence. Then I will reflect on myself and draw some profit. The Second Point. will observe, consider, and contemplate what they are saying. Then, reflecting upon myself,I will draw some profit' example, journeying and toiling, in order that the Lord may be born in the greatest poverty; and that after so many hardships of hunger, thirst, heat, cold, injuries, and insults, he may die on the cross! And all this for me! Then I will reflect and draw some spiritual profit.

ll5 ll

The Third Pant. This is to behold and consider what they are doing; for

Contemplation invites the retreatant to use another type of reflective Prayer leading to personal responses and actions. Contemplation has a different structure from meditation. After recalling the history of an event in the Composition of Place, the retreatant begins the main part of the contemplation by placing herself at a particular event through the use of the imagination. In the imagination the retreatant sees, hears, and shares in the actions occurring at the particular event. The retreatant then moves to a more rationalistic thought process of considering the implications for her life from the events experienced in the imagination. Finally, the retreatant turns to the will to make sure that what has been understood and learned in the contemplatin becomes a part of herself and her relationship with God. The mental faculties

.,.

used in contemplation are imagination, understanding, and will rather than memory, understanding, and will which Ignatius teaches in meditation. Ganss describes contemplation as "an easier and more affective kind of prayer"'than the memory-based

and more rationalistic thinking of meditation'

Applicton of the Senses Ignatius introduces one additional form of prayer during the second week of the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius calls this form of prayer, Application of the senses. Ignatius describes this form of prayer in this way:

l2l
122 123

. . . After the preparatory prayer and the three preludes, it is profitable to use
the imagination and to apply the five senses to the first and second contemplations, in the following manner.

The First Point.By the sight of my imagination I will see the persons' by meditating and contemplating in detail all the circumstances around them, and by drawing some profit from the sight.
The Second Point By my hearing I will listen to what they are saying or might be saying; and then, reflecting on myself, I will draw some profit from this. The Third Point.I will smell the fragrance and taste the infinite sweetness and charm of the Divinity, of the soul, of its virtues, and of everything there' appropriately for each of the persons who is being contemplated. Then I will reflect upon myself and draw profit from thisThe Founh Point. Using the sense of touch, I will, so to speak, embrace and kiss the places where the persons walk or sit. I shall always endeavor to draw some profit from this.

lZ4

125

Ignatius suggests that the application of the senses be used in the evening when the retreatant may be tired from the prayer sessions of the day. Its main purpose is to serve as a synthesis of what the retreatant has learned through prayer during the day. In an application of the senses the retreatant uses the five senses and applies them one at u ii." to the points over which she is praying. The process is a simple one of making oneself present at a particular scene. While present at the scene, the retreatant uses each sense on the scene and moves directly from applying the senses to the scene to some particular response to the scene without spending time in more rationalistic thought processes. Ganss comments about the application of the senses

in this way:

The application of the senses is another method of mental prayer. It has a long previoustistory but is described here for the frrst time inlhe Exerciss. In it there is less reasoning and drawing conclusions, and a more restful manner of absorbing in an affective and more passive way the fruit of the previous contemplations of the day' It
is .'not discursive, but merely rests in the sensible quality of things, such as the sights, sounds, and the like, and finds in them enjoyment, delight, and spiritual profit.''

t Ganss, endnote #61,p.162.

e

Ganss, endnote #66, PP.l63-1a.

23

rNc:rus KNew

Nors

This synthesizing of what has been experienced during a day of prayer is an tmporrant concept for Ignatius. Ignatius is a firm believer in gaining a deeper understanding and fuller integration of the material learned as an integral part of the person' He accomplishes this by using the techniques in the application of the senses, but he also ,tr"rr"i repetition as an important methodology of the Spiritual Exercises' Ignatius regularly suggests that the retreatant repeat either entire exercises or parts of exercises, especially those parts that have been particularly fruitful. Repetition for Ignatius is never simply reviewing or rehashing old material. Repetition always involves an attempt to gain more understanding, deeper insights, and deeper feelings about the material of prayer. Repetition, modeled on the Spiritual Exercises, is an important characteristic of Jesuit pedagogy.

An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching; Step 4 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" contains a mixture of techniques from the three types of Ignatian prayer. You first placed yourself at a particular event to see, hear, and feel what was happening as you viewed that event. This part of the exercise parallels the experience of Ignatian contemplation. You were then asked to stop and consider some things which struck you as important. This part of the reflection involves you in a more rationalistic thinking process found in meditation' Finally, you were asked to think about applying what you learned in this reflection, which moved you in the direction of some emotional response to the things being considered. It was also intended to begin to move you in the direction of some type of action as a result of this reflection exercise and, as such, parallels Ignatius' use of the will in the Spiritual Exercises.

While this reflection exercise contains some elements of the different types of Ignatian prayer, it does not fully approximate the experience of using these methods f pruy"r during the Spiritual Exercises. This is partly because it is a discrete exercise, not part of a series of exercises. There are also differences in the content of this reflection and the content of the meditations and contemplations in
the Spiritual Exercises.

EXAMI NATI O N

O F CO N

SCI EN CE

Ignatius' MethodologY Ouring the course of the first week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius introduces the retreatant to another type of prayer-the examination of conscience, commonly called .,examen" among Jesuits."'While the examen is not a form of prayer used directly the in making the meditations, contemplations, and application of the senses in the Spiritual E*ercises, it is a form of prayer used by the retreatant in conjunction with

For a thorough and excellent discussion of the examen in Jesuit religious life see Joseph A. ..The Most Postmodern Prayer: American Jesuit Identity and the Examen of Tetlow, S.J., (St' Louis: The Conscience, 1920-1990," Studies in the Spirituatity of Jesuits 26, no' 1
,0

Seminar on Jesuit Spirituality, 1994).

24

the other forms of prayer. The examen's purpose is to help the person to contlnue to develop a full and rich spiritual life." Ignatius describes the examen in a series of steps in his Spiritual Exercises' Ignatius advises the retreatant upon rising in the morning to think about a particular virtue to be cultivated or a fault that she wants to correct' At noon, the retreatant spends time in prayer, recalling particularly how she practiced the virtue or guarded against or fell into the fault. Ignatius urges the retreatant to recall the morning hour by hour regarding how she practiced the virtue or committed the fault. Once the retreatant has finished ixamining how she has succeeded or failed during the morning, she resolves before God to do better during the remainder of the day. The retreatant repeats this exercise later in the day at the end of the evening meal.

Nors

The entire process of the Ignatian examen is an excellent model of the experience, reflection, and action paradigm. The retreatant sets up a specific context, a virtue to be cultivated or a personal fault to be rid of, and then takes time during the day to reflect about her experiences regarding this virne or fault. After these reflections, the retreatant The decides on ways to try to do better in cultivating the virtue or avoiding the fault. whole process is an evaluative one which helps the person grow in the spiritual life'

An lgntian Reflection on Teaching "An lgnatian Reflection on Teaching" parallels the prayer process of the Spiritual the Exercises; however, it does not model exactly the process of the examen' Pieces of of the exercise are very similar to pieces in the examen, but the general context
examen is not replicated in the reflection exercise'

IGNATIAN METHODS OF PRAYER: CONCLASION

conIgnatius introduces three types of prayers in his Spiritual Exercises: meditation' diftJmplation, and the applicaiion of the senses. Each type of prayer has a slightly the whole person in the prayer ferent methodology. Ail three types of prayer involve prayer process. Each meihod of prayer stresses somewhat different ways of beginning prayer help to nd the mental faculties used during prayer, but all three methods of the material considered in lead the retreatant to make some personal response to one's expeprayer. All three methods of prayer are different methods of reflection on ii"n"". The results of these reflections lead the retreatant to take action in her life that will lead to greater dedication and commitment to God. The examination of conSpiritual Exercises' is science, which Ignatius introduces during the first week of the and action model' a concrete example of how to use the experience, reflection,

, see also George Aschenbrenner, s.J., "consciousness Examen," Review for Religious' 31 ' examen by having the person 1912,pp.13-21 which presents another way of looking at the I experience God in my life today?" This view of the examen

ask the question, "Where did to seeing the work of God in moves beyond simply looking at faults and cultivating virtues one's daily life.

25

|NACTUS

KNe\2

CONCLUSION OF PRAYER coLL0QUY

Ignatian Methodology After the retreatant has completed the points for a particular exercise in the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius has the person conclude the prayer session with what he calls a "colloquy." Ignatius describes the colloquy in this manner:

53

Colloquy. Imagine Christ our Lord suspended on the cross before you, and converse with him in a colloquy: How is it that he, although he is the Creator, has come to make himself a human being? How is it that he has passed from eternal life to death here in time, and to die in this way for my sins?
In a simila way, reflect on yourself and ask: What have I done for Chist? What am I doing for Christ? What ought I to do for Chnst?

In this way, too, gazing on him in so pitiful a state as he hangs on the cross, speak out whatever comes to your mind.

54

A colloquy is made, properly speaking, in the way one friend speaks to another, or a servant to one in authority-now begging a favor, now accusing oneself of some misdeed, now telling one's concerns and asking counsel about them. Close with an Our Father.

The colloquy helps move the prayer in yet another direction. Given all that has preceded the colloquy, the retreatant is now invited to share what has occurred by holding a conversation with a friend. Before that conversation begins, Ignatius has the retreatant return to the imagination and set up a specific setting in which the colloquy takes place. The idea of a conversation helps bring the entire person into the prayer process because any conversation between friends involves a whole spectrum of thought and emotions. In any conversation all types of both verbal and nonverbal interactions occur. If the colloquy becomes a true conversation, then the entire person becomes involved in the process and emotional responses to what is being shared flow naturally and spontaneously. The prayer session ends in a very natural, yet very powerful way. Clearly, the whole person becomes fully involved in a colloquy. An Ignatian prayer period concludes with a closing vocal prayer such as an Our Father.

An lgntian Retlection on Taching Step 5, a conversation with a master teacher in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching,"

parallels the process Ignatius suggests in his colloquy. You placed yourself in the presence of someone who, for you, is a master teacher. Once you were in that person's presence, you were invited to hold a conversation with that person about what occurred during your reflection. You were also invited to note any effect this had on the overall process used in the reflection. The very process used in Step 5 may have helped you clarify and understand more fully and deeply what happened during the other parts of the reflection.

26

in che Sptricrnl- ;xereis<'s

REVIEW AT THE END OF THE PRAYER PERIOD Ignatian Methodology After the formal period of prayer, Ignatius strongly suggests that the retreatant spend time
reflecting about what happened dunng the prayer. Ignatius describes the process this way:

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77

. . . After frnishing the exercise, for a quarter of an hour, either seated or walking about, I will examine how well I did in the contemplation or meditation. If poorly, I will seek the reasons; and if I find them, I will express sorrow in order to do better in the future. If I did well, I will thank God our Lord and
use the same Procedure next time.

For Ignatius, this is the time to analyze what happened during prayer. By king the time to examine what happened during a prayer period, the retreatant can leam what parts of the prayer process worked well for them and what parts did not. The purpose behind this is to gain a better understanding of the better ways to pray. Ignatius cautions one about simply abandoning things that did not work well without some further exploration of them. Ignatius believed that often these areas, where we are most resistant or least inclined to explore, are areas where there may be something for us to learn and underjargon, stand about ourselves and our relationship with God. If we use current educational this review is called "metacognition," the process of "thinking about the thinking'"

An lgntian Reflection on Teaching Step 6 in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" serves the same exact purposes as the review at the end of prayer period in the Spiritual Exercises. Step 6 offers a chance to review what happened during the reflection on teaching. Step 6 helps you to recognize which of the techniques used in the reflection worked well for you. It also helps you focus on techniques that may not have been successful for you. The concluding suggestion of trying these techniques in a different context attempts to raise the Ignatian issue of making sure that one does not abandon what does not work without further exploration. There may yet be additional things to be learned by examining those things that were difficult or challenging for you.

ANNOTATIONS
Besides providing exercises for the retreatant inhis Spiritual Exercises,Ignatius also supplied suggestions for the retreat director and the retreatant, known as Annotations. The Annotations are simply some notes for either the director or the retreatant. We can discover several other key Ignatian conceptions about leaming in these notes orAnnotations.

The frst lgnatian concept presented in the Annotations is Ignatius' basic idea about learning and the involvement of the whole person in leaming, which we have seen which emphasized in the structure of an Ignatian prayer period. Ignatian Pedagogy, relates the Annotations to Ignatian pedagogy, states it this way:
(100)

l.

By "learning" is meant every method of experiencing, reflecting and acting upon the truth; every way ofpreparing and disposing oneselfto be rid ofall obstacles to freedom and growth (Annotation l)'

INACIUS KNC\V

Norts

Ignatius again discusses the importance of active involvement in the learning Process in the second Annotation where he stresses that the retreat director present the matter for prayer briefly so that the retreatant can move into prayer and become actively involved in the process.lgncttian Pedagogt' comments on this lgnatian concept while relating it to the role of the teacher:

(l0l) 2. Theteacher explains to the student the method and order of the subject and

accurately narrates the facts. He/she stays to the point and adds only a short explanation. The reason for this is that when students take the foundation presented, go over it and reflect on it, they discover what makes the matter clearer and better understood. This comes from their own reasoning, and produces greater sense of accomplishment and satisfaction than if the teacher explained and developed the meaning at great length. It is not much knowledge that fills and satisfies students, but the intimate understanding and relish of the truth (Annotation 2).

Another important Ignatian concept, personal care and concern (cura personalis), occurs in several different Annotations . Go Forth and Teach comments upon this personal care and concern in this manner:

(43)

Growth in the responsible use of freedom is facilitated by the personal rela'

tionship bet+veen student and teacher. Teachers and administrators, both Jesuit and lay, are more than acatlemic guides. They are involved in the lives of the students, taking a personal interest in the intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual development ofevery student, helping each one to develop a sense of selfworth and to become a responsible individual within the community. While they respect the privacy of students, they are ready to listen to their cares and concerns about the meaning of life, to share their joys and sorrows, to help them with personal growth and interpersonal relationships. In these and other ways, the adult members of the educational community guide students in their development of a set of values leading to life decisions that go beyond "selfl': that includes a concern for the needs of others. They try to live in a way that offers an example to the students, and they are willing to share their own life experiences. "Cura personalls" (concern for the individual person) remains a basic characteristic of Jesuit education.

Ignatian Pedagogy describes some characteristics of this personal cre and concem when it describes the Annotations and their relationship to the student in the classroom:
(105)

6.

V/hen the teacher sees the student is not affected by any experiences, he or she should ply the student with questions, inquire about when and how study takes place, question the understanding of directions, ask what the student's reflection yielded, and ask for an accounting (Annotation 6).

(106)

7.

If the teacher observes that the student is having troubles, he or she should

deal with the student gently and kindly. The teacher should encourage and srrengthen rhe student for the future by reviewing mistakes kindly and suggesting ways for improvement (Annotation 7).

(l13)14. The srudent should faithfully inform the teacher of any troubles or difficulties he or she is having, so that a learning process might be suited and adapted to personal needs (Annotation l7). 28

lonetien lechoot<'q1- n dl Spiricuo]- '=crcises

Norcs
(114) l5.Learningshouldal,,\,aysbeadaptedtotheconditionofthestudentengaged in it (Annotation l8).

concern for the indiThus, Ignatius stresses in the Annotations personal care and is sensitive to individual as she makes the Spiritual Exercises. The retreat director retreatant in making vidual needs, successes, and difficulties in order to guide the personal care and concern same a retreat that will have an impact on her life. This of Jesuit education deriving directly from the is a key Ignatian characteristic Spiritual Exercises.

one final, significant Ignatian concept occurs in the Annotations'

Ignatius when one prays one should not stressed repeatedly in his spirl tual Exerciss that a point where one is be concerned about covering all the material. If one finds it fully' This concept deeply moved one should stay with that point and experience sed muhutn The sense of the has become known by the Latin phras e, non mttla, very well than to do many phrase is that it is betier to do one thing or a few things translate iting, quickly and inconsequentially. This phrase, however, does not does not which means "much," easily t English, since the singular form, multuL, already implies some have real meaning in English, because "much" in English degree of pluralitY.

to learning by stating: Ignatian Pedagogy sums up this concept and its relationship (108)9'Thestudentshouldsetaboutlearningthematterofthe-presentasifheor sheweretolearnnothingmore.Thestudentshouldnotbeinhastetocover selected in depth; everything. "Non multi, sed multum" ("Treat matter
don,t try

that you were encourYou may remember in "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" something important in your reflecaged not to move on to otherloints if you found without worrying about tions, but to savor those reflctions as long as appropriate was based precisely upon this covering all the points in the reflection. This direction annotation from the Spiritual Exercises'

"ou",

(Annotation every ropic in a given field of inquiry.")

1I

).

with adapting the spiritual Annotations eighteen, nineteen and twenty all deal the key starting point for Exercises to the needs of the individual ,"trutunt-always Ignatius.Annotationnineteendeservesspeciatcomment.Onefrequentlyhearsthe .'Nineteenth Annotation Retreat." Ilnatius' nineteenth annotation suggests that term, for people who cannot afford to take adaptations be made in the Spirtual Exeicises states: off ior a continuous thirty-day experience' Ignatius
lgApersonwhoisinvolvedinpublicaffairsorpressingoccupationsbuteducated Exercises'
to perform the or intelligent may take an hour and a half each day

Spiritual Exercises in daily life' In this Annotation nineteen allows people to make the of time in prayer each day and type of retreat, the retreatant spends a set peri.od a longer period than the traditional thirtyspreads the entire Spiritual Exercises over many people involved in Jesuit educaday retreat. This is it typ" of retreat made by " fmily and work for an extended period' tion who cannot leave
2q

rN.crus KNew

CONCLUSION The ideas emphasized in the Annotations include active participation in the leaming process, personalized cae and concem for the person making the Spiritual Exercises, thorough and in-depth covering of material, and the stress on the adaptation of the Spiritual Exercises to meet the needs of people who cannot afford to make a full thirtyday retreat. The Annotions provide important additional insights into Ignatian methodology in the Spiritual Exercises which we will see carries over into Ignatian pedagogy.

REFLECTION AND REPETITION

1.

Take a few minutes and reflect about the important points for you from this chapter (You might want to play some music which helps you relax and become reflective.) What words, images, or phrases come to mind?

2. 3. 4.

Did you leam anything new? If so, what?

Did you understand anything more fully or deeply? If so, what?

Did anything leave you unsettled or disturbed? If so, what? (This is a key Ignatian question and one that can frequently lead to deeper learning and understanding when it is explored.)

5. If you were to represent this chapter in some visual manner, e.g., chart, drawing,
sketch, mind-map, painting, what would it be?

6.

If this

chapter were a piece of music or a song what would it be?

7.

If you had to think of some type of

this chapter what would it be?

physical gesture or activity which describes

8.

What happens to you when you try to represent this chapter in the ways discussed above? Does this in any way replicate the application of the senses, an Ignatian form of prayer described in this chapter?

30

+n (Jlecho&bgl- in che

iuol- -xercises

REFLBCTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM

.itptr relates to the classroom. Take some time to answer the questions listed below the as best as you can, realizing that the next chapter will help to make more explicit connection between Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and learning theory.

Nors

If the expenence of reading this chapter is to lead you to some type of action, it seems appropri;te to take a few minutes and begin thinking about how the content of this

L 2.

What have

done and what do I do in my teaching that reflects the Ignatian methodology discussed in this chapter? You may find it helpful to use Table 2'

After completing the reflection in number one, what are the next steps you want
to explore or do regarding Ignatian methodology and your teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

l.
2. 3.

TABLE

SrnucruRE oF AN IcnnunN Pn,tvliR PERIoD

AND YOUN TNACHNC Spiritual Exercises
l. Points the Night Before

My Teaching

l.

How do I prePare mY students for a lesson? Do I use Prelection at the beginning of class and of the night's homework
assignment?

2. Preparatory PraYer

2.

How do I establish a Positive learning state?

3l

rN.ctus KNew

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TABLE 2 (continued)

SrnucruRE oF AN IcNATIAN PRAYER PERIoD

AND YOUN TNNCHNC

Spiritual Exercises
3. First Prelude-Composition of Place

M,Teaching

, 3.

set a context for learning other than merely a verbal context? Do I set up a context bY recalling

Do

what has led up to this point?

4. Second Prelude-Grace Sought

5. Points for Prayer (Usually Three Points)

'Where

do I state objectives for the lesson for and with the students?

5.

How do I provide some tYPe of outline of what will happen during the class period? How do I use different types of structure in the class? What haPpens that helps the whole student to become involved in the learning
process? Where are the creative

6. Types of Prayer:

Meditation Contemplation

Application of the Senses

and imaginative mental faculties used during a class period? 7. Colloquy

How do students interact Person ally with the material presented? How do they have conversations with themselves or others about
what they have learned?

8. Closing Prayer

How does a class end? rWhat is used to mark the conclusion to a class for the students?
Where does thinking about what has been learned and how it has been learned occur (metacognition) in my teaching?

9. Review of the Prayer Session

32

lgoaci

Spi-ic*J

-xsrc*s

EVALUATION
In order to help you evaluate what you have learned in this chapter, you may wish to do the following:

Nores

l.

Listed below are the rerms from the Prelection of Ignatian Terminology in Chapter L See how many more terms you can identify now' Do you understand any of these terms better now than you did when you began this book?

St. Ignatius Loyola

Society of Jesus
Jesuits

Contemplatio ad Amorem (The Contemplation to Attain the Love of God)

Finding God in All Things

Spiritual Exercises

Ratio Studiorum (1599) Prelection Repetition

- Annotations o Nineteenth Annotation Retreat - Points ' Preludes - Composition of Place - Grace Sought - Meditation - Contemplation - Application of the Senses - Examination of Conscience - Repetition , Colloquy ' Principle and Foundation - The First Week - The Second Week - The Kingdom o The Two Standards - Three Classes of Persons - Three Ways of Being Humble ' Election - Discernment - The Third Week - The Fourth Week

Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of J esuit Education

Cura Personalis (Personalized

Care and Concern)

- Active Learning ' Reflection - Faith that Does Justice o Men and Women for Others - Preferential Option for the Poor - Apostolic Instrument in the
Service of the Church

' Excellence o Magis (More) - Collaboration

Ignatian Pedagogv: A Practical Approach

' ' -

Context Experience

Reflection Action Evaluation

33

ICNCIUS KNC\V

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2.

Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter. Take a few minutes and think about how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

' -

To explain the Ignatian terminology found in the prelection

To relate that terminology to the "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching"

To broaden your experience of Ignatian methodology

To begin a process of reflection about Ignatian methodology and the Ignatian educator

'

To begin raising some questions about lgnatian methodology and what

takes place in the classroom

34

CHAPTER

III

llna;3ts Ktt-ll, t)or, "e Br-oitt Wo-Lt

methodology in the Spiritual Exercises and current educational psychology and learning theory. We will begin this exploration by examining some of the research about the human brain and leaming. After briefly exploring that research, we will look at how many ideas discussed in educational research today were already incorporated by Ignatius into the methodology of the Spiritual Exercises. The objectives of this chapter are:

ow we can begin our exploration of the connection between Ignatius'

To explain certain two pieces of cunent educational theory and research

Brain-Based Education

Left and Right Hemisphere Processing

To explore the connection ofeach ofthese pieces ofcurrent educational research with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises To explore the connection between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and these two pieces of current educational theory and Ignatian methodology To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION
Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions.

From your reading of Chapter II, what already occurs in your classroom that is the same as or very similar to the various steps Ignatius uses in a period of prayer?

35

rNcrus KNew

Nores

What in your classroom involves the whole person in the learning process? Are there areas where you would like further information and help about involving the whole person in the learning process?

What current educational theories and research do you know that parallel the steps of Ignatian prayer?

What do you think will be the relationship between Brain-based Education and Left and Right Hemisphere Processing and lgnatian methodology in the Spiritual Exercises?

IGNATIAN INDIFFERENCE
Let us begin our discussion of Ignatian methodology and current educational research with the question: "If St. Ignatius were alive today, how would he react
to current educational psychology and learning theory?" To answer this question

requires that we understand Ignatius' concept of indifference. ln his Principle and Foundation of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius states that all of creation should be explored and used in as far as it is helpful to our ultimate end, the service of God. Thus, the basic attitude a person should have toward all of creation

lgneri

K-.*

on the Spiritual is one of indifferenc. Ganss, in his translation and commentary Ignatian point of Exercises,defines what it means to be "indifferent" from an view:
..Indifferent": undetermined to one thing or option rather than another; impartial; wise choicc are learned; unbiased; with decision suspended until the reasons for a or unimportant. It implies the still undecided. In no way does it mean unconcerned term of interior freedom from isordered inclinations. It is a key technical Ignatius' sPiritualitY.r?
he makes choices When a person operates from this basic perspective of indiffeece, God in his life' If some in rerms of how they will or will not lead to greater service of of God, then it should be aspect of creation trelps to attain the goal of greater service goal, it should not be utilized' used; to the extent that it does not help one attain this

Norrs

piece of research current educational research. Ignatius would look at each human learning' If explore how it might be useful and helpful in understanding better how the Ignatius saw that a particular piece of research helped him understand

I am certain that this indifference would mark the way Ignatius would approach and

to help lead a person human mind functioned and hw he could use this understanding was not useful to that end' to greater service of God, he would adopt and adapt it. If it understanding' With this Igriatius would not incorporate it into his own theory and what current educational tlnatian attitude of indifierence in mind, we will explore with Ignatian p"sychology and learning theory is saying today and its connection

methodologies in the Spiritual Exercises'

BRAIN.BASED EDUCATION
on how the human In recent years educational research has increasingly focused unknown about how the brain functions while learning. while there is still much completed thus far provide human brain functions, the finAings from the research the human brain during some basic understanding abot the working of learning.'l
of Leslie Hart,ro propose a theory Geoffrey and Renate caine, building upon the work to the discussion that follows about of brain-based education. By way of introduction decide if the following statements brain-based education, take a few moments and current educational research' about education are TRUE or FALSE based upon

"

brain and learrung can be found in Eric Jensen's 7h An excellent surnmary of current research on the Teachers, 1994)' Jensen briefly summarizes in nonIzaming Brain QelMar, cA: Turning Point for setion he lists of brain reseach related to leaming' At the end of each
13

Ganss, endnote#20,

P.l5l'

technical terms a wide range

for further reading' suggested classroom techniques and suggestions

'.lslieA.HarLHumanBrainandHunanlzarningQ'{ewRochelle'NY:BrainAgePublishen'1987)'
37

tNclus KNew

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TnuB oR FALSE l. We can control and largely manipulate outcomes.'' 2. Testing is generally a good motivator for meaningful leaming. 3. Subjects ae best leamed when separated and taught within discrete time periods. 4. Memorization for the test is the most effective way for students to learn. 5. The arts are for artists and having nothing to do with cognition. 6. Physical movement is unrelated to learning. 7. We can force students to engage in meaningful learning by threatening to
punish them for misbehavior and poor performance.

8. Learning has to be done individually and alone. 9. There is only one correct answer and there is only one way to arrive at that answer.
10. There is a straight
student learning. cause-effect relationship between teacher contact and

11.

The sequence in which knowledge is to be acquired has a fixed and best order.
a set

12. By acquiring
I

read or to perform in comPlex waYs.

of incremental skills, students will suddenly know how to

3.

wrong with the student.

unshaped by emotion.

If

a student does not learn what we want him to learn, then something is

14. Acquiring

concepts is a strictly cognitive process unrelated to attitude and

15.

Learning is primarily reflected in behavioral changes observable by us in our classroom.

Students leam only when "paying attention." Schools are the only or the primary place of learning.

16.
17. 19.

18. Memory requires

memorization.

We can control and separate learning from social interaction.

Education (Iuscon, AZ:Znphyr Press, 1994). All quotations cited here are from the 38

fiom Geoffrey Caine, Renate Calne and Sam Crowell, Mindshifts: AWorkbook on Brain-based lzaming (Redlands, CA:4C Connection, l99l), pp. 27-28.-Ihereis arevised edition of thrs book publishd as Mindshifts: A Brain-Based Pocess for Restructuring atld Renewing
'5

These statements are

l99l

edition.

tSnel

Brein \/o-Ls

Although many of these statements u.e at work in the curriculum and teaching methodologies in schools today, none of them is completely supported by the current brain research. They are all, to some degree, falsel The Caines, after examining much of the cunent educational research about the human brain and its learning capacities, propose a theory of brain-based education'
The Caines base their theory on the fact that: Brain research
ences

Nores

of the for meaningful learning and teaching. Optimizing the use human brain means using the brain's infinite capacity to make connections-and
are essential from understanding what conditions maximize the process. In essence, students learn context'r their entire ongoing experience. In many ways, content is inseparable from

establishes and confirms that multiple complex and concrete experi-

Using educational research about the human brain and learning, the Caines enunciate twelve principles of brain-based learning:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The brain is a parallel processor. Learning engages the entire physiology.

The search for meaning is innate. The search for meaning occurs through "patterning'"
Emotions are critical to patterning'

Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes' Leaming involves both focused attention and peripheral perception.
Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes'

for We have two types of memory: a spatial memory system and a set of systems
rote learning.

in 10. The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded natural spatial memory. 11. Leaming is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. 12. Each brain is unique.''

16

Learning lAScDl, l9el),

'1

Teaching and Human Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine, Making Connections: (Alexandria, vA: Association for Supervision and cuniculum Development
P.5.

Mindshifts,p.32.

39

rNclus KNe\/

Nors

While it is beyond the scope of this book to analyze each of these twelve principles of brain-based learning,'8 several deserve comment'
The human brain can process information from many different sources and control many different functions simultaneously. Just stop for a moment and think about what is happening in your brain now. You may be conscious of your thinking processes as you read this, but if there is any music or other sounds in the background your brain also processes that information while simultaneously taking care of your eyesight, breathing, heart beat, etc. Many of these operations occur without any conscious thought about their functioning on your part. Yet the human brain can and does carry
out both different and complex operations simultaneously.
'Whenever we learn something, we usually engage the whole person in the process, not just the mind alone. You may think only your mind is involved while you read this, but there are many other parts of your physiology simultaneously involved. If you are taking any notes while you are reading this, doing any kind of highlighting, or if you are swinging or

tapping your foot or moving your head while you read, you are involving other parts of your physiology. You are also exercising the eye muscles while moving across this page in a series of distinct pattems, called saccades. The tme auditory reader will be subvocalizing the words while reading this section. How you feel right now will also have a definite effect upon what is happening with the reading process. Reading while recovering from an illness will be very different from reading during a day off when your primary purpose is to catch up on some reading you have wanted to do for a long time.

You are, moreover, trying to relate the information contained in this section to what you already know and understand both theoretically and experientially (innate search for meaning). Is this making any sense with my experience in the classroom? What can I do with this new knowledge? You are also looking for how this fits or does not fit with what I already know (patterning). While reading this, you are not only thinking about individual pieces of new information, but you are also trying to fit this information into some schema you already use (parts and wholes). Each person reading this material will do it in a unique way with his unique brain with its unique learning preferences or style. WE HAVE TWO TYPES OF MEMORY: SPATIAL MEMORY

SYSTEM AND TAXON MEMORY

We need to discuss in detail the spatial memory and the system of rote memory (Caines' principles nine and ten). These two memory systems function in different ways and are important in the teaching-learning process. They are also important because Ignatius understood these two systems and incorporated them into his methodology of the Spiritual Exercises.
Specific exercises to explore each ofthese brain-based principles and their relationship to the teaching-learning process can be found in Mindshifts: A Workbook on Brain-Based ltarning.
's

40

lgnorio

Ku'

clrc Br.n

Spatial Memory caines, is the memorY spatial memory, also called autobiographical memory by the Take a few moments and system created by our interaction with our environment. it takes you to access think about the following questions. Be sure to note how long when accessed' the specific memory *J*ttut form that memory takes

Norrs

What were you doing yesterday evening at 8 P'M'?

Where did you go for vacation last year?

what was your first week of your first year of teaching like?
Remember one of the best students you ever taught'

-Rememberthehouseorroomyoulivedinwhenyouwereanadolescent.
you no doubt found that you could answer most of these questions very quickly and of internal mental image' easily. Each of these events was likely linked to some type but you accessed them some of these images may be clearer and stronger than others, tried to memorize any of all easily. You may also be aware that you never consciously made them resident in your these events, but somehow your a*p".i"n"" of them has memory which you can readily access'

of life events' The spatial memory always has a context because it is our record "maps," because they contain the Caines refer to these records of our life events as we store this inforinformation we learned through interaction with our environment' effort on our part to mation about our lived experience without any conscious We constantly use this memory remember the events and things associated with them.
city you recently visited where capacity. For example, recall a city or u prt of your is the information? You you had never been. what are you able to recall? How clear to place this inform-ation probably did not require any conscious practice or rehearsal present quickly and easily. in your memory, but when you went to access it, it was
each add distinct elements to the The five senses enhance spatial memory because they part of a city you recently visited material stored. Think back again to the new city or in your spatial memory for the first time. Much of what you recalled was stored with this new experience' through your use of your five senses as you interacted experiences The new the curious' ard spatial memory updates frequently based upon new

System.ItisaSystemwhichcanleamquickly,yetalsohasanalmostunlimited

theunexpectedassistinthe'developmentofspatialmemory'Forexample,thinkbackto attendingaworkshoporconventioninanew"ity.co*p-"whatyouknewaboutthecity

What changed and what led to those changes? before you anived wth what you know now. we begin to try to make If what we are experiencing o", no, match our spatial memories, memories so- that they change with the addisense of it and to integra in our existing spatial mernwhile some of thes" rn"r*ri", are simple one-time events' tional information.

oriescanalsobecomplexarrdformedoveralongperiod.TheCainesnotethat: are not just physical It is critical to understand that maps recorded in this system thoughts and ideas as well. They include evenrs. w" ,tor"gnirive or themaiic maps

INCIUs KNC\V

Nores

that connect other events, experiences or other knowledge that have at their core a link to personal experiences and meaning. In other words, our basic belief systems also operate as maps. We use them to navigate through life.'n

As we will see shortly, Ignatius knew about spatial memory and incorporated it into the methodology of the Spiritual Exercises.
The second type of memory that the brain uses is what the Caines call the system for rote learning or taxon memory. They describe taxon memory in this way:
and Nadef'call taxon nrcmon, systenls. Taxon derives from "taxonomies" or lists. These memories consist of items that do not depend on a specific context. They include prototypes of categories that represent a generic item, such as a bird or house or dog; the contents of categories, such as types of trees and cars; and routines and
procedures, such as driving.:' We begin by focusing on the type of memory that involves storage in what O'Keefe

Taxon Memory

Taxon memory retains information through practice and rehearsal. Once present, the material becomes fixed and can be resistant to change, e.g., trying to rid oneself of an undesirable habit. The information in taxon memory is usually stored in isolation from other information. While the information in taxon memory may be readily retrievable in one context, it may not easily transfer to another context. A classic example of this is a particular study skill taught to students in one context, such as English or history class, but never transfened by the students to another context such as math class. Taxon memory can be motivated by rewards and punishment (e.g., grades).

Both types of memory are important in any learning situation. Often the taxon

erful memory and one that accounts for many things we know and can access without ever having tried to store them through practice and rehearsal. Storage of learned material in spatial memory connects the material with basic functions that we use for everyday living and survival. It becomes readily accessible and transferable to other situations. Ignatius, as we shall shortly discover, knew and used both spatial and taxon memory in his methodology in the Spiritual Exercises.

memory is rewarded and spatial memory neglected. Yet spatial memory is a very pow-

LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE RESEARCH

Besides the Caines' work on brain compatible education, educational research has been conducted on how the left and right hemispheres function during leaming. To prepare for a discussion about left and right hemispheres in leaming, take a few minutes and think about the following questions.
tn

Mindshifts, p. 87.

J. O'Keefe and L. Nadel, The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Mind (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1978). 2t Making Connections: Teaching

qnl

the Human Brain,

p.38.

42

lgnccian

K-e*' llo*' cLe Bron WotLc

From what you curently know,

what animal would it be? What are your reasons for your choice?

if

the teft hemisphere of the brain were an animal,

Norts

From what you cunently know, if the right hemisphere of the brain were an animal, what animal would it be? What are your reasons for your choice?

Initial hemispheric research focused on both the qualities and types of tasks that each queshemisphere specializes in during learning. Today some of that research is being tioned because we are finding that both hemispheres function in completing many learning tasks. Early research also concentrated on the difference between the two of hemispheres in order to explain learning differences among students' The emphasis

todayi research is that the whole brain needs to be involved in learning.The research .on"lud", that by using both hemispheres in learning the student will learn the material more thoroughly and have it more accessible' The research on creativity illustrates

this. Studies have shown that those persons called "creative," usually find their ideas left in the holistic right hemisphere and then bring them over to the more part-oriented hemisphere so that they can share them with other people' The earlier hemispheric research also offers some important insights into how each explains hemisphere of the brain works when it is engaged in learning' The research use. which functions each hemisphere seems naturally inclined to
The left hemisphere seems to be specialized for logical, sequential processing of information and deals primarily with verbal, analytical' temporal and digital materials. A person with a ominant left hemisphere will employ a.convergent thinking style, otaining new information from using already available information and forming new ideas or information in terms of responses that are conventionally
skills' accept;ble. The traditional school curriculum stresses left brain processing Reaing, writing, and math conceptual skills are all left brain oriented.

the While the left hemisphere specializes in language and logical, analytical thinking, right hemisphere uses different types of processing skills'
Brain research shows that the right hemisphere mediates nonverbal areas and the retention of pretation of visual pattems, visuavspatial reasoning and perception, patterns (music). The right hemisphere processes informacomplex nonuerbi auditory variety of variables and on non-linearly and ho[scally, simultaneously dealing with a seems to be specializr for primarily nonverbal' condifferent kinds of information. It with a dominant right crete, spatial, analogic, emotional and aesthetic materials. Aperson thinking style, obtaining new ideas and information hemisphere will eniploy a divergent regardby creating a uariety una quuntity of new ideas and information from a situation
curriculum focuses on lss of whether it meets conventional standards or not. The school skills in courses such as art, music and physical education.a the right brain processing
such as the inter-

2,
23

Ralph E. Metts, SJ., Learning

or

Not (Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992),p'

ll'

Learning or Not, P. 17.

43

rNaglart KNew

Norts

Characteristics of both hemispheres are:'o

LBpr HpvuspHBnr
Processes one thing at a time.

Rrcur HnulspHERE
Processes all at once.

Sequential A then B then C.

Simultaneous, A and B and C.

Looks at details. Analyzes the world as parts.

Looks at the whole.

Joins all the parts together into a whole.

Logical.

Analogical-sees the world in terms of analogies.

Open to qualitative aspects of the world without any limits or
bounds.

Likes verifiable data in the world. Thinks in terms of information. Thinks linearly. Thinking is rule-oriented and based on previous knowledge.

Thinks in terms of emotional aspects of thought.

Thinks in terms of images and

wholes.

Thinking is open-ended based on

possibilities of many images forming some type of feeling whole.

Thinks convergently, using all of the above listings to create new information.
Language oriented with grammar and syntax.

Thinks divergently, using all the above listings to generate new

ideas and information.

Limited language ability, responds to language as a whole unit, such as a line from a song or a poem.
Joins data into wholes.

Divides and sees differences in

da.

Knows how to do something.

Discovers what might be done.

Demands immediate closure on
tasks.

Willing to wait for planned

events to unfold.

u l*arning or Not. P. 12.

44

tgnefr

Brctn \,7o.Lc

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITH BRAIN.BASED EDUCATION AND LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE RESEARCH
In this chapter and the next we will f,rrst look at the connection between lgnatius' Annotioni in the Spirirual Exercises and curent educational theory. After that, we will follow the structure of the Ignatian prayer period to organize our discussion about Ignatian methodology and current educational theory: preparation for prayer, points fr prayer in the three prinicipal methods of prayer Ignatius teaches in the Spiritunl
Exercises, and the concluding activities of prayer.

Norrs

Ignatius in his methodology of the Spiri r ual Exercises demonstrates that he possesses an intuitive knowledge of many of the principles of brain-based education' Ignatius the also incorporated boti left and right hemisphere learning techniques and stressed importance of the often neglected right hemisphere for whole person learning'

IGNATIAN ANNOTATIONS
Ignatius'Annotations in the Splritual Exercises demonstrate an innate understanding o r*o of the principles of brain-based education. The Annotations stress the importhe tance of the uniqueness of the individual person as the starting point for making of the active Spiritual Exercises. The Annotations also emphasize the importance involvement of the person while making the Spiritual Exercises. As we have seen, both these concepts are important principles in the Caines' theory of brain-based education.

The Unique Individul with a Unique Brin "Each brain is Ignatius would recognize and understand the Caines' principle that uniqu",,' because he always insisted that in directing the Spiritual Exercises the retreat director adapt them to the person's age, education and ability' Only after the retreat director knows this basic information can he begin to lead the retreatant through the charSpirituat Exercises in a way that is appropriate for the individual with his unique person is unique acteristics. While there is nothing startling in the concept that each with a unique brain, it becomes a very important principle in thinking about students at a who make up a particular class. We have many individuals sitting in front of us and, therefore, given moment auring a school day, each of whom have a unique brain some unique ways of learning which may or may not be being met' might wish This notion of working with the individual where he is, and not where one disto be, is fey to personali zed care and concern (cura personalis)-a
the individual

this pertinguishing characteristic of Jesuit education' Ignatian Pedagogy describes sonalized care and concern: (35) similarly, personal care and concern for the individual, which is a hallmark of
possible Jesuit education, requires that the teacher become as conversant as with the life experience of the learner. since human experience, always the we must starting point in an Ignatian pedagogy' never occurs in a vacuum' and know as much as *"iun about the actual context within which teaching

45

rNcrus KNe\v

learning take place. As teachers, therefore, we need to understand the world of the student, including the ways in which family, fends, peers, youth culture and mores as well as social pressures, school life, politics, economics, religion, media, art, music, and other realities impact that world and affect that student for better or worse. Indeed, from time to time we should work seriously with students to reflect on the contextual realities of both our worlds. What are the forces at work in them? How do they experience those forces influencing their attitudes, values and beliefs, and shaping our perceptions, judgments and choices? How do world experiences affect the very way in which students learn, helping to mold their habitual patterns of thinking and acting? What practical steps can they and are they willing to take to gain greater freedom and control over their destinies?
a unique brain. This principle should serve as the starting point both

Both Ignatius and brain-based education recognize that each individual is unique with for education and the making of the Spiritual Exercises.

Active Involvement in the l*arning Process Brain-based education emphasizes that one cannot separate the brain from the rest of the organism during learning. The entire physiology of the person is involved in learning. This active, whole person involvement is what Ignatius stresses when he states that the whole person-the mind, heart, soul, and will-must become involved when making the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius continually reiterates this idea throughout the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius stresses it both in the Annotations and in the methods for prayer he teaches the retreatant. Additionally, the stress in Ignatian meditation, contemplation, and application of the senses is always on getting the whole person-heart, mind, soul, and will-involved in prayer by incorporating as many mental faculties as possible. So, Ignatius would overwhelmingly support the notion that unless the whole person becomes actively involved during learning anything learned will not be remembered as well as it could be. During the making of the Spiritual Exercises Ignatius recognized that involving as much of the person as possible would lead to a deepening of what is learned so that it would be available in other contexts of a person's life.r

?5There is an emphasis today

Learning:

Handbook for Teachers (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD]. 1994). This book contains many practical suggestions for implementing active learning in the classroom. Since it is written for both grade and high school classrooms, some of the suggestions will need to be adapted for the high school classroom.

in educational research which stresses the need for students'active rather than passive reception. An excellent book discussing this issue involvement in learning is Chet Meyers and Thomas B. Jones, Promoting Active Learning: Strategies for the College Classroom (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993). The book includes a thorough discussion on active learning strategies in the classroom as well as many concrete suggestions for use in the ctassroom. Another resource book for active learning is Menill Harmin, Inspiring Active

46

lgnet-, K-eo' flo*' t

J:Dl

IGNATIAN PREPARATION FOR PRAYER

Spiritual Preparation for prayer was very important for Ignatius. He insists in the prayer' Exercises that the retreatant take both time and care in his preparation for of left and right Ignatian preparations for prayer contain an interesting mixture for hemispheie iechniques whlch-help involve the whole brain in the preparation prayer process.

Norrs

Ignatian Preparation for Prayer: A Whole Brain Process ," p."p*utions for piayer that Ignatius details in the Spiritual Exercises move back retreatant recalls and forth between leit and right hemisphere techniques' When the the main points the matter for the next day's prayer by taking a few moments to place techniques of the left in mind before retiring, fre minty employs the logical, linguistic an important hemisphere. This overview of the next day's prayer, however, is also part' That right hemisphere learning technique. The right hemisphere learns whole to to know how the parts *"un, that ihe right hemisphere wants to see the entire picture fit together to make the whole. A predominately right hemisphere person will frethis quenty read the last chapter of a book first and then the whole book' Doing create the whole insures that he will know how the various pieces fit together to For a picture. A left hemisphere processing person finds this somewhat preposterous' of a book first means he left hemisphere processing p"rron, reading the last chapter preparing the knows how it ends; therefore, there is no reason to read the book. By during the points the night before and having an outline in mind of what will occur and uses a right p.uy". the next day, the retreatant creates a holistic picture for himself functions of hemisphere learning technique in conjunction with the verbal, linguistic the left hemisphere.
skills when The retreatant repeats this mixture of left and right hemisphere processing

in the morning' he recalls the sudect matter of prayer immediately after awakening that this The actual prayer begins with the preparatory prayer. Ignatius suggests that all that preparatory ptuy"t is time to place oneself in God's presence and ask God. The preparatory irupp"n, Ou.ing the prayer period be directed to, by, and for a left pry", usually conrir6 tf sme type of brief oral prayer and is predominately of the brain in the hemisphere process. Ignatius then moves to the right hemisphere In the Composition of Place one visually imagines a scene to

Compsition of Place. of a scene employs the set the stage for the prayer that foll,ows. This visual imagining preparation concludes with a visual, spatial functions of the right hemisphere. The period of prayer' short statement of the grace being sought during the particular returning again to left hemisphere processing'
Summry prayer that require the retreatant Ignatius sets forth very definite ways of preparing for Ignatius makes sure that the whole to use both hemispheies of the brain. In doing this,

brainisengagedintheprayerprocessfromtheverystaft.Hemakessurethewhole

prayer process through the use brain continues to functi,on during the remainder of the of prayer as well of the various techniques he teaches in his three principal methods prayer' as in the activities he suggests for concluding one's

47

tNctus KNe\t

I GN ATI A N M EDI TATI

O N, C O NTE M P I.AT I O N AND APPUCATION OF THE S'NSES

Once the main part of the prayer period begins, the retreatant engages in one of the three prinicipal methods of prayer that Ignatius teaches in the Spiritual Exercises: meditation, contemplation and application of the senses. Each of these methods of prayer has a unique structure which stresses a particular type of mental processing. Meditation stresses discursive thinking and mental reasoning. Contemplation emphasizes the use of the imagination. The application of the senses teaches a holistic way of processing information. In each of these methods of praye Ignatius' methodology shows that he had an implicit understanding of the Caines' two types of memory and the functioning of the two hemispheres. Furthermore, Ignatius' insistence on using both types of memory and both hemispheres during prayer insures the active, whole brain involvement of the retreatant.

Medintion: Two Types of Memory and l*ftlRight Hemphere

During the First Week of his Spiritual Exercises Ignatius teaches the retreatant a form of prayer which he calls meditation. Ignatius provides the following guidelines for a meditation in his exercise on sin during the First Week of the Spiritual Exercises:

50

The First Point will be to use my memory, by going over the first sin, that of the angels; next, to use my understanding, by reasoning about it; and then my will. My aim in remembering and reasoning about all these matters is to bring myself to greater shame and confusion, by comparing the one sin of the angels with all my own many sins. For one sin they went to hell; then how often have I deserved hell for my manY sins!

changed from grace to malice, and were hurled from heaven into hell.. Next I will use my intellect to ruminate about this in greater detail, and then move myself to deeper emotions by means of my will!

In other words, I will call to memory the sin of the angels: How they were created in grace and then, not wanting to better themselves by using their freedom to reverence and obey their Creator and Lord, they fell into pride, were

consideration of what the angels' sin means by using his reasoning and understanding. After this, the retreatant is asked to recall his own sins and compare his many sins with the one sin of the angels. After making this comparison, the retreatant is invited to "move himself to deeper emotions by means of the will." Once the retreatant starts these deeper considerations and the emotional reactions associated with them, he has moved from merely considering sin in a general or in a detached \/ay to seeing sin's consequences and effects upon his relationship with God. The movement in meditation is from memory and reasoning to affective responses emerging from the theoretical considerations. This is a movement from taxon to spatial memory, and from left

In his guidelines, Ignatius has the retreatant begin by using his memory to recall the facts about the sin of the angels. The retreatant is then directed to a fairly theoretical

to right hemisphere processing.

48

tgnet-ro

Ktreu f.) clr

Brain \Vo-Ls

TAXON TO SPATIAL MEMORY

Ignatius understood that if spiritual insights gained during the making of the Spiritual Exercises were going to effect significant changes for a person that they needed to reside in the Caines' easily accessible spatial memory. While the primary learning during meditation occurs from the theoretical considerations the retreatant makes concerning sin and his own sinfulness, Ignatius insists that the retreatant move beyond profit' these rationalistic thinking pfocesses, when it comes time to draw spiritual Ignatius emphasizes that the retreatant needs to respond to these theoretical considerations at an emotional level in order to involve not just his mind in prayer, but also his

Norts

will, heart, and soul.

the Ignatius accomplishes this whole person involvement during meditation by having in general and the retreatant first use his taxon memory to consider the concept of sin lists of sins in particular. Once the retreatant finishes his theoretical considerations about sin, he begins to reflect about the consequences of his own sins and responds

emotionally to his own sinfulness by exercising his will. In exercising his will, the retreatant helps make the notion of sin not simply an abstract and theoretical one residing in taxon memory, but a personalized one residing in spatial memory, because what has been learned theoretically is now linked emotionally to where the retreatant is and what he is doing in space and time. It is this linkage of theoretical considerations to a specific context of space and time that moves what has been learned from taxon memory to the readily accessible spatial memory. This movement of the verb, insights gained through prayer into spatial memory is, in part, Ignatius' Spanish one's being, a ,rniir, "to feel deeply," the experiencing of something at the core of crucial part of experience for a person making the Spiritual Exercises.

LEFT TO RIGHT HEMISPHERE Itrhile

memory and left hemisphere processing skills and spatial memory and right hemiseems sphere processing skills, there are certainly many similarities. Taxon memory Spatial memory t rely primarily on the verbal linguistic skills of the left hemisphere' urr, -uny of the visual spatial skills of the right hemisphere. One can conclude' thereleft fore, that when one engages taxon memory in meditation one is usually using likely using hemisphere processing. when one involves spatial memory, one is more

I do not believe that there is a perfect parallel between the Caines'

taxon

right hemisphere processing skills.

a In a meditation Ignatius has the retreatant begin in the left hemisphere by recalling event to specific event such as the sin of the angels. The retreatant reasons about this has been logical and understand it more completely. Thus far, Ignatius' methodology analytical-basically left hemisphere processing. At this point in the meditation will marks Ignatius has the retreatant begin exercising his will. This exercising of the hemisphere of the brain' Ignatius te transition to the more emotional processing right and to encourages the retreatant to feel shame and confusion about his own sinfulness respondlmotionally to the effect this sinfulness has on his relationship with God.

4'

IGNCIUS KNCW

Based upon this recognition of personal sinfulness and the emotional responses associated with it, the retreatant decides upon ways that he can better serve God in his life. hemisphere techniques. It is important to note that Ignatius begins meditation with the left hemisphere and then moves to the right hemisphere. As we will see in our discussion of contemplation and the application of the senses, Ignatius gradually moves the retreatant toward using more right hemisphere techniques during prayer and less left hemisphere techniques. Since there is some correspondence between the right hemisphere and spatial memory, Ignatius' use of right hemisphere techniques helps to insure that what has been learned during prayer becomes a permanent part of spatial

In meditation Ignatius involves the whole brain by interweaving both left and right

memory, which contains our basic belief system used to live our daily lives.

Summary

An Ignatian meditation relies primarily on taxon memory and left hemisphere processing skills to help the retreatant achieve new learning and understanding. Ignatius,

however, makes sure that what has been leamed does not simply reside in taxon memory or the analytical thinking process of the left hemisphere. Ignatius in his methodology for meditation insists that the retreatant store what has been learned in spatial memory so that it may be available in all our life contexts. His methodology for meditation also promotes whole brain learning by using both left and right hemisphere techniques. His movement from the left to the right hemisphere during meditation shows that Ignatius knew something of the importance of the right hemisphere in effecting changes so that they would become a perrnanent part of a person's life. It is clear from his methodology in meditation that Ignatius had an innate understanding of how the human brain works and how to involve the whole brain in the learning
process.

Contemplation: Two Types of Memory and l*filRight Hemphere During the Second Week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius introduces the retreatant to his second chief method of prayer---contemplation. lgnatius describes contemplation in this way:

ll4

The First Poinr. This is to see the persons; that is, to see Our Lady, Joseph, the maidservant, and the infant Jesus after his birth. I will make myself a poor, little, and unworthy slave, gazing at them, contemplating them, and serving them in their needs, just as if I were there, with all possible respect and reverence. Then I will reflect upon myself to draw some profit.

Contemplation emphasizes the use of the imagination as the chief mental activity for prayer. In contemplation Ignatius has the retreatant enter into an event by placing himself at the event in the imagination and observing all that is happening. The retreatant first observes by using the sense of sight, then the sense of hearing, and finally directly experiencing the actions occurring in the event. With the use of each sense, the retreatant reflects upon the meaning of the scene, particularly in terms of his relationship with God. Finally the retreatant tries to draw some personal profit from this experience. This drawing of spiritual profit during contemplation is the exercising of the will which helps the retreatant deepen and intensify, at a very personal

lgnec-ron K*'

cl'* Brein Wo-Ls

level, what has been learned during prayer. The movement in contemplation is one from spatial memory to the limited use of taxon memory and then back to spatial memory. Contemplation also involves a movement from the right hemisphere to the left hemisphere and back again to the right hemisphere. PRIMARY ROLE OF SPATIAL MEMORY
stresses spatial memory as the principal way of learning. Ignatius has the retreatant employ spatial memory both at the beginning and at the end of a contemplation. The retreatant places himself physically present at the event in the imagination. Once the retreatant is present at the event he uses his senses to experi-

Norts

In contemplation lgnatius

ence what is happening. After thinking about the implications the retreatant has learned from his participation at the event, he begins to respond emotionally and to draw spiritual profit. What has been learned in contemplation has been linked concretely to an event in space and time and experienced through the senses, both of which are the primary characteristics of the Caines' spatial memory. In designing a contemplation as a spatial memory exercise, Ignatius insures that what the retreatant learns will be part of his belief system and easily accessible and applicable to all aspecrs of his life. Ignatius' methodology in contemplation shows that he implicitly knew the Caines' tenth principle of brain-based learning: "The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded n natural spatial memory."
There is some recent brain research about mental images that is important for our discussion of contemplation and its reliance on the imagination as the chief means of prayer.2o Using the sophisticated brain imaging techniques available toda researchers have discovered that an image held in the mind has the same properties as an image received directly through the senses. Objects held in the mind are created using almost the same exact brain systems as objects seen, but that the brain systems are used in reverse order for imagining objects. Researchers conclude that "an image held in the mind's eye has physical rather than ethereal properties," which begins to account for how the mental imagining of a specific sks may help an individual be more productive at the task. Ignatius' stress on the imagination in prayer capitalizes on this capacity of the human mind to create internal images which have the same power and effect as

visually received images. Since these images are real, they become a Part of the spatial memory, whose contents can be transferred and used in many different contexts. PRIMARY ROLE OF THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

The use of the imagination in contemplation is also a right hemisphere processing skill. when the retreatant begins to reflect about what has been learned through the imagination, he moves to more left hemisphere processes. Finally, the retreatant, when he begins to draw some profit from his reflections and sees deeper undertWorking of the Mind's Eye," See Sandra Blakeslee, "seeing and Imagining: Clues to the New York lirnes, August 31, 1993, p. Cl'

IqNCIUS KNE\/

Norrs

standing and emotional responses to the matter considered through the use of the will, returns to emotional processing right hemisphere. When the retreatant works through all three points suggested for a particular contemplation, he experiences a masterful mix of right and left hemisphere processing skills repeated three separate times' Through this continual interplay of right and left hemisphere processing techniques,

Ignatius shows that he knew the importance of involving the whole brain in learning and the vital role that the often neglected right hemisphere plays in ensuring that what has been learned becomes an integral part of the individual' Summry Ignatius, through his contemplation and its use of the imagination, stresses the role of both spatial memory and right hemisphere processes as the chief means for making part sure that what has been learned and understood during prayer becomes an integral that he knew of the person. In fact, Ignatius' methodology in contemplation suggests that at times spatial memory and right hemisphere processes are as important, and possibly more important, than taxon memory and left hemisphere processing skills for effective, Iasting learning.

Application of the Senses.' Two Types of Memory nd l*ft/Right H emPhere The third method of prayer which Ignatius introduces in his Spiritual Exercises is the application of the senses. The application of the senses means applying the five senses t a particular event in order to gain spiritual profit from it. Ignatius describes the application of the senses this waY:

l2l

. . . After the preparatory prayer and the three preludes' it is profitable to use the imagination and to apply the five senses to the frrst and second contemplations, in the following manner.
First Point.By the sight of my imagination I will see the persons, by meditating and contemplating in detail all the circumstances around them,'and by drawing some Profit from the sight.

122 The

The application of the senses is a concluding or synthesizing prayer exercise of the ,","unt', day. The subject matter of prayer in the application of the senses is the the material prayed over during the course of the day. In an application of the senses' prayer. The retreatant ,"r."utuni applies each ofthe five senses as one ofthe points for spiritual moves directly from the use of the senses to gaining some understanding or little reflection or rational thinking profit from the scene being considered. There is pro""r.". involved in this method of prayer. The main purpose of the application of ih" ,"nr", is one of deeper integration and synthesis by the retreatant, so that the mateof rial becomes an integral part of himself. In terms of types of prayer the application he moves the senses helps the retreatant experience a simpler form of prayer where insight or illumination. The application of directly from the subject matrer to spiritual the importhe senses is another way in the Spiritual Exercises that Ignatius stresses of the tance of "feeling the matter deeply," the Spanish verb "sentir." The application

52

lgnert

processing right hemisPhere.

senses is a form

of prayer which occurs primarily in spatial memory and the holistic

SPATIAL MEMORY AND RIGHT HEMISPHERE PROCESSING

This whole prayer period, using the application of the senses as it does, involves almost exclusive use of spatial memory. The Caines note, "' ' ' spatial memory is

enhanced through sensory acuity, or enhanced awareness of smell, taste, touch, sound, and so on."2? This is precisely what Ignatius has the retreatant do when he prays using each of the five senses. Ignatius' stress on the use of the senses in this method of prayer insures that what the retreatant synthesizes and deepens will be stored in spatial

memory for quick and easy future use.

In the application of the senses the retreatant employs the holistic processing of the right hemisphere as the primary means of learning. The purpose of the application of the senses is to apply each sense to a scene and then to move directly to some understanding or reaction without much or any rational thinking. Thus the processing which occurs is one that integrates the event and the insights into a unified vision or reality conceived of as a whole. This ability to think holistically is a right hemisphere processing skill and insures that the retreatant stores what has been learned as a unified whole without dividing it into individual parts. This type of spiritual insight resembles that which mystics frequently experience in prayer where the subject matter and the spiritual profit are one and the same thing.
Summary Ignatius' three principal methods of prayer each stress a different type of cognitive procssing and show that Ignatius unquestionably had an innate understanding of taxon and spatial memory and of the left and right hemisphere functioning. In each of these methds of prayer lgnatius' methodology shows that he knew that spiritual changes made during the Spiritual Exercises must somehow be connected with spatial memory to be truly ffective. Ignatius also knew the importance of the right hemisphere in the learning pto""tt. For Ignatius the right hemisphere becomes the primary hemisphere the used in piayer for the contemplations and applications of the senses which make up bulk of the exercises for the second, third, and fourth weeks of the Spiritual Exercises.

IGNATIAN CONCLUSION OF PRAYER

in Thus far we have seen that Ignatius uses both left and right hemisphere techniques prayer he teaches in the the preparation for prayer. In the three principal methods of brain Spirituaf Exercises he employs both spatial and taxon memory as well as whole a prayer session with a colloquy which relies involvement. Ignatius always concludes heavily on spatial memory and both left and right hemisphere processing skills.

21

Making Connections, P.42.

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rNcrus KNe\,

have a conversation. The conversation centers upon what the retreatant has learned and understood during his prayer. The retreatant speaks to Christ and shares what has been learned, but also listens and attempts to hea what Christ might be saying in response.

The Colloquy: Spatial Memory nd I*ft/Right Hemisphere Skills No matterwhat types of cognitive processes one employs during a prayer period, Ignatius always has the retreatant conclude with a colloquy. The colloquy always takes place in a specific context, which is usually to imagine oneself in the presence of Christ or Mary. Once the retreatnt places himself present before the Christ, he proceeds to

A CONCLUDING SPATIAL MEMORY TECHNIQUE

The colloquy is the concluding piece in the Ignatian methodology for prayer which insures that what has been experienced during prayerbecomes a pennanent part of spatial memory. The Ignatian colloquy accomplishes this by making the conclusion of prayer a conversation between friends. Conversations always have a specific context of where one is in space and time, which is an essential element of the Caines' spatial memory:
Locale memories are never limited to static, context-free facts. They are memories that exist in relationship to where we are in space, as well as what we are doing. Thus they are records of ongoing life events, whether a trip through the Alps or two hours we spent last night reading a good mystery. There is always a complex set of relationships among all these items.a

Because this concluding activity is a conversation, it has a real life context and becomes a permanent part of spatial memory, readily accessible by the retreatant in other life contexts after the Spiritual Exercises have been completed.

WHOLE BRAIN INVOLVEMENT

Since the colloquy is a conversation between friends, it involves both the left and right hemispheres. The left hemisphere becomes involved in thinking about what is being said and how to respond to it. The right hemisphere becomes involved in paying attention to all the non-verbal cues which occur during a conversation. It is important to remember that as much as fifty-five percent of the communication between people occurs through these non-verbals, which are processed primarily by the right hemisphere.2e lgnatius' placing of the colloquy in the imagination also employs many right hemisphere processing skills. Even at the conclusion of the prayer, Ignatius continues to involve the whole brain in the prayer to insure that what has been gained from the prayer will be learned by the whole person.

2t

Making Connections, p. 41 . Donald C. Orlich, Donald P. Kauchak, Robert Harder, R.A. Pendergrass, Richad C. Callahan, Andrew J. Keogh, and Harry Gibson, Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd. ed. (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990), p. 30, reports research that found that seven percent of the communication act is contained in the words, thirty-eight percent of communication in the tone, tempo, and pitch and hfty-five percent of communication in the non-verbals.

54

tgnertan K* oo'

Post Prayer Reflection

Nors

Finally, the fifteen minute review the retreatant does at the end of a prayer period returns the retreatant to the more analytical left hemisphere. The retreatant seeks to find out what worked well during prayer and what did not. Based upon these reflections, the retreatant decides on a course of action to pursue during his next period of prayer. This reflecting about a learning experience can also be called "metacognition," the thinking about thinking, frequently discussed in today's educational circles. CONCLUSION

The methodology Ignatius uses in his Spiritual Exercses promotes whole person involvement in the learning process. Ignatius makes certain that the retreatant uses both hemispheres throughout the entire prayer period. Ignatius also understood that whatever is learned from prayer needs to be stored in spatial memory so that it is easily and readily accessible to a person in all his life contexts. From his Annotations to the methodology he teaches for prayer, Ignatius shows that he had an intuitive knowledge of how the human brain works while learning. Ignatius, with his sixteenth century mind, incorporated techniques in his Spirllual Exercises which educational research today is finding to be basic principles of good brain compatible learning.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Since "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" attempts to employ the same principles and techniques as Ignatius uses in his Spiritual Exercises, the parallels between brainbased education and left and right hemisphere techniques and this reflection are the same as those discussed earlier in reference to the Spiritual Exercises. PREPARATIONS

You will remember that the reflection began by having you set up a resourceful

learning state. You were asked to remember a time when you learned something very quickly and well. If you think back to that part of the exercise, you will immediately recall that it employs the Caines' spatial memory system and, if done visually, right hemisphere processing techniques. When you were asked to recall all the classes you

have taught and attended-paralleling the Ignatian Composition of Place-you employed the spatial memory system and right hemisphere processing techniques. When you were asked to set up some expectations or questions to be answered during the reflection, you used more left hemisphere processing skills. THE REFLECTION
When you began the main part of the reflection, you were asked to see, hear, and feel yourself present at a particular moment of your teaching life. You were using the same principles that Ignatius employs in his contemplations, which are basically spatial

55

IqNCIU5 KNC\,

memory and right hemisphere techniques. Your considerations about specific points which were imporiant for you and their application to your future teaching moved you toward more left hemisphere processing techniques. Finally, throughout the reflection, there was a continual emphasis on involving the whole person, not just the memory, but the understanding, the heart and the will.

CONCLUSION
The imagined conversation with the respected teacher-paralleling the Ignatian colloquy----clearly involves the spatial memory system as well as left and right hemisphere processing techniques. The final piece of the reflection asked you to review the mental processes you used during the reflection and to decide which ones helped you and which ones did not. This "reflection on the reflection" or "metacognition" employs primarily left hemisphere processing techniques.

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM If

the experience of reading this chapter is to lead you to action, it seems appropriate to take a few minutes and begin thinking about how the content of this chapter relates to the classroom. Take some time to answer the questions listed below as best as you can realizing that Chapter VI will help to make more explicit the connection between Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and learning theory.

What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels current educational theories and has some of the Ignatian components presented in this chapter? (Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this chapter.)

Brain-Based Education

' -

Each Brain is Unique

Learning Engages the Entire Physiology Spatial Memory Taxon Memory

Left/Right Hemisphere

Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere

56

2.

I want to exPlore or After completing the above reflection, what next steps do methodologY related to take regarding curent educational theory and Ignatian my teaching?

Three things I want to explore or do are:

1.
,)

3.

EVALUATION
you, you may wish to do To evaluate this chapter and see what effect it has had upon the following:

l.

Terminology' Listed below are the terms from the Prelection of Educational you did when you began which of these terms do you now understand better than this book?

Brain-Based Education

Spatial Memory Taxon Memory

Hemispheric Processing

o -

Left HemisPhere Processing

Right HemisPhere Processing

2.

chapter' Take a few Listed below are the objectives from the beginning of this objectives for you' minutes and think about how this chapter has met these

' =

theory and research To explain certain two pieces of current educational

Brain-based Education

Left and Right Hemisphere Processing

of current educational To explore the connection of each of these pieces

researchwithlgnatianpurposeandmethodologyintheSpiritualExercises Reflection on To explore the connection between "An Ignatian

Teaching,,andthesetwopiecesofcurrenteducationaltheoryand Ignatian methodology

To continue exploring implications for the classroom

57

58

CHAPTER IV

(T)..Lsi- Dirn en slon aL L.o-'r-nj

the n this chapter we will continue our exploration of Ignatian methodology in psychology and learning theory. The spiritunl Exercises and current educational the two areas of cunent educational research which we will explore are parts of After learning style research and Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. to lgnatian methodology briefly exploring each of these theories, we will relate them in the Spirltual Exercises. The objectives of this chapter are:

l1,'r,ocl,,s

K-.'- bortc

To explain two pieces of current educational theory and research

Learning Style Research Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

To explore the connection of each of these pieces of current educational research with lgnatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises
and To explore the connection between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" these two pieces of current educational theory and Ignatian methodology

To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION
Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions'

intelliWhat do you already know about learning style and Gardner's multiple
gences?

59

rNcrus KNew

If you do not know much about either learning style or Gardner's multiple intelligences, what initial premises do you have about what they might mean?

From what you already know about Ignatian methodology in the Spiritual Exercises, how do you think Ignatius uses learning style techniques?

If you know something about Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, how do

you think lgnatius uses multiple intelligences in the Spiritual Exercises?

LEARNING STYLE
Student learning style has been an area of frequent research during the last decade. While there are different approaches for considering what comprises a student's learning style and many different elements analyzed as part of learning style,s many researchers explore the implications of the preferred learning channel-the visual, the

auditory and the kinesthetic, i.e., physical. To prepare for our discussion about learning styles, take a few moments and answer the following questions.
30

my book, Learning or Not (Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992).

Technical and Administrative Manual (Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, 1982), and David A. Kolb, Experiential Leqrning (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984). For a brief inventory designed to be used with high school students to assess learning channel preferences see

For different types of learning style inventories see Kenneth and Rita Dunn's Teaching Students Through Their Learning Sryles: A Practical Approach (Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, 1978), A. F. Gregorc's Gregorc Sryle Delineator: Development,

60

primary leaming From what I cunently know about learning style, what is my channel-visual, auditory, kinesthetic (i'e', physical)?

How do I primarily teach-visually, auditorially, or kinesthetically?

How would I fare in my own classroom as a student?

visual what percentage of my class period appeals to a student with a primary learning style?

what percentage of my class period

learning style?

appeals to a student with a primary auditory

primary kineswhat percentage of my class period appeals to a student with a thetic (i.e., physical) learning style?

Eachofthesethreelearningchannelshassomeuniquecharacteristics.
being learned' some characA visual learner learns primarily by seeing whatever is teristics of a visual learner are:

learns by seeing the material'

videos, filmstrips, computer programs enhance learning'

6l

tNcrus KNew

>

visual representations of the material, such as graphs, tables, charts, diagrams enhance learning.

- my best remember what is read rather than what is heard. > most effcient way to store learned information is visual. 40 to 50 per cent ofthe general population.

An auditory learner learns by listening. Since much teaching occurs in this channel, auditory learners are well suited to the lecture style class format. Some characteristics of an auditory learner are:

>

learns by listening to the material.

audio tapes, records, etc., will enhance leaming. my best remember what is listened to rather than what is read. pure auditory storage of material is a much less efficient way to store information than visually. Usually auditory learners do some type of transfer of information to a visual storage system.

l0 to 20 per cent ofthe

general population.

Kinesthetic learners learn by physically interacting with the material to be learned. In order for them to learn, they must move in some way. Some characteristics of a kinesthetic learner are:

o . -

learns by physically interacting with the material.

is in continual motion with hands, feet, etc., moving. Willdoodle much of the time.

time on task is limited with the need for frequent breaks.

my best remember what is done rather than what is seen or listened to.
least efficient way to store academic information, best way to store athletic and artistic information. 30 to 50 per cent of the general population. Percentage increases in the male population, especially among African-American and Hispanic males.

The profrcient learner uses all three leaming channels equally well and will adapt her learning style to the material and the way it is presented. Each of us has a preferred learning style. In addition to our preferred learning channel, we usually have a fairly well-developed secondary one. We may prefer to learn visually, but will also use the kinesthetic learning channel relatively well. Usually, someone with either a welldeveloped visual or an auditory learning channel will achieve well in school. The student with a preference for kinesthetic learning without a well-developed secondary visual or auditory preference will often experience diffrculty in school, since the kinesthetic learning channel is the least in many classrooms.
62

Kne* bo-r C-).Lgt-Dtmensronql Letn9

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP),3' which is concerned with human patterns of communication, has demonstrated that people's visual, auditory and kinesthetic channels operate internally as well as externally. The external operations of the channels movement are obvious in that they involve the senses of sight and sound and physical function internally, however, is not so in the environment. How the three channels easily observable. The visual and auditory systems can be used as representation where systems to remember or to construct information' For example, recall the home representation will likely come you spent most of your childhood. Some type of visual to mind. This is visually remembered information, demonstrating the internal use of the visual channel. Now think about where you currently live and imagine the front door painted bright purplel To do so you will have to rely on your internal visual channel to construct rather than remember the image. This is an illustration of constructed information using the visual channel.

The internal auditory channel functions in a similar fashion as a representational it calls system to remember or construct information. In addition, NLP includes what that a the auditory-digital process. The auditory-digital process is an internal dialogue person naturally, and often quite unconsciously, conducts preparatory to speaking' You are being interviewed, for example, by a student reporter for the school newsYou paper. The stdent questions you about a very controversial issue in the school.

are cautious about what to say and want to be guarded in your response. Accordingly, and before answering the student-s question, you mentally rehearse what you will say what NLP even how you will say it. The internal dialogue of that rehearsal process is has identified as auditory-digital.

It is a natural, spontaneous internal way of thinking or processing information. Finally, there is the kinesthetic channel. It includes not on physical movement but also external and internal emotions and the senses of
taste and smell.tt

Everyone has a favorite channel or representational system which she uses to store it is internal information. For some it is visual, for others auditory, and for still others for kinesthetic. The findings of NLP indicate that the most efficient learning channel system, with auditory storing and retrieving inforrnution is the visual representational being a distant second and kinesthetic last'll
introduction to NLP is NLP was developed by Richard Bandler and John Grinder. A good (Portland, oR: Metamorphous Byron Lewis and Frank Pucelik, Magic of NLP Demystified Press,1992). eye movement 32 You can discover another person's internal processing by learning the NLP You will frnd explanations for patterns and by listening for the predicates a person uses. larning or Not' I believe learning these techniques in either Magic of NLP Demystified or in
of a person's learning style' that eye movement patterns and predicates are the best indicators which may vary from context to context and from subject to subject' see Michael Grinder' 33 For a discussion of the efficiency of the various learning channels, (Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press' 1992)' Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt,2nded.

3'

63

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KNe\/

Nors

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
"What is intelligence?" and "What makes up intelligence?" are two questions frequently discussed among educators and research psychologists. One theory of intelligence which educators are exploring and applying to the classroom is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. By way of intiroduction to Gardner's seven intelligences take a few minutes and answer the items below:
What is an important book or article you read recently?

Draw a picture of the kind of day it is, or has been for you.

What is your favorite piece of music?

On a scale of one to ten, with ten being the top, how good are you at math?

Is there some type of physical activity which you are good at, and which you would demonstrate to others?

What do you do to renew yourself when you need to recoup energy?y

You have just worked in six of Gardner's seven intelligences. If you share your responses with someone else, you will have worked in all seven intelligences.

press, 1994), p. 35. David Lazear has written three other books which explore multiple intelligences generally and in the classroom. They are: Seven Ways of Knowing and Seven Ways of Teaching (Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing, l99l) and Mubiple Intelligence Approaches to Assessment: Solving the Assessment Conundrunr, (Tuscon: Tnphyr Press, 1994). All of these books contain excellent exercises for exploring each of the seven intelligences and applying them in the classroom. Another excellent resource book on multiple intelligences

F These items are adapted from David Lazear, Seven Pathways of Learning (Tuscon: Zephyr

Armstrong, Muttipte Intelligences

in

in the classroom is by Thomas (Alexandria, VA: Association for the Classroom.

Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD]' 1994).

64

lgneus Ktte-' bo*r ll-lz-Dittte-slonql-

Leming

In his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Muhiple Intelligences,3s Gardner posits seven intelligences. He does so, based upon thorough examination of current brain research, ofphenomena such as prodigies and idiot savants, ofpsychological and psychometric findings, and of cognitive theory. Gardner's seven intelligences are:

' -

Linguistic
Logical-Mathematical Musical Body-Kinesthetic
SPatial

Interpersonal Intrapersonal

Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to use language proficiently and well. It is the intelligence of the poet, the novelist, the playwright, etc. The first question at the beginning of this section taps Linguistic intelligence. Logical-Mathematical intelligence entails the ability to reason logically and work with symbols. The mathematician, scientist, philosopher, etc., rely heavily on this intelligence in their work. V/hen you were asked to rate yourself in math, you were using, in a limited way, LogicalMathematical intelligence. Musical intelligence is, as the name implies, the ability to work easily and well in the world of music----composition, directing, playing, singing, etc. The question about your favorite piece of music involves Musical intelligence. Body-kinesthetic intelligence is the intelligence used by someone who has to manipulate her body well in space. Professional athletes, ballet dancers, surgeons, and actors rely on this intelligence in their work. The question which asked you for a physical feat you were good at, and would demonstrate to someone else, taps Body-Kinesthetic intelligence. Spatial intelligence involves the ability to take in the world around you and to transform that world into another form for others'enjoyment. Artists and architects use this intelligence in their work. Spatial intelligence, however, has also been the means for

Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: Theory of The Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1985). Gardner has published other works on multiple intelligences. Creating Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1993), an exploration of a genius of each one of the seven intelligences, and Muhiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice (New York: Basic Books, 1993), a series of essays on multiple intelligences addressing some of the questions raised about the theory of multiple intelligences.
35

65

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Nors

you making major contributions in traditional academic areas.'n The representation made about the type of day it is, or has been, in the items at the start of this section draws upon Spatial intelligence.

with Interpersonal intelligence is characterized by the ability to meet and interact well you othei individuals. It is one of the primary intelligences of the business world. If with someone else, you used shared your responses at the beginning of this section

Interpeisonal intelligence. The last intelligence, Intrapersonal, is the intelligence within the individual which she uses to organize and maintain self-identity. People with well-developed Intrapersonal intelligence are the people whom many rely on during conflict and crisis for advice and counsel because they "have their heads on yourstraight." The question at the start which asked you about what you do to renew self when you are worn out involves Intrapersonal intelligence.
are Each of us is a composite of these seven intelligences. Some of our intelligences probably has better developed and employed more frequently than others. Each of us We may also have an intelligence which one intelligence that is our best intelligence. we do not use very often and which may not be all that well developed.

Gardner's multiple intelligences also provide an excellent framework for thinking be about differences found among individuals, especially students. How can someone an excellent athlete, but not perform nearly as well in the classroom in mathematics' good social studies, or English? How can someone be an excellent artist, but not a in athlete? How can a itudent hold adult conversations with teachers, but struggle to think about students in terms of mulseveral academic subjects? When one begins begiri to understand how individuals can have more develtiple intelligences, oni "* in another' oped ability in one area than

IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY: ITS CONNECTION WITII LEARNING STYLE AND IryTfH GARDNER'S MTII,TIPLE INTELLIGENCES In his Spirituat Exercises,Ignatius makes certain that the retreatant uses all three

the learning channels, the visual, the auditory, and the kinesthetic, during prayer' At posited same time Ignatius also has the retrcatant utilize six of the seven intelligences learning channels and by Gardner. By making sure that the retreatant uses all three most of Gardner's intelligences, Ignatius insures that any learning which occurs during prayer will be accomplished not by a single learning modality or intelligence but through the interaction of a variety of modalities and intelligences'

Thomas G. Iy'est, In the Mind's Eye: Vsual Thinkers, Gifted People With l*arning Dfficutties, Computer Images, and the lronies of Creativity (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, l99l) for a discussion of the contributions of two of the fathers of modern physics, Michael physics' Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Both men made major conuibutions to modern but did so primarily through Spatial rather than Logical-Mathematical intelligence.
ro See

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l9mtc1rc Krtsw Abo.tz (TX.t-Dtmetrsto'ral- Lcmtng

IGNATIAN ANNOTATIONS
Ignatius' Annotations contain many important Ignatian concepts about learning. While lgnatius does not directly discuss a person's learning preferences in his Annotations, he would certainly be interested in both a person's learning style and pattern of intelligences. Ignatius would be interested in these because they contain important personal information which would help him direct a person making the Spiritual Exercises.
The Unue Individual with Unue l*arning Preferences In the last chapter we saw that Ignatius recognized the importance of dealing with the uniqueness of each individual as the essential starting point for making the Spiritual Exercises. Pat of the uniqueness of any individual is her learning style preferences and pattem of Gardner's intelligences. I am certain that if Ignatius were alive today and knew both the learning style and multiple intelligence theory he would want to know an individual's preferences in these areas before he began directing her in the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius would want these details because they contain important information about how a person prefers to process information. Ignatius would be able to use the individual's preferred learning style and stronger intelligences as an initial way to help the retreatant to learn to pray effectively. In addition to knowing a person's preferred ways of processing information, Ignatius would recognize undeveloped preferences and unused intelligences. Exploring these undeveloped and unused ueas can be very important in assisting a person's growth. NLP has demonstrated that when a person becomes fixated in a particular state of mind many times only one or two representational systems are being used by the person, e.g., visual and kinesthetic but not the auditory. Sometimes the addition of the unused system will help the person gain a better or a new and deeper insight into things. If a person is to develop a deep, effective prayer life, Ignatius would want her to explore some of these undeveloped and unused areas in order to insure that the whole person with as many different learning channels and intelligences as possible is involved in prayer.
WhoI Person Involvement: I*amng Style and Multple Intelligences The Annotations also stress the whole person's active involvement in the making of the Spiritual Exercises. We have already seen that whole person involvement is one of the principles of brain-based education, but the way Ignatius uses both learning channels

and multiple intelligences in the Spiritual Exercises likewise fosters whole person involvement. In each part of a prayer period Ignatius makes certain that the retreatant uses the visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning channels. Ignatius also stresses the importance of whole person involvement in the Spiritual Exercises by the way in which he utilizes six of Gardner's seven intelligences throughout the prayer period.37

visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning style, and Gardner's multiple intelligences as separate theories, clearly they overlap one another. They overlap because they all are different ways of discussing the human brain and learning.

lVhile we have discussed brain-based eduiafion, left and right hemisphere preferences,

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PREPARATION FOR PNAYER During the preparation for prayer lgnatius has the retreatant employ all three learning channels as well as a number of different intelligences. Prepration and the Three Lcrning Channels The preparation which Ignatius stresses for prayer involves all thee learning channels-visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. The points the night before use both the visual and auditory channels to call to mind the material for prayer. If the calling to mind of the material for prayer is internal statements in the form of internal dialog then the auditory channel is used. If this calling to mind includes some internal images of the material for the next day's prayer, then the visual channel is included. It is worth noting that the addition of some visual images will make the material more readily available in the memory, since the visual learning channel is the most efficient and most quickly accessed.
When one awakes in the morning, one recalls the material for praye which again can be either auditory or visual, or a combination of both. At the start of the prayer, the retreatant begins with a short vocal prayer, followed by the Composition of Placethe visual imagining of a scene, followed by the grace sought. In these three preparatory steps Ignatius has the retreatant move from the auditory learning channel to the visual learning channel and finally back to the auditory learning channel.

Ignatius recognized and understood that the kinesthetic learning channel is a very important one in the learning process and one that cannot be neglected. In one of his directions for making the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius states:

76.

I will enter upon the contemplation, now kneeling, now prostrate on the floor, or lying face upward, or seated, or standing-but always intent on seeking whar I desire. Two things should be noted. First, if I find what I desire while kneeling, I will not change to another posture; so too, if I find it while prostrate, ' and so on. Second, if in any point I find what I am seeking, there I will repose until I am fully satisfred, without any anxiety to go on.

In these directions, Ignatius suggests that when the retreatant is successfully achieving what she wants in prayer that she remain in that position. If the retreatant is not achieving what she is seeking during prayer, then she should change postures to see if that will facilitate the prayer process. Ignatius understood the effect that changing position can have in helping a person learn more easily. If you doubt the importance that changes in physiology can have upon learning, simply try changing your own posture right now while you are reading this and note what happens. You may have been in a very good learning physiology and find that the changes interfered with your reading. You may have been tired when you changed your posture and now find that you have a renewed level of concentration.

Preparation and Muhle Intelligences Clearly, many similarities exist between the three learning channels and Gardner's multiple intelligences. Rather than relating each part of the preparation process for

lgnacius

K're*

.bouz

q"-Dtt-"'"*

conprayer to Gardner's multiple intelligence' I will simply comment on some of the about the nections. when one is using the auditory learning channel and thinking and Logical-Mathematical subject matter for praye one is using both Linguistic intelligence' inlligences. When one enters into the imagination, one is using Spatial we will see The psture chosen for prayer ties into Body-Kinesthetic intelligence' As the intelligences in the three in the next section, Ignatius masterfully intermingles that he teaches inhis Spiritual Exercises to further multiprincipal methods of

Nores

dimensional, whole person learning.

frayer

Summary Ignatian preparations for prayer contain techniques which insure that multi-dimenaudisional learning occurs from the very start. All three learning channels-visual' and the tory, and kineithetic-are involved in the points, the recalling of the material' p."lud", for prayer. Additionally, Ignatius employs a variety of Gardner's intelliintermingling of the !"n"", during the preparatory activities for prayer. Through this promotes multi ihree learning channeis and t-he variety of intelligences used Ignatius will continue to do so dimensional leaming in his prepratory activities and
throughout the Spiritual Exercises
ON

I GN ATI AN MEDITATI O N, C O NT E MP IATI

AND APPUCATION OF THE SENSES

looking at the Gardner's multiple intelligences provide us with another framework for prinicipal methods of types of cognitive p.o""rring *i"n lgnatius uses in his three identify the most important intelpruy", in tn Spiritual Exerciies. If teachers were to iig"n"", for learning in the classroom, most would likely list Linguistic and Logicalthe importance Mathematical intelligences as the principal ones. Ignatius recognized understood that learning of these two intelligences in the learning process, but he also Meditation uses whatcan occur when other intelligences are the primary ones used' and we might recognize as the 1wo. traditional academic intelligences, Linguistic and the Logical-Mathematical, as the primary means of learning. Contemplation as the apflication of the senses rely n Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences prayer stresses particular intelpr*".y means of learning. Although each method of inteliig"n"", as the principal reans of larning, Ignatius uses six of Gardner's seven The only intelliliiences in his methaotogy for prayer in the Spiritual Exercises. directly during prayer is gJn"" which is not immediately apparent as being used Musical intelligence.

Ignatin Medinfion : M e mory,

Ii

the memory then meditation Ignatius teaches the retreatant to pray, first by using faculties serves a specific the understanding, and finally the will. Each of these mental of Gardner's intelfunction in prayer and bears a distinct relationship to one or more

U nde

rstnding and Will

and Logicalligences. The two traditional academic intelligences, Linguistic meditation, but Ignatius has Mathematical, are the principal means of learning during using the will, which the retreatant apply wat is iearned from these intelligences by is quite similar to Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence'

tNag* KNe\/

The retreatant first uses memory in a meditation to recall information about sin in general and her personal sins. Usually, this recall entails some type of search through memory to find a particular event or life events. In terms of Gardner's intelligences, Ignatius' use of memory for most individuals involves both Linguistic and Spatial intelligences. Linguistic intelligence becomes involved if the recall takes the form of abstract ideas or concepts. Spatial intelligence becomes involved if the memory is in the form of mental images of past sins. Clearly, similarities exist between memory using Linguistic and Spatial intelligences and the Caines' two types of memory in their theory of brain-based education. The recall of events connected with Spatial intelligence is quite similar to what the Caines describe as spatial memory, with its interconnected maps of life events. The recall of ideas or concepts appears to use much more of what the Caines call taxon memory.

After using memory the retreatnt employs understanding and the intellect to analyze the implications in the matter for her own spiritual life. Ignatius' use of the understanding and the intellect requires that the retreatant "reason" about the subject matter of prayer. This reasoning process entails the application of language and various types of logical, analytical skills which are primarily functions of Linguistic and LogicalMathematical intelligences. Thus far, the retreatant in meditation has relied heavily upon the traditional academic Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences to achieve new insights and understandings. Ignatius insists, however, that the retreatant continue her learning process through the use of the will, which moves the retreatant to use intelligences that are less traditionally academic.
Once the retreatant has gained new understandings, Ignatius suggests that she exercise her will. The will for Ignatius is the ability of the individual to make choices and

determinations that direct the course Intrapersonal intelligence as:

of her life. Ignatius' concept of the will and Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence are indeed quite similar. Gardner describes
o"rrl,c to one's ownfeeling /rp-one's range of affects or emotions: the capacity to
instantly effect discriminations among these feelings and eventually, to label them, to enmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw upon them as means of understanding and guiding one's behavior.'o

This use of the will helps the retreatant take what has been remembered and understood and, through heartfelt emotional responses, make it an integral part of herself so that it can be transferred to other life contexts. The understandings gained through the use of the two traditional academic intelligences are now linked to Intrapersonal intelligence to insure that what has been learned and understood during meditation becomes an integral part of the retreatant's life.
Through the use of three points in each meditation, Ignatius has the retreatant move through this cycle of intelligences three separate times. Each point concludes by having the retreatant work with the will, Intrapersonal intelligence, to cement what
tt Frsmes of Mind, p.239.

70

lgnocius K-' bo-r l)*L-l)irens'ronJ

Leming

has been experienced during prayer into the individual's core set of attitudes and beliefs insuring its availability in life's other contexts. This transferring of insight and understanding through the use of the will, so that they become an integral part of the person, is a key element of the Ignatian concept of learning. For lgnatius true learning occurs when the whole person is active in the learning process. Learning is never simply limited to the memory and the understanding, but must also involve the heart, will, and soul.
So far, in our discussion of meditation and Gardner's intelligences, we have explored four intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial and Intrapersonal. Two intelligences which we have yet to discuss are Interpersonal and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences. Body-Kinesthetic intelligence comes into play in the various postures

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selected for prayer. As we discussed in connection with the kinesthetic learning channel, the retreatant pays attention to posture and its effect upon prayer throughout the entire time of the meditation. The relationship of Body-Kinesthetic intelligence with Spatial intelligence and their use during contemplation will be treated in more detail during our discussion of contemplation. Interpersonal intelligence comes into play in the colloquy and will be discussed in connection with lgnatius'concluding activities for prayer. When we include these two intelligences with the four others we have talked about, we see how Ignatius utilizes six of Gardner's seven multiple intelligences during meditation. We can also appreciate in lgnatius' use of these six intelligences that learning for him is always multi-dimensional.

Summary Ignatian meditation is a form of prayer which relies primarily on the traditional acadernic intelligences, Linguistic and Logicat-Mathematical, as the principal means of learning. Both these intelligences are closely related to the Caines'taxon memory and require predominately left hemisphere processing. Yet learning for lgnatius always involves the whole person, so that he insists that what has been theoretically learned and understood in prayer must be deeply experienced and felt by the retreatant through the use of the will. The will closely corresponds to Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence which contains some of the characteristics of the Caines' spatial memory and employs right hemisphere processing techniques, particularly in the emotional ,"rponrr generated in terrns of what has been learned. Meditation is predominately a discursive and analytical method of prayer, linking analytical learning, through the use of the will, to the basic belief systems of the learner. Contemplation: Imgination, Ilnderstanding, nd Will Ignatius sets the stage for contemplation by having the retreatant recall the history of te event in the Composition of Place. This recollection of an event's history places the subject matter for prayer in the memory. Once the actual contemplation begins, Ignatiui has the retreatant first employ the imagination, then the understanding, and finally the will. When a retreatant begins to contemplate, she first immerses herself in a scene from the life of Christ by using the imagination, learning what she can through the imagined scene. Ignatius' use of imagination in prayer relies heavily on Gardner's Spatial intelligence as the primary intelligence for leaming'
7t

tNgrus KNew

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Depending upon how intensely involved the retreatant becomes in being present at a particular scene during contemplation, she may employ something of the BodilyKinesthetic intelligence as she imagines the scene. Gardner notes that Body-Kinesthetic intelligence which is one of the primary, but certainly not the only, intelligence employed by actors requires the actor have "the ability to qbserve carefully and then to re-create scenes in detail . . ."" This ability to observe carefully not only involves the senses, but also the ability to encode the information in our physiology. Gardner observes that ". . . we are all equipped with a sixth sense of kinesthesis--the capacity to act gracefully and to apprehend directly the actions or the dynamic abilities of other people or objects."o If a retreatant enters fully into the action in a particular scene, she will not only store information through the imagination, Gardner's Spatial intelligence, but also through the kinesthetic encoding of the Body-Kinesthetic intelligence.

Having fully experienced the scene in contemplation, the retreatant begins, as Ignatius directs, to reflect upon herself and draw some profit. This type of reflection primarily involves analysis and reasoning, Gardner's Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences. Ignatius' reason for introducing the retreatant to contemplation is to help her move from the more rational processes of meditation to a simpler and more direct form of prayer where she moves quickly from the scene being considered to drawing spiritual profit. While some analytical reasoning is needed to make the transition, Ignatius wants the retreatant to spend much less time reasoning in contemplation than she did in meditation. What Ignatius teaches the retreatant to do is to move directly from the imagination to drawing spirirual profit, a movement from Spatial and BodyKinesthetic intelligences to Intrapersonal intelligence. The will serves the same functions in contemplation that it did in meditation-to integrate at a deep personal level the insights gained during prayer. Once again the will in contemplation closely resembles Gardner's Intrapersonal intelligence, the intelligence one uses to organize and guide one's life.

With the inclusion of Interpersonal intelligence in the colloquy, Ignatius once again uses six intelligences in the learning process, thereby enhancing multi-climensional leaming. Multi-dimensional learning in contemplation has a different mix, however, of methodologies from that in meditation. The methodology of meditation relies on Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences for learning. Contemplation, on the other hand, employs Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences as the primary means of learning. Although meditation and contemplation stress different methodologies for learning, they both emphasize the importance of using the will (Intrapersonal intelligence) to insure that the whole person-mind, heart, and soulbecomes involved in prayer.

to

Frames of Mind, p.227. Frames of Mind, p.228

72

Summary Ignatian contemplation once again stresses the use of six of Gardner's intelligences; hwever, the primary intelligences for learning are now Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences iather than Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences as in meditation. Clearly, Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences share similarities with the Caines' spatial memory and employ right hemisphere processing techniqes' The diminished role of Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences in contemplation shows that Ignatius knew that genuine learning can take place without a predom-

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inance of logical, analytical thought. Ignatius believed in this view of learning so the strongly that he employs contemplation as the chief method of prayer throughout as last three weeks of the Spiritual Exercises. Thus, a retreatant uses contemplation the primary learning methodology for the bulk of the prayer during the retreat' One the cannot help but observe that much of the change that occurs in a person making spiritual Exercises happens through the use of non-traditional academic intelligences specializing in right hemisphere processing.

Apptcation of the Snss.' Imagination and Will particular tn itre appticaiion of the senses Ignatius teaches the retreatant to enter into a each time' profit scene by-using each of the five senses one by one and drawing some uses the application of the senses as a means It is important to remember that Ignatius The of synthesizing what has already been learned from the prayer periods of the day' repand retreatant is already familiar with the material from previous contemplations with the material, Ignatius promotes etitions during the day. Given this familiarity and deeper understanding and synthesis by calling upon Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal intelliiences in preference to the more traditional academic intellig"n""r, Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical. The retreatant enters the scene and, is little fter using one of the senses, immediately draws some spiritual profit' There that time for logical, analytical thinking. It is through the application of the senses has been learned before' Ignatius has the retretant experience a deepening of what experience of the te Spanish verb, sentir (to savor), which is an essential part of the saw Spiriiual Exercises. Ignatian Pedagogy comments upon the importance Ignatius in ttrs deepening of experience in terms of lgnatian pedagogy:

6l In his pedagogy, Ignatius highlights the affective/evaluative stage of the letting one "sense

learning pro"rr b".uuse he is conscious that in addition to and taste,'' i.e., deepen one's experience, affective feelings are motivational And it must forces that rou" on"', understanding to action and commitment.
brothers' mitment for the rnagis, the better service of God and our sisters and

beclearthatlgnatiusdoesnotseekjustanyactionorcommitment.Rather, while respectirig human freedom, he strives to encourage decision and com-

Summary

the appiication of the senses stresses learning through Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic memory and intellnces, which contain many characteristics of the Caines' spatial three principal methods of which use right hemisphere processing techniques. Of the of the senses prayer that natius teaches in his spirilual Exerciss, the application
and their concomitant ieliLs least on Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences

73

rqNcrus KNe\t

Nor,s

ferent learning technique, and one which is very important for achieving the aim of the Spiritual Exercises-the ordering of one's life to the greater love and service of God. The application of the senses is a means of deepening spiritual insights and understandings and appropriating them into the basic belief system of the retreatant. The fact that Ignatius chooses to use this type of learning technique for this purpose shows again

left hemisphere processing techniques. The application of the senses is indeed a dif-

his intuitive understanding that what we know as non-traditional academic intelligences and right hemisphere processing are very important modes of learning'

Musical intelligence: The Missing Intelligence in the Spiritual Exercises The one intelligence that does not directly appear in the Spiritual Exercises is Musical intelligence. Musical intelligence deserves a brief comment because it can be a very effective intelligence in the learning process. In some additional methods of prayer that he proposes in connection with the Second Week of his Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius presents a method of prayer which relates to some of the characteristics of Musical intelligence:
258 The Third Method of Praying is to Pray According to Rhythmic Measures.
. . . In this Third Method of Praying, with each breath taken in or expelled, one should pray mentally, by saying a word of the Our Father, or of any other prayer which is recited. This is done in such a manner that one word of the prayer is said between one breath and another. In between these two breaths one reflects especially on the meaning of that word, or on the person to whom the prayer is being recited' or on one's lowliness, or on the distance between that person's dignity and our lack of it. The same procedure and rule will be used on the words of the Our Father; and the other prayrs-rhe Hail Mary, Soul of Christ, Creed, and Hail Holy Queen-will be

recited in the usual manner.

While this method of prayer was not created by Ignatius (it had been in existence for many centuries as the Jesus prayef'), it clearly employs a whole rhythmic component which is an essential part of musical intelligence. Although musical intellig"n"" as such plays no direct role in the Spiritual Exercises, musical intelligence was a pedagogical tool in the early years of the Society of Jesus. John O'Malley, S' J' in Thi First Jesuitl2 tells how Jesuits made teachers out of their pupils by setting catechetical texts to music:

It was with the help of tunes that the children [as catechists] came into their own. polanco reported what happened in Ganda in 1554. One of the Jesuit scholastics, accompanied by two boys, walked through the streets ringing a little bell. The boys meanwhile sang parts of the catechism "in a sweet melody." As the children gathered

behind their three leaders, they were led to a church, where classes were taught and the tunes learned. The tunes and lyrics became so popular that "day and night in the

"

.2

John W. O'Malley, S.J.,The First Jesuits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).

See Ganss, endnote #135' P.187.

74

'Chistian Doctrine"'whole rown nothing was sung by both adults and children but who by craftsmen and dy laboreis in the town, by farmers in the fields' by mothers, had learned it from their children, in the homes' (pp' l2l-122)

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facilMusical intelligence is frequently overlooked in education, yet it is one that can learning theory itate learning. Georgi Loianov has developed a foreign language Lozanov's based upon the brain's ability to use music to facilitate memory' In States),or one learns a foreign Suggestpedia (called "superleaming" in the United is not language, in a relaxed atmosphere, to baroque classical music. Memorization with listening emphasized, because the brain assimilates the material in conjunction languages taught to the music. Research on Superleaming has shown that foreign using trausing this method are learned more easily and quickly than they are leamed Musical intelligence's relationship ditional foreign language teaching methodologies. to learning remains an yea worthy of more exploration and research.

IGNATIAN CONCLUSION TO PRAYER

learning Ignatius' concluding activities to prayer continue the multi-dimensional prayer and the three *t,i"t,, as we have already seen, are integral to the preparation for principal methods of prayer of the Spiritual Exercises' The Colloquy and Interpersonal Intelligence the colloquy' Interpersonai intelligence first appears in the Spiritual Exercises during of Christ or Mary has a conwhen the person praying imaginatively in the presence which versation "as with u .i." The emphasis in the colloquy is on conversation, two people-the means that it is not a monologue, but a real conversation between helps the retreatant person praying and God. In the colloquy Interpersonal intelligence and attend and honestly with God, nd at the same time helps her listen

ialk dirctly she makes' to what the Lord says in turn to whatever requests, ideas, or suggestions Interpersonal Intelligence' Since the colloquy is a dialogue, it draws upon Gardner's
The Coltoquy nd the Three l*arning Chnnels auditory, and the The colloquy lit<ewise employs all thre learning channels-visual, retreatant converses with kinestheti. After placing onsetf in Christ's presence, the involves the visual and Christ as she would wit a friend. Each step in the colloquy is a conversation' the kinesauditory leaming channels. And given that the colloquy the nonverbal interaction thetic learning channel naturally becomes involved through

which takes place.4

., sheila ostrander
s
Press,1979).
See footno te

and Lynn Schroeder, superlearninS (New York: Laurel/confucian

aspects

29 inChapter III for a discussion of the importance of the nonverbal

of

communication.

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CONCLUSION
sphere learning techniques in the Spiritual Exercises, so too he utilizes the three learning channels and multiple intelligences. Ignatius knew by using all three learning channels and six of Gardner's multiple intelligences that he would facilitate multidimensional learning. Ignatius does this in the way he has the retreatant prepare for prayer, the methods of prayer he teaches, and the concluding activities of a prayer
Just as Ignatius incorporated brain-based education principles and left and right hemi-

period. Ignatius also stresses the impolance of using all the intelligences in the learning process, not simply the traditional academic intelligences (Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical) to promote effective, whole person learning.

Ignatius also understood the importance of using all three learning channels. We learned from NLP that people who have developed effective strategies for accomplishing demanding tasks have usually incoporated all three representational systems-the visual, auditory and kinesthetic-into their strategies. On the other hand, ineffective strategies have been found to be missing one or more of the systems. The addition of a second or third system generally results in a much more effective strategy. That Ignatius knew the importance of the visual, auditory and kinesthetic systems for prayer is clear from the way in which he very purposefully interweaves all three throughout the entire prayer period.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING''

Since "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" is designed to parallel a prayer experience of the Spiritual Exercises, it employs all three learning channels and the intelligences in the same way as Ignatius uses them.

PREPARATIONS In the preparation for the reflection, the accessing of a resourceful leaming state relied on both the visual and kinesthetic learning channels. You were asked to remember a time when you learned quickly and well. Through this visual remembering you relived the feelings associated with the event, thereby involving the kinesthetic learning channel. You also used the visual learning channel when you thought of yourself present at all those classes you have taught and attended. There as well may have been some strong kinesthetic reactions to these memories as well. The final piece of the preparation invited you to establish some specific objectives for doing the reflection which probably required some internal dialogue, using the auditory learning channel. When you remembered a time when you learned easily and well, you were working in Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, and Intrapersonal intelligences. The simulated Composition of Place also drew upon Spatial and Body-Kinesthetic intelligences. When you set up some objectives for yourself for the reflection period, you were using both Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences. 76

11 |.bouc 'l-h.k-Ditt-sknJ

Lc*-nt-9

REFLECTION
During the reflection, you used all three learning channels. First you looked at yourself as teacher and then reflected about what you leamed by looking at yourself in that way. You likely conducted something of an intemal auditory dialogue with yourself while doing the reflection. Undoubtedly, there were emotional reactions associated with seeing yourself as teacher and then gaining some insight or understanding from this. The main points of the reflection also loosely followed the structure of an Ignatian contemplation, interweaving Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, Linguistic, LogicalMathematical, and Intrapersonal intelligences. CONCLASION
The conversation with the respected teacher modeled the Ignatian colloquy. The conversation involved all three learning channels and had you work primarily out of Interpersonal intelligence. The reflection on the process which concluded the exercise returned you again to Linguistic and Logical-Mathematical intelligences.

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REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM

If your
experience of reading this chapter is to lead to some type of action, it would be appropria to ke a few minutes to begin thinking about how the content of this chapter relates to the classroom. Take a few minutes to answer the questions below as best as you can, realizing that Chapter VI will make more explicit the connection between

Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and leaming theory.

1.

What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels current educational theories and has some of the Ignatian comPonents presented in this chapter? (Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this
chapter.)

I-earning Style

Vsual Learners
Auditory Learners
Kinesthetic Learners

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic Intelligence
Musical Intelligence Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Spatial Intelligence

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rNcrus KNew

Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelli gence Intrapersonal Intelli gence

2.

or take regarding current educational theory and Ignatian methodology related to

After completing the above reflection, what are the next steps I want to explore

my teaching?

Three things
1.

I want to explore or do are:

2.

J.

EVALUATION
To evaluate this chapter in order to see what effect it has had upon you, you may wish to do the following:

1.

Listed below are terms from the Prelection of Educational Terminology. Do you understand any of these terms better now than when you began this book?

Learning Style

Visual Learners

Auditory Learners
Kinesthetic Learners

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic Intelligence Musical Intelligence

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence Spatial Intelligence Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence

78

lio' lour (l-)rL-Drtrcnslotet Lcot-i-g

2.

Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter' Take a few minutes and think abour how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

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. -

To explain two pieces ofcurrent educational theory and research

Learning StYle Research

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

To explore the connection ofeach ofthese pieces ofcurrent educational research with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the spiritual
Exercises

To explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and these two pieces of current educational theory and Ignatian methodologY To continue exploring implications for the classroom

79

80

CHAPTER V

e'-coclonaL P*-9-t

lgreolo,n ottd. Cttrre'll-

Spiritual Exercises understood and used brain-based learning and multi-dimensional learning theory. In this chapter we will explore some cunent educational paradigms and their connection with Ignatian paradigms. We will look at the lgnatian paradigm in the Spirirual Exercises and in the two recent documents on Jesuit education: Go Forth and Teach and lgnatian Pedagogy. The objectives of this chapter are:

n the last two chapters we examined how Ignatius in his methodology in the

To explain certain pieces ofcurrent educational theory and research

= '

Higher Order Thinking Skills

Teaching as Enculturation Communities

AILAS (Authentic

Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for

All

Students)

Dimensions of Learning

'

To explore the relationship of each of these pieces of current educational research with the Ignatian paradigm in the SpiritUal Exercises and current Jesuit educational documents To explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and current educational theory and Ignatian methodology To continue exploring implications for the classroom

PRELECTION
Take a few minutes to reflect on the following questions.

What do you already know about teaching for higher level thinking skills?

8t

tN431LJt

KNe\'

What do you think will be the relationship between teaching for higher level thinking skills and Ignatius' purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises?

What do you know about teaching as enculturation? What do you think is its relationship with Ignatian purpose and methodology in the Spiritual Exercises?

What do you know about ATLAS Communities?

What do you know about the Dimensions of Learning?

If you know anything about either AILAS Communities and the Dimensions of Learning, what do you think will be their relationship with curent Jesuit educational documents?

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lgnaz-r Currenc drc*c-ronql P*Jigms

CURRENT EDUCATIONAL THEORY AND RESEARCH

Educators today regularly discuss how to change and improve schools' The literature is replete with theorists and researchers \,/ho are seeking to create better models for education and better educated students. Educational researchers and theorists have espoused many different pafadigms, each with its own particular emphasis, that they believe will improve the quality of education and instruction in schools. Cunent educational theories focus on higher order thinking skills, learning communities, authentic learning tasks with authentic assessment, alternative assessment, cooperative leaming, etc., to mention but a few of the movements and trends in education' In this chapter, we will examine three current educational paradigms and explore how they relate to the Ignatian paradigm in the Spiritual Exercises and also how they relate to both Go Forth and Teach and Ignatian Pedagogy, two recent documents about Jesuit

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educational philosophy and methodology.

we One additional note about the methodology of this chapter is necessary before will begin exploring Ignatian and current educational paradigms. In this chapter we explore its Ignatian condiscuss a cuffent educational theory and then immediately nection rather than waiting to cover all of the theory before examining Ignatian connections as we did in the previous two chapters.

HIGHER LEVEL THINKING SKILLS

Higher level thinking skills is an educational movement very much in vogue today' at The thinking skills movement has many advocates who have somewhat similar and for times differing approaches. A variety of commercial programs are available into teaching thinking skills both as a separate curriculum and as a piece integrated the regular curriculum.ot
few moments As a preparation for our discussion of higher level thinking skills, take a and answer the following questions on the types classroom. Answer these questions in terms of:
3 = Very Often or Often

of thinking which occur in your l=

Seldom or Never

2 = Sometimes

I encourage students to seek alternative answers'

personal lives' Students relate subject matter to experiences in other subjects or in their

I contains an excellent Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD], 1992)' Volume in schools' Volume 2 reviews several series of aficles about the teaching of thinking skills
commercial programs for teaching thinking skills'

for At L. costa, ed., Developing Minds,2 vols. rev. ed. (Alexandria: VA, Association

83

INCIUS KNC\2

Students actively listen to one another. Students give reasons for making statements. Most questions posed during a class can be answered with short or one word answers.

Whatever the text says is accepted as the right answer.s

Please keep in mind your answers to these questions during our discussion about pro moting thinking skills in the classroom. Many thinking skills researchers and theorists talk about the teaching for, of, and about thinking.o? This distinction of the teachingpr,
as the

of, ald about thinking will serve

framework for our discussion of thinking skills.

TEACHING FOR THINKING

No matter what higher level thinking skill theory or thinking skill program you examine, you will find that they all agree that classroom atmosphere contributes greatly to the promotion of student thinking. The teaching r thinking refers to
this atmosphere.

If

Is there a possibility for multiple student answers or solutions to a question or problem?

Do students have the oppornrnity to brainstorm many possible solutions to a problem? How is creative thinking fostered? Do students elaborate reasons for the answers they have given? Are shdents actively involved in listening to their classmates? Are the questions asked ones that require more than one or two word answers?

the answers to all or most of the above questions are "yes," then a thinking atmosphere is at work in the classroom because the thinking which is being taught is modeled concretely in the practices of the classroom.

Teaching os Encalturation David Perkins and his colleagues, in an article which establishes the context for teaching higher order thinking skills, present an interesting discussion about the

These questions are adapted from "Self-Reflecon on Your Teaching: A Checklist" by John Baell. The futl questionnaire can be found in Developing Minds ('lol' I ), Appendix C, page 379 ' a? See Chapter 7 of Devetoping Minds, vol. l. Also see Donald C Orlich, et al., Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd. ed. (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990) for a

good summary of the research on thinking skills as applied to the classroom.

84

differences between teaching as transmission and teaching as enculturation'n8 the Perkins considers teaching as transmission to be the model of teaching in which who in turn memorize this inforteacher imparts essential information to students mation. In the transmission model students feedback their knowledge of the information to the teacher through their answers to questions, quizzes, and tests' Talking about teaching as transmission, Perkins and his colleagues note that the It transmission model ca; be useful in teaching basic material such as math facts' with helping need not necessarily be mere rote memorization, but can be combined Perkins and his colstudents understand what is behind these basic facts. However, comes leagues conclude that the transmission model of teaching falls short when it pr thinking' Believing that to inculcating higher level thinking skills-teaching teachers are always modeling no matter what it is they are doing in the classroom' Perkins argues for an enculturation model of teaching which stresses basic attiPerkins rudes and fredispositions for higher level thinking skills. By enculturation means that the very subject matter being taught is also present in the methodology what he used to teach the matter. In other words, the teacher himself practices preaches. Perkins states:
one reason to turn to an enculturation model is that some sort of culture in classroom as well always exists: We ae enculturating whether we recognize it or not, so we may take heed and enculture what we want. For example, inevitably, the transmission rigid model enclutures certain sorts of inclinations and sensitivities. Consider a rather where [the] students' role is to sit quietly and receive the inforversion of the model passive with mation they need for a test. In such an environment, an inclination to be

Norrs

to seek and respect to knowledge tends to develop. Students do not become disposed on their own; rather, they learn to count on the environment to evaluate information automatically feed them information'oo

perkins' notion of teaching as enculturation recognizes that whatever is happening in as teachers' the classroom is modeling both the explicit and implicit values we have thinking skills is an important comIf we believe that the promotion of higher level promotes and ponent of our teaching, then it is necessary to set up an atmosphere that sustains that belief.

TEACHING OF THINXTNG
thinking skills' The teaching o/thinking refers to instructing students about specific thinking How do we as teachers in the classroom help our students to develop specific providing time to practice them? For skills by demonstrating these skills and by in trying to solve a parexample, do we ever model aloud our own thinking processes guideline for the ticula problem or find an answer to a question? A good general
ls Shari Tishman, Eileen Jay and David

(Teaching Higher Level Thinking Skills) Transmission to EnculturationJ Theory into Practice 1993)' 1993 (columbus, oH: College of Education: The ohio State university'

N. Perkins, "Teaching Thinking Dispositions: From

summer, p.150. 'o Perkins,

85

rNc:lus KNew

Norcs

teaching o/thinking is to examine the subject matter being taught in terms of the cognitive process required for that content and then to teach those cognitive processes as the thinking skills necessary for that content. It is usually a good idea not to presume that the cognitive processes necessary for your content have been taught in another subject and transferred to yours. Ideas for the teaching o/thinking can be found in any of the "thinking skill" programs and books available for developing thinking skills.'"

Another way ro think about the teaching o/thinking is to think about the traditional categories of Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy:51

= = -

Recall
Comprehension

Application
Analysis
Synthesis

Evaluation

In Bloom's system the thinking process is usuatly considered to begin with the first rwo steps of Recall and Comprehension, which are described as lower order thinking skills. Building upon these lower level thinking skills, the student moves to the other four levels: Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation, which are considered to be the higher order thinking skills. While thinking skills are usually broken down into these six discrete categories, the thinking process itself often draws from these categories simultaneously.

TEACHI NG AB OUT TH I N KI NG

The teachin g about thinking focuses on having students reflect about their own thinking processes. The rerm regularly applied to this type of thinking is "metacognition." If one teaches about thinking, one has students analyze their own leaming or problem solving processes. For example, as you are reading along in this book, take a few moments and review your own thinking processes. What has been occurring in your mind? V/hat have you learned during this reading process, and, more importantly for thinking about thinking, how have you learned it? The focus in metacognition is more on the "how" of learning than on the "what." In fact, traditional study skills courses primarily stress the development of metacognitive skills for the student. The

e For example. Robin Fogarty and James Bellanca, Patterns for Thinking: Patterns for Transfer
5'

(Palatine, IL: IRI Group [Skylight Publishers]' I989). Benjamin S. Bloom, M. D. Englehar, E. J. Furst, W H. Hill, and D. R. Kratwohl, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook l: Cognitive Domain (New York: David Mckay Co., 1956).

86

lgnerr

C*--e-. edit--'-J

!:lS-t

goal of this type of thinking is for students to monitor and improve their thinking pro""r.", so that they have strategies for analyzing what works and what does not' Metacognitive strategies can help make students better and more effective learners capable of transferring thinking skills to different situations'

TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY

In his methodology in the Spirit ual Exercises, Ignatius creates a paradigm that is quite similar to the paradigm found in the teaching for higher level thinking skills' Igntius nd Teaching for Thinking David Perkins' distinction between teaching as transmission and teaching as enculturation as being important to teaching r thinking is def,rnitely one that lgnatius knew and understood. Ignatius believed that a person simply could not hear or read about the spiritual life, but had to experience it. He learned this from his reflections while he was recovering from his wounds received at the battle of Pamplona' On the basis of this and subsequent spiritual experiences, Ignatius wrote the Spiritual to a Exercises which are a series of prayer exercises designed to lead the retreatant All the various exercises of the deeper spiritual life and the greater service of God. foui weeks are designed to teach the retreatant ways to reflect on his experience to exerhelp him order his life for the greater service of God. Woven implicitly in every "What have I done for Christ?" "What am cise are the three basic Ignatian questions: I doing for Christ?", and that question which challenges the retreatant to do more, the magis,..What more can I do for Christ?" This last question, because it contains the uery aim of the Spiritual Exercises and implicitly exists within all the exercises its Ignatius teaches the retreatant, models what it teaches. When something models in which promotes the very ethodology what it is teaching, it creates an atmosphere as subject .uit", being taught. This is precisely what Perkins means by teaching enculturation, the best way of teaching /or thinking. Ignatius in his Spiritual Exercises, because methodology models aim, shows that he understood the importance of teachingfor thinking.
Ignatius nd Teaching of Thinking Ilnatius is careful throughout the Spiritual Exercises to teach the types of thinking p--""rr", he wants the retreatant to use. The three principal methods of prayer: mediof iation, contemplation, and application of the senses, along with the examination

Ignatius conscience, are clearly examples where he promotes the teaching o/thinking' different types of mental processing. In also knew that thinking skills involved many of these meditation Ignatius emphasizes the memory, understanding, and will' Each to greater mental functions helps the retreatant achieve greater personal insight leading thinking skills. Ignatius also stressed service of God by employing different types of prayer. The imagination the creative thinking .t itt. *ittt his use of the imagination in the colloquy. Both becomes fully involved in prayer in the composition of Place and heavily on the imagination to help the contemplation and application of the senses rely faculties retreatant gain deepei personal insights. Ignatius' use of all of these mental demonstrates how much he appreciated the importance of teaching o/thinking' 87

rNc:rus KNe\v

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we think about the Spiritual Exercises in terms of Bloom's taxonomy, their focus is on the higher level thinking skills of analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and application. Ignatius always accentuates synthesis and application of what has been learned in a prayer to one's personal life. Ignatius does this by asking the retreatant to "draw some profit" from the subject matter of prayer by using analysis and evaluation. The ultimate goal of the Spiritual Exercises is to help the retreatant use what has been learned during the retreat in his subsequent life. For lgnatius, the ultimate test of the transformations from making the Spiritual Exercises is whether the retreatant lives a life ded-

If

icated to God in a love that is shown by deeds, not just words. Ignatian Pedagogy summarizes this Ignatian attitude about higher level thinking skills well when it discusses their role in Ignatian pedagogy:

(31)

l)

In Jesuit schools the learning experience is expected to move beyond rote knowledge to the development of the more complex learning skills of
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

2) If learning

the human meaning and significance of what they study and to integrate that meaning as responsible learners who grow as persons of competence,
conscience and compassion.

rhe component of REFLECTION wherein students are impelled to consider

were ro stop there,

it would

not be lgnatian. For

it would lack

Ignatius and Teaching about Thinking Ignatius also understood that teaching about thinking is important. Throughout the Spiritual Exercises Ignatius uses thinking about thinking, or metacognition. Ignatius teaches metacognition in the brief reflection period at the end of each prayer period, where the retreatant reviews how things went during the prayer time. The retreatant reflects about the various processes employed during prayer, paying palicular attention to what helped him pray well and what did not. Based upon these reflections, the retreatant decides what he will keep the same and what he will alter during the next period of prayer. Thus the retreatant, through reflections about what has worked and not worked during prayer, gains a greater understanding about what he can use and not use to pray effectively. All of this is a basic metacognitive strategy which Ignatius knew and promoted in his Spiritual Exercises. TEACHING OF THINKING SKILLS AND ,,AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ON TEACHING"

If you think back to when you completed "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching," you will realize that you employed many types of thinking skills during the exercise. The

exercise began with your remembering a time when you learned easily and well. You started by recalling some information. Immediately after that, you used your visual imagination to see yourself present at a class or series of classes which you taught or attended. Then, you set objectives for your reflection by doing some analysis and evaluation. In the main points of the reflection you were invited to employ many different thinking skills, ranging from imagination to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

All

these processes led you to do some type of application to your future teaching.

88

'lgnoc-.

C*--e-a A*t*--J

p*dtf*

you used Finally, you evaluated the whole process by reflecting on the processes what you leamed to during the reflection. You were also asked to consider applying ,o-" frtur" learning situations. As you can readily see, the whole reflection process teaching for' of' contained many types of thinking skills and, as such, promotes the
and about thinking.

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TWO INTEGRATED APPROACHBS TO LEARNING

link education more One of the trends in current educational research is an attempt to is to tie closely with the world in which students live. The thrust of the approach school and with school based education more cosely to students'experiences outside adult lives' Two the types of situations and problems students will encounter in their g.ou, of researchers cunetly proposing such approaches are ATLAS Communities work in education today' and the Dimensions of Learning. Sin". both programs are at have it is worth exploring triefly each of these theories to see what connection they with Ignatian thought and methodology.

ATIA,S COMMUNITIES
as experienThe first group of researchers who are exploring this idea of education (Authentic Teaching, tially andieal-world based is a group which calls itself "ATLAS ATLAS Communities Learning, and Assessmefi for-All Students) Communities'"" to improve bring together several educational theoristssr into a consortium working other in the field of education in the united states. Rather than competing with each voice to help educational research, they have joined together to form a common

improve schools and student learning'

AILAS Communities focus on the tasks of learning for which schools have in an bility in terms of productive "habits of mind, heart, an work'" Habits of mind

responsi-

of intelATLAS Communities school means that the school fosters the development work and for for their lectual and imaginative powers in students which they will need believe that these skills must move productivity in later lif;. ATLAS Communities
educational research and development

52

this team are the coalition of organizations and thee school districts. The members of Development center in Newton' MA; Essential Schools at Brown university; the Education Program at Yale University; and Project Tnro atHarvard University; the School Development and Prince George's county' the school districts of Gorham, Maine; Norfolk, Virginia; Teaching, Learning' and Maryland. working together they have published Authentic 55 AII Students (AILAS Communities' Education Development center'
Assessment

The

AILAS Communities team is composed of four

Chapel Street, Newton, MA 02160, phone: 617-969-7100)' of the consortium earlier 5r we have spent some time exploring the work of one of the members on multiple intelligences' in this chapter when we discussed Howard Gardner's research

for

89

IqNCIUS KNg\2

beyond basic literacy skills to include the abiliry to live in a complex world by applying old knowledge and experience to new situations. They see the need for students to imagine new possibilities, consider the implications of choices made, to look at the source of information for both content and accuracy, and to adopt multiple perspectives to solve a problem. Habits of heart, a phrase which ATLAS Communities borrowed from Robert Bullah,r defines those personal qualities which the individual needs to live productively in the world today. Some of these qualities noted are: "love, caring for others, generosity, civility, equity, the obligation to pursue our own interests with due regard for the rights and interests of others."55 Habits of work describes those skills and attitudes necessary for a person to contribute to society and to his own independence. These habits are necessary for a society to be successful and productive as opposed to a society where individuals do things simply because they have to do them.

With these three habits as the overriding values of an educational community, ATLAS Communities developed a philosophy of education which stresses:
. . .instead of striving to cover a wide range of subjects, students and teachers generate and pursue essential questions that go to the heart of people's concerns and cut across disciplines. They address these questions by engaging in authentic activities that reflect the habits and skills that are required in life and work outside the school. Ongoing assessments enable teachers and students to document and reflect on their progress and to give and receive the feedback and support they need to continue to

develop. A personalized environment provides for close personal relationships and the sharing ofdiverse perspectives and makes it possible for adults to understand the background, strengths, and needs of each student.s

ATLAS Communities employ a variety of techniques to accomplish the development of these three habits of "mind, heart, and work." The curriculum is organized around "essential questions" which force the student to explore and reflect about the answer to these questions from many different perspectives and from many different developmental levels. A sample essential question is: "What makes people human?" InATLAS Communities students explore these essential questions across disciplines for the purpose of gaining a deeper understanding which they can bring back to their communities outside the school world. It is in this context that teachers serve in the roles of coaches and models. Tachers also provide ongoing assessment of how the students are doing in their explorations of these essential questions. The process of assessment is a

Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Hean: Individualism and Commitment in American llp (New York:
Harper & Row, Publishers; Perennial Books, 1987). 55 ATLAS, Habits, p.4. 5" ATLAS, Learning Environment, p. 3.

90

Currenc eucec-,onql- Po-odigms

exploration continual one with a constant interplay of evaluation, which leads to further whole educational process is and reflection, which leads to more evaluation. Thus the All Students'" indeed one of "Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment for ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY
are the cenSt. Ignatius would find the three habits of mind, heart and rork, which beliefs he presents terpces of ATLAS Communities, very similar to principles and to be sucin his Spir;r ual Exercises. ATLAS Communities believe that if education is Ignatius emphasizes the cessful it must involve the entire person in real life tasks' which necessity of involving the whole person while making the Spiritual Exercises' God. In doing focus on the real life task of ordering one's life to the greater service of methods of prayer' this Ignatius instilled various habits of mind by teaching different purpose of the which involved diverse aspects of intellectual functioning' The whole of God' Spiritual Exercises is to dlvelop habits of heart which lead to greater love in the world This love of God in turn leads to habits of work-the leading of one's life his conin the service of God. For Ignatius,the hnbit of work is summed up well by not simply in words' The stant reminder that love is always shown in deeds and which are spiritual Exercises, then, foster the three habits of mind, heart, and worlc, the same fundamental concerns of the AILAS Communities'

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ATLAS COMMUNITIES AND GO FORTH AND TEACH

Communities and St' Besides the similarities between the basic outcomes of AILAS educational phiIgnatius' Spiritual Exercises, interesting parallels exist between the goals of Jesuit edulsophy of the AILAS Communities and the characteristics and Pedagogy cation s presented in both Go Forth and Teach and lgnatian of lifelong learners The overall goal of AILAS Communities is to create a community Go Forth and Teach who are contributing members to the society in which they live'
stresses this same theme:s?

(25)Godisespeciallyrevealedinthemysteryofthehumanperson,..createdinthe

probes the meaning of image and likeness of God;" Jesuit ducation, therefore , student as an indihuman life andis concerned with the total formation of each education is to assist in vidual personally loved by God. The objective of Jesuit talents of each indithe fullest porribl, deveLopmenl of all of the God-given vidual person as a member of the human community'

Communities deem to be The "personalized environment," a quality which AILAS care and concern important for their schools, closely resembles the personalize

5'

Ignatian

Go Forth and Teach In our discussion of ATLAS Communities and Jesuit Education' Similar excerpts can be found in cited to demonstrate the similarities between the two. which compares the Ignatian Pedagogy,but it will be cited in the next section

will

be

of Learning' Pedagogicat Paradigm and Robert Marzano's Dimensions

INACIUS KNC\V

Nores

(cura persorrulis), an essential characteristic of Jesuit education. Go Forth and Teach describes personalized care and concern in this way:

(43) Growth in

the responsible use of freedom is facilitated by the personal relationship betweet student and teacher. Teachers and administrators, both Jesuit and lay, are more than academic guides. They are involved in the lives of the students, taking a personal interest in the intellectual, affective, moral and spiritual development ofevery student, helping each one to develop a sense of selfworth and to become a responsible individual within the community. Vy'hile they respect the privacy of students. they are ready to listen to their cares and concerns about the meaning of life, to share their joys and sorrows, to help them with personal growth and interpersonal relationships. In these and other ways, the adult members of the educational community guide students in their development of a set of values leading to life decisions that go beyond "sell': that include a concern for the needs of others. They try to live in a way that offers an example to the students, and they are willing to share their own life experiences. "Cura personclis" (concern for the individual person) remains a basic characteristic of Jesuit education.

Historically, Jesuit education has always stressed the development of the habits of mind. Go Forth and Teach expresses the importance of habits of mind in this way:

(26)

A thorough and sound intellectual forntation includes mastery of basic humanistic and scientific disciplines through careful and sustained study that is based
on competent and well-motivated teaching. This intellectual formation includes a growing ability to reason reflectively, logically and critically.

Jesuit education not only stresses the traditional academic skills but also fosters the development of the imaginative and creative powers of mind, which the ATLAS Communities consider to be an essential part of their curriculum. Go Forth and Teach explains this emphasis:

(2S) In Jesuit

education, particular care is given to the development of the imaginative, the affective and the creative dimensions of each student in all courses of study. These dimensions enrich learning and prevent it from being merely intellectual. They are essential in the formation of the whole person and are a way to discover God as He reveals Himself through beauty. For these same reasons, Jesuit education includes opportunities-through course work and through extracurricular activities-for all students to come to an appreciation of literature, aesthetics. music and the fine arts.

Habits of heart is an essential educational product of Jesuit education. Go Forth and Teach describes this basic attitude which permeates Jesuit education:

(33)

Since the truly human is found only in relationships with others that include attitudes of respect, love and service, Jesuit education stresses-and assists in developing-the role of each individual as a member of the human community. Students, teachers, and all members of the educational community are encouraged to build a solidarity with others that transcends race, culture or religion. In a Jesuit school, good manners are expected; the atmosphere is one in which all can live and work together in understanding and love, with respect for all men and women as children of God. 92

lgnac-ro d' Current A**"

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an essenttal habit af heart o be Jesuit education also stresses the service of others as fostered:

Norrs

(37)Whileitrespectstheintegrityofacademicdisciplines'theconcernofJesuit educationispreparationfor.Iife'whichisitselfapreparationforeternallife.

is also conFormation of the individual is not an abstract end; Jesuit education students will make use of their formation within cerned with the ways in which ..for the praise, reverence, and the human .o'*uni,y, in the service of others

serviceofGod.''ThesuccessofJesuiteducationismeasurednotintermsof
rather in terms of this quality of life'

of teachers' but academic performance of students or professional competence

T\e habits of work is also

which is shown in "deeds' not cation the emphasis is always in terms of u lou" of God words." Go Forth and Teach expresses this concept:

eduan essential product of Jesuit education, but in Jesuit

(82)

are gifis to be developed' no' Jesuit education helps students to realize lhal talents God,p r the good of thefor self-sasfaction r sell-gain, but rather, with the help of

gifts in the service of human communi4'' Students are encouraged to use their

others,outofaloveforGod:..Todayourprimeeducationalobjectivemustbeto will live not for themselves form men and women for others; men and women who

and died for all the world; but for God and tus chnst-for the God-man who lived God which does not include men and women who cannot even conceive of love of

lovefortheleastoftheirneighbors;menandwomencompletelyconvincedthatthe
women is love of God which does noiissue in justice for men and
a

farce.""

what the AILAS Communities clearly, there is much that parallels Ignatian thought in sections from both Go are proposing for educational reform today. Many additional to show connections between Forth and Teach and Ignatian Pedagogy could be cited characteristics of Jesuit eduATLAS Communities iheory of education and the basic and, with some additions from cation. Indeed, one could pict< up the ATLAS Manual it as a tool to assist in examining the Go Forth and Teach and lgnntian Pedagogy' use school' philosophy, curriculum and methodologies of a Jesuit

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING
theory in ways slightly Robert J. Marzano'e and his colleagues explore educational

Marzano and his colleagues different from the AILAS Communities. Basically, that learning must be realreach the same conclusions as ATLAs communities, the human person for it to be world related and involve many different aspects of aware in recent years how people truly effective. stating that we have only become a model of learning that builds upon learn, Marzarro con"ludes that it is time to create passed on from previous generations' the research rather than what has been simply
1973), p' 9' $ pedro Ampe, S.J. Men for others (Rome: International Center for Jesuit Education,
5e

of Learning (Alexandria' VA: Different Kind of classroom: Teaching with Dimensions (continued...)
93

published is Robert J' Marzano, A Four different books comprise this series. The first

rqNctus KNew

Using this premise, Marzano and his colleagues propose a five step model which they call "The Five Dimensions of Learning." These dimensions are:

Dimension

l. Positive Attitudes

and Perceptions about Learning

Dimension 2. Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge Dimension 3. Expanding and Refrning Knowledge Dimension 4. Using Knowledge Meaningfully Dimension 5. Productive Habits of Mind.

Each of these dimensions deserves some comment. The first dimension, "Positive Anirudes and Perceptions about Leaming," is an important one, since all learning is affected by the state of the student when he begins leaming. Marzano states it in this way:
Without positive attitudes and perceptions, students have little chance of learning proficiently, if at all. In other words, for learning to occur, students must have certain attitudes and perceptions. . . . A primary focus of effective instruction, then, is establishing positive attitudes and perceptions about learning.o'

The second dimension, "Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge," is based upon the work of cognitive psychologists who view the process of leaming as one where the learner is actively involved in leaming. In this type of learning the learner is constructing personal meaning and relating it to previously acquired knowledge. This view of learning contrasts with the view of learning that sees learning as the passive reception of information handed on from teacher to student. In the third dimension, "Extending and Refining Knowledge," Marzano and his colleagues emphasize the need on the learner's part to work with the material being learned by finding out how it relates to previously learned material. This emphasis focuses on the integrating of new knowledge with old but in ways that help the student achieve greater insight and understanding of the newly learned material. This

5e

(continued...)

o'Assessing Student Outcomes, p.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development IASCD], 1992), which is a basic overview of the program. The second book is Robert J. Marzano, Debra J. Pickering, Daisy E. Arrendondo, Guy J. Blackburn, Ronald S. Brandt, and Cerylle A. Moffett, Tacher's Manual: Dimensions of Learning (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1992). The third book is the trainers manual available for Dimensions of Learning. The fourth book in this series is Robert J. Marzano, Debra Pickering and Jay McTighe, Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 1993). m The Teacher's Manual: Dimensions of Learning contains many concrete suggestions and techniques for implementing each of the dimensions. While some of the techniques are meant for primary grades, many are easily adaptable to the secondary level.

l.

lgnoci o- C---oc

rcoc'rr-ol. Ps*d'igms

of higher dimension contains many techniques regularly discussed by proponents inducing, deducing, etc.). level thinking skills (e.g., comparing, contrasting,
best and The fourth dimension, "Using Knowledge Meaningfully," insists that the material in most effective learning occurs when the student uses the newly learned that knowledge ways that are meaninglul for the student. This dimension emphasizes real-world context' becomes readily available to the student when it is transferred to a

Norrs

of The fifth dimension, "Productive Habits of Mind," emphasizes the development while processes of thinking that will be useful in different situations' The content' used to learn it. Important in this i.portunt, has equal importance with the process dimension is that the process used is transferable to a variety of situations'u2 IGNATIUS AND THE DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING
to The five dimensions of learning proposed by Marzano and his colleagues relate first dimension' some basic Ignatian principles and methodologies. Marzano's "Positive Attitudes und P"r..ptions about Learning," closely parallels the methodand his ology Ignatius suggests as preparation for a period of prayer. Just as Marzano the proper atmoscolleagues stress the importance of preparation and establishing preludes for phere nd mental state for learning, Ignatius does so in his points and prayer, which becomes prelection in traditional Jesuit pedagogy'

Marzano and his colleagues next three dimensions, "Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge," "Expanding and Refining Knowledge," and "using Knowledge Meaningfully," all emphaiize ways to broaden the student's experience and enhance that experience by uring u variety of thinking skills so that what has been learned shares the becomes an integral part of the student's life. Ignatius'spiritual Exercises Exercises exact same purpose with these three dimensions of learning. The Spiritual which help the retreatant to examine leads the retreatant through a series of exercises each of his life in relationship to coo. Through exercises centered on the themes of to the four weeks and a variety of prayer methods, Ignatius helps the retreatant Ignatius' stress on "acquire and integrate knowledge" about himself. Simultaneously, how the magis,"What more can I do for Christ," always has the retreatant examining what has been learned can be used in daily life'
through Ignatius teaches very concrete ways of "expanding and refining knowledge" on his stress on using different mental faculties during prayer. Ignatius' insistence material, but an attempt to deepen repetition, which is not simply a reviewing of old the retreatant that knowledge and to make it a fuller part of one's person, also helps Exercises with the expand and refine knowledge. The culmination of the spiritual ..Contemplation to Attain the Love of God" helps the retreatant to see and understand Exercises that God is present in all of creation. The retreatant finishes the Spiritual
same language and description of the habits of mind

It is interesting to note that is the exact

of the ATLAS Communities.

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Norts

infused with a love of God and with an understanding of how to find God in all aspects of his life. The knowledge gained through the making of the Spiritual Exercises becomes an integral part of the person and is available to help the retreatant live a life of service of God through a love "shown by deeds, not words." The knowledge from making the Spiritual Exercises has been transferred from the retreat to the whole context of the his life. It is a knowledge which has taken on meaningful dimensions for the person since it has become part of the guiding beliefs by which he organizes and leads his life. The entire process of making the Spiritual Exercises creates "productive habits of mind," the last of Marzano's dimensions of learning.

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING AND IGNATIAN PEDAGOGY

Besides the connections between Marzano's Dimensions of Learning and Ignatian

methodology, similarities exist between these dimensions and the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm, presented in Ignatian Pedagogt'. The five dynamic elements of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm are: context, experience, reflection, action, and evaluation. Ignatian Pedagog' describes the three main dynamic elements as:

(28)

Srarring with EXPERIENCE, the teacher creates the conditions whereby students gather and recollecl the material of their own experience in order to distill what they understand already in terms of facts, feelings, values, insights and intuitions they bring to the subject matter at hand. Later the teacher guides the students in assimilating new inlbrmation and further experience so that their knowledge will grow in completeness and truth. The teacher lays the foundations fbr learning how to learn by engaging students in skills and techniques of REFLECTION. Here memory, understanding, imagination and feelings are used to grasp the essential meaning and value of what is being studied, to discover its relationship to other facets of human knowledge and activity, and to appreciate its implications in the continuing search for truth. Reflection should be a formative and liberating process that so shapes the consciousness of students-their habitual attitudes, values and beliefs as well as ways of thinking-that they are impelled to move beyond knowing to

ACTION....

(29)

The continual interplay, then, of EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION and ACTION

I_enatian pedagogy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools as we accompany the learner on his or her journey of becoming a fully human person. It is an Ignatian pedagogical paradigm which each of us can bring to the subjects we teach and programs we run, knowing that it needs to be adapted and applied to our own specilrc situations.

in the teaching-learning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of

an

The overall purpose of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm is to present an integrated learning modet where each of the dynamic elements works together with the others. While the model is broken down into its component parts for easier understanding, all of the elements are continuously at work during learning. This continual interaction

96

lgnecio en Curren. g@

of dynamic elements is very similar to Marzano's description of how the five dimensions of learning function together:
The five dimensions of learning are loose metaphors for how the mind works during learning, Certainly there are not five independent types of thinking that occur during learning; learning involves a complex system of interactive processes.o'

Norzs

learning Besides there being an overall similarity between Marzano's dimensions of and the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm in terms of the interaction of the elements, there are also similarities between specific dimensions and specific elements of the

Ignatian pedagogical Paradigm. Marzano's first dimension, "Positive Attitudes and Perceptions abour Learning," deals with establishing positive attitudes and disposipart of tions for the learner as he approaches the task of learning. As such it contains "Context," the elements related ro "context" in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. than however, in the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm is broader and more detailed Marzano's first dimension. Ignatian Pedagogt' describes some essential characteristics of context in this waY:

(35)

Similarly, personal care and concern for the individual' which is a hallmark of Jesuit education, requires that the teacher become as conversant as possible with the life experience of the learner. since human experience, always the

Startingpointinanlgnatianpedagogy'neveroccursinavacuum,wemust know as much as we can about the actual context within which teaching and
learning take Place. ' .
.

(38) a)

situthe real context of a student's lrle which includes family, peers, social cultural cliations. the educational institution itself, politics, economics, mate, the ecclesial situation, media, music and other realities. All of these have an impact on the student for better or worse' ' ' '

(39)b)thesocio-economic,potiticatandculturalcontextwithinwhichastudent growscanserious|yaffecthisorhergrowthaSapersonforothers....

(40) c) the institutional

environment of the school or learning center, i.e. the complex and often subtle network of norms, expectations and especially relaCathoiionships that create the atmosphere of school life. Recent study of of a positive school environment' ' ' ' lic schools highlights the importance may The results oi r""nt research suggest that the climate of the school

wellbethepreconditionnecessarybeforevalueeducationcanevenbegin,
and that n]u.h

inwhichthemoraldevelopmentandreligiousformationofadolescents takesPlace.'..

*or"

attention needs to be given to the school environment

(41)d)whatpreviousll,acquiredconceptsstudentsbringwiththemtothestartof thelearnittgprocess.Theirpointsofviewandtheinsightsthattheymay
tural environment, for learning' the subject matter to be studied form part of the real context

from their culhave acqui fro,o earlier study or picked up sponraneously attitudes' and values regarding as well as their feelings,

u3

p.2' A Different Kind of classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning,

97

|NAC|US KNe\v

Nors

Marzano's second dimension of learning, "Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge," contains many of the same characteristics as the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm's elements of "experience." Ignatian Pedagogldescribes experience as:

(42) 2.

EXPERIENCE for Ignatius meant "to taste something internally." In the hrst place this calls for knowing facrs, concepts, principles. This requires one to probe the connotation and overtones of words and events, to analyze and evaluate ideas, to reason. Only with accurate comprehension of what is being considered can one proceed to valid appreciation of its meaning. But Ignatian experience goes beyond a purely intellectual grasp. Ignatius urges that the whole person-mind, heart and wll-should enter the learning experience. He encourages use of the imagination and the feelings as well as the mind in experience. Thus affective as well as cognitive dimensions of the human person are involved. because without internal feeling joined to intellectual grasp, learning will not move a person to action. . . .

(43)

affective nature is registered by the student. In any experience, data is perceived by the student cognitively. Through questioning, imagining, investigating its elements and relationships, the student organizes this data into a whole or a hypothesis. "What is this?" "Is it like anything I already know?" "How does it work?" And even without deliberate choice there is a concomitant affective reaction, e.g. "I like this. . . ." "I'm threatened by this. ' . ." "I never do well in this sort of thing. . . ." "It's interesting. . . ." "Ho hum, I'm bored."

Thus we use the term EXPERIENCE to describe any activity in which in addition to a cognitive grasp of the nutter being considered, some sensation of an

Once a student has a particular experience, he is expected to reflect on that experience. "Reflection" in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm has many of the same characteristics as Marzano's third dimension of learning, "Expanding and Refining Knowledge'" Ignatian Pedagogy defines reflection as:

(47) 3. REFLECION: Throughout

his life Ignatius knew himself to be constantly subjected to different stirrings, invitations, alternatives which were often contradictory. His greatest effort was to try to discover what moved him in each situation: the impulse that leads him to good or the one that inclines him to evil; the desire to serve others or the solicitude for his own egotis-

ticalaffirmation....

(48) At

this level of REFLECTION, the memory, the understanding, the imagination and the feelings are used to capture the meaning and the essential value of what is being studied, fo discover its relationsh with other aspects of knowledge and human activity, and to appreciate its implications in the ongoing search for truth and fieedom. This REFLECTION is a formative and liberating process. It forms the conscience of learners (their beliefs, values, attitudes and their entire way of thinking) in such a manner that they are led to move beyond knowing, to undertake action.
We use the ternt reflection to mean a thoughtful reconsideration of some sub-

(49)

ject matler experience, idea, purpose or spontaneous reaction, in order to grasp its sigtrificance more fully. Thus, reflection is the process by which
meaning surfaces in human experience:

98

 C---e-r

drcet-o-ol. P*odq-s

(s0)

Norrs
of the are the assumpti"ons in this theory of the atom, in this presentation in this statistical analysis? Are they validl are they history of native peoples, diffair? Are other assuptions possible? How would the presentation be were made?" ferent if other assumptions
considerarion. Fr example, "In studying this short story, what particularly i'Whut do I find troubling in this translation? Why?" inreresrs me? Why?. . ."

(sl)

(s2)

for

of my mental efforts io check the greenhouse effect have on my life, on that poorer countries?" family, and friends? . . ' on the lives ol people in

myself and

ior otherr. For example. "what likely effects might environ-

(53) -

truth

andttre iite. For example, "Most people feel that a more equitable sharMy ing of the world's resources is at least desirable, if not a moral imperative.

of bt.achieving personal insights into events, ideas, truth or the distortion

own life style, the things I take for granted, may contribute to the culrent imbalance. Am l willing to reconsider what l really need to be happy?"

(s4)

does what I have reflected upon make me feel? Why? Am that reaction in myself? Why? If not, why not?"

why?").-..andwholmightbeinrelationtoothers'Forexample"'How I at peace with

has Reflection always leads to action in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm' Action some characteristics of Marzano's fourth dimension, "Using Knowledge Meaningfully," but the Ignatian conception of action goes well beyond simply applying the new knowledge to a life situation. Action always involves a choice for the more' magis,which is what distinguishes it from Marzano's dimension of "Using Knowledge Meaningfully." lgnatian Pedagogy sums up the Ignatian conception of action:

(59) 4.

ACTION: For Ignatius the acid test of love is what one does, not what one al Exer' says. "Iove is shown in deeds, not words." The thrust of the spiritu was precisely to enable the retreatant to know the will of God and to cjss
do it freelY. . .
.

(62\

The term

"Action" here refers to internal human growth based upon experiIt ence that has been reflected upon as wel! as its manifestation externally'
involves nvo steqs:

l)

I nte rio

rized

C hoic

s.

After reflection, the learner considers the experience from a personal, human point of view. Here in light of cognitive understanding of the experience and

perihe affections involved (positive or negative), the will is moved. Meanings made. such choices may occur when ceived and judged present choices to be attia person delides that a truth is to be his or her personal point ofreference' any number of decisions. It may take tu" o, predisposition which will affect the form of giadual clarification of one's priorities. It is at this point that the student chooses to make the truth his or her own while remaining open to where the truth might lead.

99

rNcrus KNew

Nores

2') Choices ExternaLlv

Maniftsted.

parr of the person. impel the student to act, to do something consistent with this nex. conv,ictior. If the meaning was positive, then the student will likely seek to enhance those conditions or circumstances in which the original experience took place. For example, if the goal of physical education has been achieved,

In time, these meanings, attitudes, values which have been interiorized, made

the student will be inclined to undertake some regular sport during his free time. If she has acquired a taste for history of literature, she may resolve to make time for reading. If he finds it worthwhile to help his companions in their studies, he may volunteer to collaborate in some remedial program for weaker
riences in the ghetto and reflection on those experiences, this might influence his or her career choice or move the student to volunteer to work for the poor. If the meaning was negative, then the student will likely seek to adjust, change, diminish or avoid the conditions and circumstances in which the original experience took place. For example, if the student now appreciates the reasons for his or her lack of success in school work, the student may decide to improve study habits in order to avoid repeated failure.
students.

Ifhe or she appreciates better the needs ofthe poor after service expe-

The final dynamic element of the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm is evaluation. While evaluation does not appear as a separate dimension in Marzano's Dimensions of Leaming, it is interwoven into the whole process of using the five dimensions in the classroom. Marzano and his colleagues explore ways to use evaluation in connection Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model. The main theme of this work is to help teachers use and design performance assessment with the five

with their program in their companion piece, Assessing Student Outcomes:

dimensions of learning.*

usually associated with academic tasks, but also has an additional meaning. Ignatian Pedagogy discusses both functions of evaluation:

In the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm, evaluation has both the traditional purposes

(63) 5.

EVALUATION: All reachers know that from time to time it is important to evaluate a student's progress in academic achievement. Daily quizzes, weekly or monthly tests and semester examinations are familiar evaluation instruments to assess the degree of mastery of knowledge and skills achieved. Periodic testing alerts the teacher and the student both to intellectual growth and to lacunae where further work is necessary for mastery. This type of feedback can alert the teacher to possible needs for use of alternate methods of teaching; it also offers special opportunities to individualize encouragement and advice for academic improvement (e.g. review of study habits) for each student.

(64)

lgnatian pedagogy, however, aims at formation which includes but goes beyond academic mastery. Here we are concerned about students' well-rounded

d For

another thorough discussion

of performance and alternative assessment,

see Joan L.

Herman, Pamela R. Aschbacher, and Lynn Vy'inters, A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development [ASCD], 1992).

roo

Currenr drcocro-J

P*odq-s

growth as persons for others. Thus periodic evaluation of the student's growth in attitudes, priorities and actions consistent with being a person for others is

essential. Comprehensive assessment probably will not occur as frequently as academic testing, but it needs to be planned at intervals, at least once a terrn. A teacher who is observant will perceive indications of growth or lack of growth in class discussions, students' generosity in response to common needs, etc., much more frequentlY.

We have seen that Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Learning contains basic concepts which are very similar to five dynamic elements of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. In fact, Marzano's theory could be readily used to help implement the

Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm in the classroom of Jesuit schools today.

REFLECTION ON IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY AND THE CLASSROOM

If your
experience of reading this chapter is to lead to some type of action, it would be appropriate to take a few minutes to begin thinking about how the content of this chapter relates to the classroom. Take a few minutes to answer the questions below as best as you can, realizing that the next chapter will make more explicit the connection between Ignatian methodology and current educational psychology and leaming theory.

1.

What have I done and what do I do in my teaching that parallels cunent educational theories and has some of the Ignatian components presented in this chapter? (Listed below for easy reference are some major theories discussed in this
chapter.)

Higher Level Thinking Skills - Teaching/or Thinking - Taching as Enculturation

Teaching o/Thinking

Teaching about Thinking

ATLAS Communities - Habits of Mind - Habits of Hean - Habits of Work

Dimensions of Lcarning Positive Attitudes and Perceptions about Learning Acquiring and Integrating Knowledge

' -

Expanding and Refining Knowledge Using Knowledge MeaningfullY Productive Habits of Mind.
tor

INCIUS KNC\V

Norts

2.

and my teaching?

After completing the above reflection, what are the next steps I want to explore or take regarding current educational theory as it relates to Ignatian methodology

Three things I want to explore or do are:

t.
2. 3.

EVALUATION
To evaluate this chapter in order to see what effect it has had upon you, you may wish to do the following:

l.

Listed below are terms from the Prelection of Educational Terminology. Do you understand any of these terms better now than you did when you began this book?

Higher Level Thinking Skills

' 2. -

Tachingr Thinking
Teaching o/Thinking Teaching about Thinking

Metacognition
Teaching as Enculturation

Experiential Based Leaming

AILAS Communities
Robert Marzano's Dimensions of Lcarning

Listed below are the objectives from the start of this chapter. Take a few minutes and think about how this chapter has met these objectives for you.

To explain certain pieces ofcurrent educational theory and reseach

Higher Order Thinking Skills

Teaching as Enculturation

AILAS Communities Dimensions of l*arning

To explore the connection of each of these pieces of current educational research with the Ignatian paradigm in the Spiritual Exercises and cufTent Jesuit educational documents

toz

Curror

d*cec'o-ql- P*-oig-s

To explore the relationship between "An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" and currenr educational theory and Ignatian methodology To continue exploring implications for the classroom

Noras

AN IGNATIAN REPETITION FOR CHAPTERS III-V

and Since we have spent the last three chapters discussing cunent educational theories and Jesuit edutheir connection with Ignatian methodology in the Spiritual Exercises cation, it is fining that we conclude this section of the book with an Ignatian repetition'

1.

Take a few minutes and reflect about the important points for you from these chapters. (You might want to play some music which helps you relax and become more reflective.) What words, images, or phrases come to mind?

2.

Did you learn anything new? If so, what?

3.

Did you understand anything more fully or deeply? If so, what?

ro3

tqNAclus KNe\2

Norts

4.

Did anything leave you unsettled or disturbed? If so, what? (This is a key Ignatian question and one that can frequently lead to deeper learning and understanding
when

it

is explored.)

5.

If you were to represent the last three chapters in some visual manner, (e.g., chart, drawing, sketch, mind map, painting) what would it be?

6.

If

the last three chapters were a piece of music or a song what would it be?

to4

tgnecion od Cu--e-c et coctott'L

7. If you had to think of some type of physical gesture or activity which describes
the last three chapters what would it be?

Norns

8.

Do the questions above help you experience any of the purposes of Ignatian repetition? Do they bear any relationship to the Ignatian application of the senses?

ro5

to6

CHAPTER VI
Norts

ll,l,ocian eu,cocol
and examined explored Ignatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises, of learning' current educational theory and its connection to Ignatius'understanding and how it You have been asked to think about what you do in your own classroom presented. By way of conrelates to both the educational and Ignatian learning theory what are the implicacluding this book, I would like to ipend some time exploring education today' tions in what Ignatius knew about educational theory for Jesuit
The objectives for this chapter are:

"An Ignatian Reflection on Teaching"' o far in this book we have completed an

To discuss Jesuit and lgnatian education

To explore Ignatian education in the classroom To do an Ignatian repetition of this book

PRELECTION
on the following questions' As a prelection for this chapter take a few moments to reflect

l.

What is Jesuit education?

2.

What is Ignatian education?

3.

education in your Is there a distinction between Jesuit education and Ignatian mind? If so, what is the difference?

4.

If you were going to construct

you do it?

an lgnatian repetition for this book, how would

to7

rNcrus KNew

JESUIT EDUCATION AND IGNATIAN EDUCATION

and Ignatian education. You will notice this chapter is entitled, "Ignatian Education." It is done so deliberately to stress a distinction between Jesuit education and Ignatian education. Jesuit education is a system of education started by Ignatius and his companions in the sixteenth century and carried forward for nearly four hundred and fifty years by the followers of Ignatius, the members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits. Jesuit education implies that there is a definite relationship between a particular educational institution and the Society of Jesus regarding the sponsorship and governance of the institeaching. As we are all well-aware today, Jesuit secondary schools in the United States no longer have the number of Jesuits both administering and teaching as was once the case. r/ith this decline ofJesuit personnel in the schools, a frequently discussed question today is what makes a school a Jesuit school? While we in Jesuit education continue the process of exploring this question and living with several different models and approaches in order to respond to the challenges presented by it, it is equally important to examine the Ignatian dimensions of Jesuit education'

I would like to make one distinction to start this discussion

between Jesuit education

turion. For years Jesuits ran the institution doing the bulk of administrating and

As we continue exploring what makes a school a Jesuit school, I believe that an important aspect in answering that question is "What is lgnatian about the school?" By Ignatian, I mean not just what occurs in terms of religious activities of the school and in the retreat and community service programs, but how does the school model

Ignatian methodologies and learning theory. How does what happens in the English, chemistry, geometry, and Spanish classroom use Ignatian educational principles? How does the entire life of the school, particularly the academic life of the school, model what Ignatius knew and understood about the human mind and learning which he left us as his legacy in the Splritual Exercises'l Ignatian education, to my mind, is derived from the principles and methodologies of St. Ignatius in his Spiritual Exerciss. If one is to be "an Ignatian educator," one would develop teaching methodologies which model the methodologies of the Spiritual Exercises. One would take the basic Ignatian principles which we have explored in this book and apply them in the classroom. An Ignatian classroom would be alive with personalized care and concern for the student. It would stress that learning begins where the student is, not where she is supposed to be or where a particular curriculum program assumes she is.

The classroom activities would model the way Ignatius teaches the retreatant in his Spiritual Exercises. They would stress preparation for learning, both by establishing a proper context and atmosphere for learning and by using prelection, a Jesuit educational principle that derives directly from the Spiritual Exercises. Not only would the Ignatian classroom stress traditional academic skills, such as memorization, understanding, comprehension, and clear, logical reasoning, but it would also emphasize the use of the creative and imaginative faculties of the mind as Ignatius does in the three principal
r08

tgneri .<er<n

methods of prayer which he teaches in the Spiritual Exercises-meditation, contemplation and the application of the senses. The teacher would assist the student in the iearning process by stressing active learning achieved by involving the whole person in espethe learning process. Reflection in many different forms and many different ways, activities, would be stressed cially providlng the time to be reflective during classroom is imporas a key component of the educational process. The Ignatian principle that it to do a few things well rather than do many things , non muha, sed multum, would
tant

Nores

play an important role in both the material covered and how it is covered.

Throughout the learning process there would be continual assessment that serves both the purpose of evaluation for grades, but also the equally important purpose of helping the teacher know how to proceed with assisting the students' learning' This assessin ment would function in ways that the frequent meetings with a retreat director do is and where the Spiritual Exercises-to help the director to know where the retreatant to go in the process of making the Spiritual Exercises. Finally, the Ignatian teacher would understand and frequently use Ignatian repetition not just to review the material, but to help the material to become a deeper understood and felt part of the stucredents' learning experience. This entire process would always be focused toward "praise, reverence' and ating students who are aware that their purpose in life is to God." If we use the current language of Jesuit education' these students would

serve consee themselves as "men and women for others" and as "persons of competence, science and compassion."

This Ignatian classroom certainly could be one in which anyone could teach no matter it whether Jesuit or not. It ,nuy oi may not be in a Jesuit school' What would make Ignatian would be the use of the techniques and methodologies of the Spiritual imbued with Exercises as the primary pedagogical methods of the classroom. Anyone an understanding und- appt".iation of Ignatius' methodologies of the Spiritunl is and Exercises could conduct an Ignatian classroom, no matter where that school who is sponsoring the school.

Much of what is being stressed as new and important in education today Ignatius Since our already implicitly undeistood and incorporated into his Spiritual Exercises. reexamine Ignatin neritage already contains many of these ideas, our challenge is to what happens in our classrooms' that heritage and to make it an integral part of

If we are looking for a model to follow to help

insure that our classrooms are lgnatian' Pedagogical then the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm is there to help us. The Ignatian provides an excellent Paradigm of context, eiperience, reflection, action, and evaluation the four hundred and framework for meeting this challenge and helping us to continue century' What we in Ignatian fifty year tradition of iesuit education in the twenty-first "context." we do that by eucation are being asked to do is to "evaluate" our curent using all the examining our "experiences" of lgnatian education. We do that reflectively, so that what we reflect parts of the mind, just as Ignatius does in his Spiriru al Exercises, and soul n will not only have cognitive components, but also will have the heart to take to begin involved. Based upon our reflections, we look to any actions we need we have three basic century of lgnatian education. Throughout this process,

another

r09

tNac:rJ5 KNe\V

Ignatian questions from the Spiritunl Exercises as our guide: "What have I done for Christ?"; "What am I doing for Christ?"; and "V/hat more (magis) can I do for Christ?"

enculturation" model proposed by David Perkins and "practicing what we preach."

I believe that if we make our classrooms Ignatian then a significant part of the question of what makes a school Jesuit will be answered, because the very methodologies at work will model the values we seek to inculcate. We will be using the "teaching as

This is the challenge which is being presented to Jesuit educators around the world today. Both Go Forth and Teach and the more recent lgnatian Pedagog,herald this challenge. Ignatian Pedagogt'sums up this challenge: (l

l)

Pedagogy is the way in which teachers accompany learners in their growth and development. Pedagogy, the at and science of teaching, cannot simply be reduced to methodology. It must include a world view and a vision of the ideal human person to be educated. These provide the goal, the end towards which all aspects of an educational tradition are directed. They also provide criteria for choices of means to be used in the process of education. The world view and ideal of Jesuit education for our time has been expressed in The Characteristics of Jesuit Education. Ignatian Pedagogy assumes that world

Ignatian values can be incarnated in the teaching-learning process.

view and moves one step beyond suggesting more explicit ways in which

This may seem like a difficult challenge, but the approach we take to begin this task is an important first step. Vy'e begin this process where Ignatius begins the process of working with the retreatant making the Spiritual Exercises. Remember that Ignatius insists that the retreat director always begin by finding out where the person making the Spiritual Exercises is in her life. This is the context for making the Spiritual Exercises, the key starting point, because they must be adapted to meet the needs of the individual making them. So we begin this process by discovering where we are in our own classrooms. What is it that I do in my classroom that contains many of the Ignatian characteristics we have been talking about? One other consideration is also important. We need to remember that what Ignatius knew and understood about learning are indeed characteristics of good pedagogy so that many good pedagogical techniques will be very similar to Ignatian techniques.
The purpose of the remainder of this chapter is to provide a framework for you to continue this process of reflecting about the Ignatian classroom. Two different frame-

works will be provided for you. One is in the form of an Ignatian contemplation, which will be an Ignatian repetition, while the other is in the form of some sample class vignettes which can be analyzed in terms of different Ignatian components present or not present in each vignette.

..AN IGNATIAN REFLECTION ABOUT AN IGNATIAN CLASSROOM' Any reflection about an Ignatian classroom should somehow model the Ignatian methodologies of the Spiritual Exercises. Therefore, just as you experienced "An
ilo

lgnori

drcor'rn

the Ignatian Reflection on Teaching" in Chapter I, I am suggesting that you complete an Ignatian next exercise which is entitled, "An Ignatian Reflection About Spiritual Classroom," as a way of using the methodologies taught by Ignatius in the repetition to help deepen what Exercises.This exercise also functions as an lgnatian has been already learned in this book.

PREPARATION FOR THE REFLECTION (Ignatian Points and Preludes)

the past which Step l. Take a few moments and think back to an experience you had in special course, tlas na very positive effects in your life since that experience, e.g., a which led to new levels of undera significant teacher, a retreat, a personal crisis your life, but it staning and growth, etc. The experience can be from any aspect of rememshould be one that has signifrcantly affected your life. Spend a few moments

bering and enjoying that experience.

you are teaching Step 2. Now see yourself teaching one or two classes at a time when with the students was at your best. You really felt that what you wanted to achieve achieved and you left the class with a sense of satisfaction'
purpose of this Step 3. From the introduction to this section, you already know that the .reflection is to look at the Ignatian dimensions of the classroom' Set some objectives I would like to or purposes for yourself while you are doing this reflection' What is it learn from this reflection? How would I like to learn it?

THE MAIN PART OF THE REFLECTION (This wilt use the methodology of n lgnatian contempltion.)
wish point of Ignatian In"hodology. You can do this several different ways' You may present in io explore the structure of an lgnatian prayer period and see what parts are from the perspective of yourlurrroom. You ruy *unt to look at your classroom methodcurrent education ,"r"*.h and learning theory. You will find the lgnatian cunent educaology and its connection to a class listed on page l13. You will find listed on pages l14 and tiorial theory and its connections to the Spiritual Exercises ll5. Take a few moments and decide which way you want to consider the Ignatian dimensions of Your teaching. from the view Step 4. You are going to reflect on yourself as teacher in your classroom

l.

Now

you to return to the class where you were at your teaching best' present and enter into the class or classes. You can do this two Make yourseif ^on" way is to place yourself right in the event as an actor taking different *uy,. as if part in a play. The secnd way is to watch yourself involved in the event

I want

youwereu"u*".ufollowingtheactionthatishappening.Youcanlearnsome.

yourself thing by using both methods of looking at a past event. As you watch is distinctively lgnatian about what in your class ihat do you see, hean feel that sense is ccurring in your class? Be sure to use all three of these senses. Each will be one of the points for this reflection'

il

rqNcrus KNew

Nors

A special note . lf you are only watching yourself as a teacher, you may want to spend some time watching the students and noting their reactions. You may learn some interesting things by doing this.

2.

When something strikes you as signifrcant or important, stop and reflect about it. Does this particular idea suggest any additional ideas you might want to consider? r/hat does what you have learned from this experience suggest to you about your future Ignatian classroom? If something strikes you as extremely important, spend all the time you need to think about it without concern about covering all the points listed here.

coLLoSuY
clude this exercise by having an imagined conversation with St. Ignatius. In your imagination place yourself in Ignatius' presence and hold a conversation with him about what he knew about how people learn and what he sees as the essential parts of his methodology needed for the twenty-first century. Hold a real conversation, both listening and speaking with lgnatius.
REVTEW
Step 6. After you have completed this exercise, spend a few moments thinking about the processes you used during the exercise. Which ones were particularly helpful for you? Which ones were not so helpful? If you did a similar exercise in the future, are there things you learned from doing this exercise which would be important to use again? Are there things which may not have worked well here, but which you might want to try in a different time and context? at work in this reflection and how the whole person becomes involved in the reflection process by using many different mental faculties. Step 5. Once you have had sufficient time to reflect about each of these points, con-

I am sure by now you recognize all the lgnatian principles

12

lgnor'^" rcqr'rr

A LIST OF IGNATIAN PRINCIPLES

Norrs

RELATIONSHIP WITH AN IGNATIAN METHODOLOGY IN IGNATIAN CI-ASS THE SPIRITT]AL EXERCISES

Preparation for PraYer
Preparation for Class (Context)

Prelection of Homework
State and AtmosPhere for Leam

'

Preludes:

Preparatory Prayer Composition of Place

Grace Sought

'

ing

Setting Objectives for a Class

Main Part of Prayer

Active Learning and Reflection (Experience, Reflection, Action)

Use of both traditional academic skills plus the use of the creative and imaginative Parts of the mind
Stress on the imaginative dimen-

Understanding, Will

Understanding,.Will

sions of learning over the more

logical, rational Processes

Imagination, Will

standing and integration, not

simply review

Colloquy

Ways of Involving Others in the

Learning Process

cooperative learning, think-pairshare, etc.

Review at the End of PraYer

Metacognition, the thinking about the learning process Learning journals, etc.

process?

next time of PraYer?

ently when I next leam?

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I

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A LIST OF BDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND LEARNING THEORY

EDUCATIONALTHEORY
Brain-Based Education

IGNATIAN CONNECTION
during the

Use of the whole brain

making of the Spiritual Exerces

individual is

Each Brain is Unique

Physiology
and particularly the ColloquY Use of memory and understanding in meditations

Left/Right Hemisphere

Interweaving of hemispheres during the period of prayer

Use of the memory and the understanding during preParation for prayer, the praYer itself, and the review at the end

during the preparation for Prayer and the prayer itself

Learning Style

Ignatius understood the importance of using all three learning channels or modalities to accomplish the purpose of the Spiritual Exercises
Place, Contemplation, Application of the Senses and the Colloquy

Vsual

during Prayer, and the Colloquy

and Postures Selected for Prayer

Multiple Intelligences

Ignatius uses six of the seven intelligences in the Spirilual Exercises

ematical

Points for Prayer, Grace Sought, the Understanding of Meditation

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scq<ion

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND LEARNING THEORY

CONt'd

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EDUCATI)NALTHE)RYIGNATIANCoNNECTI0N Composition of Place, Contemplation, APPlication of the

Senses, and the ColloquY

where the changes of the SPiritual Exercises become rooted Exercises are carried out; a love shown in "deeds not words"

Higher Level Thinking Skills

The Spiritul Exercises model all dimensions of thinking skills

Spirituai Exercises are one and the same-enculturation into the spiritual life Spiritual Exercises and the different mental faculties used to pray
the

of each Prayer Period

ATLAS Communities

All three habits are concepts which Ignatius stresses in the Spiritual
Exerces;there is also a similarity with the themes of Go Forth and
Teach

Dimensions of Lerning

Close relationship between lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm and Dimensians

about Learning

Knowledge Knowledge

Action

Exercises

rqNArlus KNew

CLASSROOM VIGNETTES
For those of you who would prefer a more academic approach to reflecting about the Ignatian dimension in a classroom, ten different classroom vignettes follow. You can use the list of Ignatian Principles on page 126 or the list of Educational Research and Learning Theories on pages 127 and 128 as a framework for thinking about each of the classroom vignettes. Here are some questions you may wish to have in mind as you read the vignenes.

' '

What is Ignatian in each classroom vignette?

What is not particularly Ignatian in each classroom vignette?

What would I change in a particular vignette to make it more lgnatian?

How does this vignette compare with my own classroom? What is similar? What is dissimilar?

What do

I like in a particular vignette?

What do I not like in a particular vignette?

Am I willing to explore further both those things I like and those things I do not like about a particular vignette?

I would like to make one final suggestion for exploring the Ignatian dimensions of the classroom. Have someone who has read this book observe your class and note what dimensions she sees in your class that are lgnatian. You might also want to use that person as a consultant to help you incorporate lgnatian principles, which might not be present into your class, into frture classes. Perhaps you could re$rn the favor and
observe her class and help her incorporate additional Ignatian principles into her class.

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*cesion

IGNATIAN DIMENSIONS
CLASSROOM VIGNETTE
1

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The class begins with a brief prayer led by a student. After the prayer, the teacher asks the students to turn to their partners and discuss the major points they remember from yesterday's class. They are also to compare their responses to the homework questions assigned for today's class. After five minutes of discussion with their partners, the

teacher asks the students to put all books and notes away. The teacher asks each student to write down the major points she remembers from yesterday's class and to answer one of the questions from last night's homework assignment' The teacher asks five sfudents to read their responses to the major points learned yesterday' Then the teacher asks five more sfudents to read their responses to whatever homework question they choose. The teacher assesses where the students are in terms of their understanding of yesterday's class from their ability to answer the homework questions' Based on that information, the teacher decides whether to review the material from

yesterday at some length or to move on to the material that is to be covered for today's class. After a fifteen minute presentation of the material, the teacher asks the students ro take a minute and write down for themselves what they know and understand from the presentation and what they are not certain they understand. The teacher asks the students to turn to their partners and discuss their responses to the questions. A question and clarification period follows with the teacher first asking the students who understand a particular point to answer the other students' questions. If necessary, the teacher provides his own explanation of the material to help alleviate a lack of understanding of the material among the students. The teacher spends the time remaining in the period by going over the homework assignment using a traditional prelection'

CI^ASSROOM VIGNETTE 2
The class begins with a brief prayer. The teacher then asks the students to put all their books and notes away and to take out a sheet ofpaper for a quiz on yesterday's class two and last night's homework. The quiz consists of ten questions that require a one or reviews the quiz and word answer. After the completion of the quiz, the teacher briefly calls upon various students to give their answers to each question. Now, the teacher asks the students to take out their notebooks and begins to lecture about the material in the current chapter. The teacher has a brief outline of the major points for today's on the blackboard for the students to follou' during the presentation. The lecture
class

for the consumes most of the class period. The class closes with a brief opportunity the students to ask some questions of the teacher about the material presented during the lecture. In the last two minutes the teacher reminds all the students to copy down sure to complete it because it homework assignment from the blackboard and to be

will

be collected and graded tomorrow.

IGN,CIUS KNC\\/

CLASSROOM VIGNETTE 3 The class begins with a brief prayer led by the teacher. The outline for today's class with the suggested time for each component is written on the blackboard.

5 minutes quiet journalizing time.

' ' -

What did

learn yesterday?

Where does this material

fit with

the material that we previously covered?

What do I think will be the next step(s) in the material that we are covering in class now?

o o

20 minutes cooperative learning groups of three students each. Review yesterday's class and last night's homework. Be sure that each member of the group understands yesterday's class and last night's homework assignment. graded.

'

of the new material contained in the assignment.

10 minutes previewing tonight's homework assignment and a brief introduction

Note: Tomorrow's class will be an interactive lecture, where students should be prepared to explain as best they can, the new ideas contained in tonight's homework assignments. CI-A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 4

The class begins with the teacher walking into the room two minutes late and several students walking into the room five minutes late. The students have just come from first lunch period and various games that they have been playing. The teacher has to tell them repeatedly to be quiet and find their seats. After five minutes, the teacher finally yells at the class in a loud, angry voice to be seated and be quiet or class will start at the end of the school day. The students become quiet quickly. The teacher tells the students to put their books and notes away. A fast and quick oral review of the current material follows with the teacher asking questions in rapid succession and naming the student he is calling upon at the start of each question. The review lasts three minutes. If a student does not know the answer instantly, the teacher immediately calls upon another student. The teacher then tells the students to take out last night's homework. He asks a student to read the first question and answer it. The other students are instructed to correct their homework after each student has finished answering the question and once the teacher has commented upon whether the student's response was correct or not. V/hen this task is completed, the teacher asks the students to take out their textbooks. The teacher calls upon a student to begin reading on a certain page. The teacher reminds the students who are not reading aloud to be sure to pay attention. At the end of a section the teacher asks the student who
il8

lgnorio

rcor

the students to read to summarize the main points of that section. The teacher reminds section he has take notes or make notes in their textbook while the student revie'ws the fashion. The students have become read. The remainder of the class continues in this makes very quiet and, in fact, some of them are taking a post-lunch siesta. The teacher The bell rings u pin of calling on several students as they begin to doze off to sleep' assignment' As the s'tudents and the teacher realizes that he has not given a homework The teacher pack their books and talk, the teacher yells out the homework assignment' i"p"u,r the assignment at least three times as students head out the door.

CIA,SSROOM VIGNETTE 5
each student The class begins with a prayer by a group of students. The teacher asks preferred' to create some type of otlin" oi yesterday's presentation (mind maps are plays quiet music in the background but any type of outline is acceptable). The teacher outlines while the students do this exercise. The students are then asked to share their comwith another student. They are asked to note what is the same in their outlines Did the students miss any pared with the other student's outline and what is different? iey points from yesterday's class? The students are asked to note these omissions in assigna learning journal and to add a review of these points to tonight's homework assignment as a prelecment. Th;eacher gives an overview of tonight's homework in The teacher notes that a number of points in the homework will be explained

tion. spends fifteen the introduction to the new material which will follow. The teacher then complicated' minutes introducing new material which is very technical and somewhat what they The teacher then asks the students to write down what they understand and who understand the are not sure about in the new material. She asks all those students who are not first point of the new material to raise their hands. she asks those students .ur"bout this point to find one of these students who knows the material' Abrief the other period of peer teaching follows. The teacher follows the same procedure for problem ir"o *uoi points of t-e presentation. Next, the teacher gives the students a The teacher asks them to work on or task thairequires them to use the new material. the problem their own. The teacher then asks some students to present a solution to with the one on the blackon the blackboard. The other students compare their answer of the solution that are parboard, while the teacher comments on specific elements The class ends ticularly good or makes any cofrections or additions that are necessary' material just with the students working in groups of three both on understanding the sample problem presented and on the hornework assignment. The teacher collects the the students from each student so that, having some idea of hou' much of the concept understand, she will know where to begin tomorrow's class'
CI^A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 6

oral review of yesThe class begins with a prayer. After the prayer, there is a brief lengthy pause and then terday's class. The teacher asks some questions followed by a question' The rest of the calls on five students to give their answers to a particular see how these responses match class is asked to pay atteniion to the five responses and
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and, based upon the students' response, concludes that the students have a good grasp of yesterday's class and that it is time to present some new material. The teacher calls attention to the blackboard where there is an outline of the new material to be presented as well as a schematic diagram. The teacher asks the students to spend a few minutes thinking about what they already know about these topics and how it might relate to what they hae already learned in this course. After private reflection time, the teacher asks the students to break into groups of three. They are to remain in their groups of three during the presentation that follows by the teacher. The teacher then presents the new material for fifteen minutes, but after each main point, there is time for the students in their groups of three to discuss what it is they have learned and what it is that they are not sure about. Students are also encouraged to compare with one another the notes they have taken during the presentation. The teacher calls on a number of groups to find out what they understand and what is still giving them some trouble. When the teacher feels that the class understands the first point, the teacher moves to the second point using the same methodology. In the last five minutes of the class the teacher does a prelection of the homework assignment which is based on the newly presented material. Then the teacher asks each group of three to write a one or two sentence summary of what it is that they know and understand from today's class. As the students leave, the teacher collects these statements to gain some information about where to proceed with this lesson in tomorrow's class. CI^A,SSROOM VIGNETTE 7

or do not match with each student's thinking. The teacher uses three such questions,

The class begins with a prayer led by a group of students which is related to the content that the students have been covering during this two-week period. The purpose of the next two classes is to review for a unit test two days from now. In preparation for this class the students completed a work sheet last night that covered all the major points in the past two weeks. Besides reviewing and studying the material for today's class, the students were asked to rate how well they knew each point using a scale consisting of "knowing it very well" to "still not really understanding it." The teacher reads off the major points and establishes three groups for each point: those who know the material well; those who have a basic understanding of the material, and those who are still struggling to master the material. During the next fifteen minutes the students who know the material well are to figure out ways they will teach the material to the other two groups. They are specifically to figure out ways to present the material visually to the other two groups so that they will have that material readily accessible in visual memory. Those who have a basic knowledge of the material are to figure out what areas they still need some help with and to have some questions ready for their student teachers who will teach them in the next segment of the class. There is an option for this group of students to work alone or in small groups. The group with the least understanding of the material will work with the teacher who will try to explain the material in a way different from previous class presentations. The teacher has had the students keep a journal monitoring their learning processes so that he already has some idea where students experience difficulty in
r2(]

lgnecio

*cecio-

who learning, The final segment of the class involves peer teaching by the students a basic knowledge of the kno* a particular point or points well to those who have is subject or are still struggling to understand the material. The homework assignment for ihe students to journal their reactions to this process and to come to class tomorrow with areas where they still need further help in understanding the material' Students will be should also prepare some questions for class the next day which they believe on the test.

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CI-\,SSROOM VIGNETTE 8
quiet music The class begins with a prayer. The teacher darkens the room and plays in the background during most of the class period. The teacher is introducing new about material to the students and wants to find out what the students already know this topic. The teacher gives some suggestions about relaxing and letting the mind the roam where it wishes. Oce the atmosphere is established, the teacher introduces what studying this new topic. There are suggestions about what the topic means and whatever particuiar point will enil. Students are asked to let their minds think about things they already know? ih"y **t io when they hear the topic. How is the topic like to mind How do they think it will be different? What words, phrases or images come are when they think about this topic? After an adequate period of time, the students occured to them invited to take out their journals and write down what thoughts to the quesduring the exercise. Finaliy, students are invited to share their reflections or tions above. Their ,"rponr", to questions about the topic are listed on newsprint in place large pieces of paper which are placed around the classroom and remain reading about during this segment of the course. The homework assignment includes emphasis on how these some initial concepts for this segment of the course with the in learning ideas are similar or not similar to what the student expected to discover in their journals' this material. The students have several specific questions to answer

CIA,SSROOM VIGNETTE 9
class that everything Today is test day. The class begins with the teacher telling the The test will not be dismust be put away and out of sight. Everyone must be quiet. the students that it must tributed until all the conditions are met. The teacher reminds wrong) and that all be written in ink, legible (what cannot be read will be marked a few minutes for the spelling errors will be deducted from the final grade. It takes The teacher makes a few corstudents to settle in before the test can be distributed' The teacher reminds the sturections of typos and writes the corrections on the board' The teacher wishes them well dents that they knew this material well the day before' test' The teacher reminds them and tells the class to do the best job they can on this will be allowed' No other questhat only questions about what is written on the test continue working at it for the tions will be answered. The srudents begin the test and remainder of the Period.

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CI-A.SSROOM VIGNETTE I

The class begins with a prayer. Immediately after the prayer the teacher spends a few minutes establishing a positive learning state, e.g., a time when the students learned easily and well. The teacher then orally lists the objectives for the class and invites the students to write them down. An outline of the class has been written on the board and is explained briefly by the teacher. Next the teacher conducts a brief oral review of yesterday's class, but first gives the students a couple of minutes to write down what they remember from yesterday's class. Then the teacher gathers information about what the students already know and understand about today's topic. Next the teacher presents new material in the form of a fifteen minute interactive lecture (students are involved in the lecture through frequent questions, summaries, and reflection time). Immediately following the lecture, students are given an assignment to work on which involves the main points of the lecture. Students then compare their work and share with each other what they understand and do not understand. A question and answer period follows. A quick review of the main points of the class follows. The review attempts to use more right hemisphere techniques and more of Gardner's Spatial, Body-Kinesthetic, and Musical intelligences than left hemisphere and Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical intelligences. The class concludes with a prelection of that night's homework and a few minutes for students to journal about what they have learned and how they have learned itduring this class. If there is time, students share some of their journalled ideas with a classmate.

CONCLUSION
So what did Ignatius know? By now, you realize that Ignatius, even in the sixteenth centurt, knew much about how the human mind works and how it learns material so that it remains an integral part of the person. You have examined in detail lgnatius' methodology in the Spiritual Exercises and its connection to current educational theory. Simultaneously, you have examined your own experiences of Ignatian education in your classroom. Throughout this book you have been invited to think about how what Ignatius knew can be applied to the Ignatian high school classroom today. You have done this using a variety of reflection techniques. As a result of these reflections you have been asking yourself if there is more that you can do to develop the

Ignatian dimensions of your teaching-the Ignatian question of "What more can I do?" This "more question" leads to future actions. Any future action requires us to do some type of evaluation, which usually leads us to start that cycle of context, experience, reflection, action, and evaluation over again. This book has been designed to help this process. It does not have all the answers, because if we are true to the process of context, experience, reflection, action, and evaluation, we will need to experience this process frequently. Ignatius certainly expected a person who made the Spiritual Exercises to return to the various meditations and contemplations regularly because the possibility always exists of learning something new or gaining a slightly different insight. Moreover, as educational
t22

lgno<i dsarron

brain and how it research continues, particularly the research relating to the human understand functions, it will be necessary to update and refine what we know and I personally about what Ignatius knew in light of new developments in that research' would be truly amazed at all the believe that if I could return a century from now I for the developments which have occurred in brain research and its implications
teaching-learning Process.
seeking to In the meantime we continue to reflect on our teaching in Ignatian schools' to the find out how we can continue to make it Ignatian as we pass from the twentieth for growth it presents us' twenty-first century with its new challenges and the potential

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APPENDIX A

lg.no-cion
St. Ignatius LoYola

Ce--noLo1

Norts

fought in the battle of St. Ignatius was a Basque bom in l49l. He became a knight and pamllona where he wa shot in the leg by a cannon ball on May 20, l52l ' His recovery' his conversion which occurred at the family castle at Loyola' is where he experienced The Lives of the caused in part through his ieading of the only two books available, he began his spiritual Saints and The Life of Christ. After recovering from his wound, Jesus' Ignatius was the journey which eventually led to the founding of the Society of first superior general of the society. He died in Rome on July 31, 1556' description of his There are several biographies of lgnatius available, but for a brief #169-183' life see Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education

Society of Jesus
and his first comThe Society of Jesus is the religious order founded by St. Ignatius The first members of panions. The society *u, upp-ued by Pope Paul III in 1540. primarily in ihe Society placed themselves at the service of the Pope and engaged in education with the first spiritual ministry. Gradually, the society became involved of how the Society Jesuit school founded at Messina in 1 548. For a brief discussion John O'Malley's became involved in education see Go Forth and Teach # 184-198' ..The Schools,'' examines in greater detail how the The First Jesuits, Chapter 6,

Society became involved in education'

Jesuits
of Jesus became known' See Jesuit is the name by which the members of the Society discussion of how the followers John O'Malley's Ie First Jesuits, pages 68-69, for a i'Jesuits," and some comments about the second of St. Ignatius came to be called given to intrigue or equivocation'" meaning of the word in most dictionaries as "one

The Spiritual Exercses

The

ol

St.

Ignatius

byst.Ignatiuswhilehewasalayperson.Theyaredesignedtohelpapersonprayer-prilifetime' he his life and his relati,onship wittr God. During Ignatius' ruuy Exercises' The goal of "*mine marily directed lay people in the making of the Spiritual his life to greater love and making the Spiritual Exrcises is to help pttton orient life in service to others' The usual service of God through imitation of Chriit's selfless month which is devoted solely time period for making the Spiritual Exercises is one designed to help the retreat to pry", and reflecti. It is a book which is primarily t25

spiritual

Exercises

of st.

Ignatius ae an ordered set of prayer exercises devised

INCIUS KNE\'

director guide the person making the Spiritual Exercises (the retreatant). It is not a book which one can simply sit and read in order to experience its purpose. Rather, the various prayer exercises need to be experienced actively by the one making them through the use of all the faculties of the mind: memory, understanding, imagination, and will. The Spiritual Exercises are derived from Ignatius' own experience of spiritual conversion and his subsequent spiritual journey. Most key Ignatian concepts and

"vocabulary" come from the Spiritual Exercises.

Annotations
The Annotations are a series of notes that Ignatius provides at the beginning of his Spiritual Exercises primarily to help the retreat director guide the retreatant. These Annotations contain some important points about the Ignatian conception of learning. The Ignatian concepts of active participation in the learning process, personalized care and concern for the individual, and covering the material well rather than covering a lot of material cursorily come directly from Ignatius' statements in the Annotations.

Nineteenth Annotation Retreat refers to Annotation nineteen in the Spiritual Exercises in which Ignatius makes provision for a person who is unable to set aside a fult month solely devoted to prayer to make the Spiritual Exercises. The person, rather, makes the Spiritual Exercises over an extended period of time by setting aside daily time for prayer and reflection while continuing to carry on his normal life.

Structure of an Ignatian Prayer Period

There is a definite structure to each period of prayer in lgnatius' Spiritual Exercises. Some key terms from that structure are:

Points "Points" are the main areas that will be considered during a prayer period. One can compare them to the major divisions of an outline. Traditionally, one considers the points for the next morning's prayer before one retires for the evening. They are the first step in the important lgnatian processes of prepara-

tion for prayer.

Preludes The preludes are the introductory exercises at the start of the prayer period which are designed to help the retreatant establish a proper atmosphere

for prayer. Ignatius always uses two preludes: The Composition of Place and The Grace Sought. They occur immediately after a brief Preparatory Praye where the retreatant asks that all his "intentions, actions, and operations" during the prayer be directed to God. This preparatory prayer begins all the prayer exercises

in the Spiritual Exercises.

retreatant uses his imagination to create an imagined scene which helps to establish a proper atmosphere for a specific prayer period. The Composition of Place varies depending upon what the topic for prayer is. For instance, if one is praying

Composition of Place is the first prelude. In the Composition of Place the

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present at that scene about a scene from the life of christ, one places oneself prayer is more through the use of the imagination. If the subject matter of which relates to that abstract, such as sin, then Ignatius suggests a specific scene

Norrs

subject matter.

particular grace the Grace Sought is the second prelude. It is a statement of the suggests that the retreatant seeks from the subject matter for prayer. Ignatius grace sought should relate to the subject matter of the prayer'

of prayer in Prayer Methods Ignatius teaches the retreatant several different methods of a number of points his Spiritual Exercises.Each of these methods of prayer consists are: meditation' (see above). Three of the principal methods of prayer Ignatius uses contemplation, and the application of the senses'

week of his Meditation is a type of prayer Ignatius introduces in the First

rationally a parSpirirual Exercises. Meditation asks the retreatant to consider on reasoning ticular subject and its implications in one's life. It relies primarily himself and his relationship skills to lead the retreatant to deeper insights about matter' he is with God. Once the retreatant has rationally considered the subject considerations to how asked to move to the more affective level of relating these he leads his life in relationship with God'
in his Spiritual Contemplation is another method of prayer which Ignatius teaches and it becomes Exercises. He introduces this method at the start of the secondweek the Spiritual Exercises' In conthe primary method of prayer throughout the rest of entering into a partictemplation, the retreatant primarily uses the imagination by feel while he is associated ular scene and experiencing all that he can see, hear and retreatant to move more in that scene. The purpose of contemplation is to help the to the affective responses to these events without easily from the "ut, "*p"rienced necessarily employing much rationalistic thinking'
prayer Ignatius uses Application of the Senses is the third principal method of the retreatant repeats in is Spi.itual Exercises. In the application of the senses

Ignatius introduces in his There are two additional prayer related topics which SpiritualExercises.'ExaminationofConscienceandRepetition. most Jesuits) is an - Examination of conscience (called the "Examen" byretreatant during the the additional pruv"t technique which Ignatius teaches method of prayer used while making the spiritual Exercises. It is not a formal
prayer process designed to help Spiritual Exercises. It is, rather, an ancillary or to work on eliminating the retreatant to develop positive spiritual practices and after completing the Spiritual particular failings both while making select a particular virtue to be Exercises. Th" xum"n asks an individual to time twice a day examining cultivated or fault to be rid of and spend prayer

The purpose is to help previous prayer material by using ach of the five senses' gained from the previous the retreatant to deepen insights and understanding subject matter of prayer' prayer and to move drectly to affective responses to the

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how one has succeeded in this task since the last examination period. Based upon how well one has succeeded or not since the last Examen, one decides upon an appropriate course of action to either continue the process or try another course of action to achieve the specified goal.

Repetition While repetition is not a form of prayer that lgnatius teaches in his Spiritual Exercises, it is a key Ignatian concept relating to prayer. Ignatius stresses the importance of repetition of prayer throughout the Spiritual Exercises. Repetition in the Spiritual Exercises is not simply a redoing or reviewing of the material prayed over. Repetition has the idea of incorporating deeper understanding and insight into the material as well as appropriating it more deeply as an integral part of oneself. Repetition focuses on both things which were profitable during prayer and those which were not.

Colloquy The colloquy is the concluding activity of a prayer period. The colloquy is a conversation with Christ or Mary about insights and understandings gained during prayer. The colloquy helps to deepen any new insights or understandings gained during prayer. Each prayer period in the Spirirual Exercises should conclude with a colloquy followed by a brief vocal prayer such as an Our Father. Ignatius notes that a colloquy need not be limited to the conclusion of prayer, but that it can occur at any time during prayer when one is deeply moved by a particular consideration.

Structure and Important Exercises of the Spiritual Exercises

Ignatius divides his Spiritual Exercises into a series of four weeks. Within these four weeks are most of the key meditations and contemplations which Ignatius created.

Principle and Foundation is the presupposition which underlies the entire work of the Spiritual Exercises. The first sentence sums up this presupposition by stating: "Human beings are created to praise, reverence, and serve God our Lord, and by means of doing this to save their souls." At the start of the actual making of the Exercises, the retreatant spends some time reflecting about and praying over the Principle and Foundation. The Principle and Foundation contains another key lgnatian concept-indifference. Ignatian indifference is a predisposition not to seek or use one thing or another as an end in itself, but only in as far as it leads the person to greater service of God. Indifference becomes a key component for the retreatant during the rest of the Spiritual Exercises. Indifference is especially important at the time of making an election (see below) so that decisions are made from a free disposition without having predeterminations to one
thing or another dictating what a person chooses to do.
-

The First Week consists of a series of meditations which focus on the subject matter of sin. The retreatant begins by meditating on the sin of the angels, the sin of Adam and Eve, and the effects of sin in general. Building from these considerations, the retreatant examines his own sinfulness and the effects it has on his relationship with God throughout the remainder of the exercises of this week.
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tions of the Spiritual Exercises.

The Second Week focuses on events from the life of Christ until his Passion and Death. Ignatius introduces the retreatant to a form of prayer he calls contemplation. The focus of the entire second week is on Christ and his life so that the retreatant can learn from these considerations how to imitate Christ in his own life. The second week contains several of the key contemplations and medita-

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The Kingdom is a key contemplation in the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius uses the contemplation on the Kingdom to introduce the retreatant to the theme of the second week-the imitation of Christ. This contemplation asks the retreatant to reflect about the service of an earthly king and all that entails. After reflecting about an earthly king, the retreatant reflects and prays about how much greater it will be serving Christ the King. The purpose of this contemplation is to create the desire within the retreatant for greater imitation and service of Christ as he begins to contemplate the life of Christ throughout the remainder of the second week.

The TWo Standards is another key exercise of the second week of

the

Spiritual Exercises. In this meditation (Ignatius calls this a meditation and not a contemplation) the retreatant is asked to reflect upon and pray about the standard of Satan and the standard of Christ. The purpose of the meditation is to contrast the standard of Satan and the standard of Christ, so that the standard of Christ clearly appears as the one the retreatant wishes to follow This meditation helps the retreatant further strengthen his desire to imitate Christ.

Three Classes of Persons is another key exercise of the second week.

Ignatius adds the phrase "to aid one toward embracing what is better" to the titte which conveys the purpose of this meditation. The first class of persons is one who wants to do good but continues to postpone taking the necessary steps to do so. The second class also wants to do good, but compromises and does not achieve the desired good. The third class of persons is one who desires to do good, and is not attached to a particular way of accomplishing this, but is open to the way that best helps him serve God. This meditation

(along with the Three Ways of Being Humble) helps the retreatant approach any election (see below) he may be making during the Spiritual Exercises with a receprivity for doing the will of God rather than his own.

Three Ways of Being Humbte is another key exercise of the second week' All three wavs of being humble which Ignatius has the retreatant pray about lead to eternal salvation, but the third degree is the highest one' The third was poor and degree is one in which the retreatant desires to be like Christ who
,way to

process a subject of contempt. This exercise helps the retreatant to continue the to be open to choosing the best of strengthening his desire to follow Christ and

follow Christ if he is making an election during the retreat.

Election During the second week of the Spiritual Exercises, Ignatius provides the opportunity for the retreatant to make a decision about important
t29

rqNcrus KNew

choices

Spiritual Exercises. While not everyone necessarily embarks upon making the Spiritual Exercises with the idea of making a significant life choice, often issues arise during the course of the retreat that involve such a decision'

in his life. Ignatius provides detailed exercises and instructions about how to make a proper choice within the context of making the

'

Discernment is another key Ignatian concept in the Spiritual Exercises. Throughout the Exercises the retreatant, with the guidance of the retreat director, learns how to analyze the spirirual movements occurring within him. He leams to discern what Ignatius calls the "good" from the "evil" spirit. Ignatius provides rules for the discernment of spirits in the Spiritual Exercises. What the retreatant learns about the discemment of spirits during the Spiritual Exercises provides the foundation for developing his spiritual life once the Spiritual Exercises are completed. The notion of discernment is a key element of Jesuit spirituality. It played a significant part in the selection of ministries by Ignatius and the early Jesuits.

The Third Week of the Spiritual Exercises is devoted to contemplating the events of Christ's passion and death. The purpose of this week is to help the retreatant strengthen his desire to follow Christ, while recognizing that part of the imitation of Christ involves experiencing the complete giving of oneself as
Christ did in his passion and death.

The Fourth Week of the Spiritual Exercises asks the retreatant to reflect upon the events associated with the Resurrection and the Risen Christ's appearances to the Apostles after the resurrection. Incidentally, Ignatius adds an appearance by Christ to Mary his mother, which is not contained in the Gospels, as one of the meditations for this week. The purpose of this week is to continue to strengthen the retreatant's commitment to follow Christ by contemplating the Risen Christ and, in particular, his interactions with his apostles, the bearers of his message to the world.
Contemplatio ad Amorem (The Contemplation to Attain Love) is the concluding contemplation of the Spiritual Exercises. It is designed to help the retreatant cement all that has been learned and understood throughout the making of the Spiritual Exercises so that the retreatant deeply experiences the love of God and in return responds as completely as possible to that love in the way he leads his life. It contains the often repeated Ignatian phrase, "Love ought to manifest itself more by deeds than by words," which for Ignatius is the sign of true love.

Finding God in All Things is a unique Ignatian spiritual insight. Ignatius believed that God can be found in all things not just in prayer, but in the mundane and ordinary events of life. This is one of the graces gained from making the Spiritual Exercises. It is the spiritual insight which led Ignatius to found a religious order that works in the world rather than apart from it as had
been the monastic tradition of Ignatius' time.

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\pe-d,tr

Jesuit Education
This next section describes some key documents and terms relating to Jesuit education.

Nors

Ratio Studiorum (1599) (Plan of Studies) is a handbook designed to help teachers and administrators in Jesuit schools. It contains a series of rules and directives which were used to operate Jesuit schools. The Ratio was gradually developed over the first half century of Jesuits involvement in education. The Ratio is the product of the early Jesuits reflection on their experience in education. The finalized version published in 1599 became the handbook for Jesuit education for many subsequent centuries.

Prelection is one of the traditional Jesuit teaching methods described in the Ratio.Prelection in its traditional form involves the teacher's previewing of the homework assignment for students. During the preview the teacher notes the particular areas that students should pay careful attention to. The teacher may also use the prelection to set up the focus and method of studying a particular assignment. For a fuller discussion of prelection see Four Hallmarks of Jesuit Pedagogy.

Repetition is another traditional Jesuit teaching methodology. Repetition is the time afforded for reviewing a subject. Repetition, however, is not simply review or rehashing already learned material. Repetition always carries with it the idea of deeper appropriation and understanding of the material already learned. In the Ratio there are five times and levels of repetition: immediately after the prelection, the next day, weekly, monthly and yearly. The Ratio also stipulated a period of time for repetition before any major examination. For a fuller discussion of repetition see Four Hallmarks
of Jesuit PedagogY.

Go Forth and Tech: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education is the English version published in the United States of the 1986 document on the characteris-

tics of Jesuit education written by the International Commission on the Apostolate of Jesuit Education (ICAJE). There are ten sections containing

twenty-eight characteristics of Jesuit education. The ten organizing themes of Go Forth and Teach are:

' '

Belief in God and the Goodness of Creation Concern for the Personal Growth of Each Individual

o Growth in Knowledge and Freedom - Commitment to Faith in Jesus Christ

- Promotion of Justice in the World - Service of the Church - Excellence in All Things - Collaboration in Community

r3t

'NCIUS

KNC\V

Nore,s

- Discernment - Ignatian Spirituality and Jesuit Pedagogy

Some key Ignatian Terminology from Go Forth and Teach:

Cura Personalis (Personalized Care and Concern) One of the essential characteristics of Ignatian education, it derives from lgnatius'belief that the Spiritual Exercises must be adapted to the age, needs, and talents of the individual making them. It becomes important in Ignatian education because it is the starting point for working with students where they are and not necessarily where a teacher might wish them to be. The primary educational focus is on the individual needs of the student.

Active Learning Active learning as a characteristic of Jesuit education derives from Ignatius insistence in the Spiritual Exercises that the person making them must be actively involved in the process. Simply reading about or listening to someone talk about the Spiritual Exercises will not accomplish their purpose. In Jesuit education the student needs to be actively engaged in the learning process rather than passively receiving
knowledge.

Reflection Reflection is one of the more critical mental processes used in the Spiritual Exercises. Ignatius teaches many different ways of reflection for the retreatant in his Spiritual Exercises. Go Forth and Teach repeatedly stresses the importance of reflection as an essential element in the Ignatian educational process. There are eleven instances where Go Forth and Teach emphasizes reflection as a crucial element in Jesuit education.

Faith that Does Justice The goal of Ignatian education is to create students who live a faith that recognizes the obligation to work for justice in the world. This idea is captured by the famous phrase of Fr. Pedro Amrpe (Superior General of the Society of Jesus, I 965- I 983), "Men (and Women) for Others." This phrase captures an essential characteristic of Jesuit education-the creation of men and women who live their lives in service of others, especially those most in need. Preferential Option for the Poor This characteristic of Jesuit education stresses that Jesuit education always has as a main priority the service of the
poor and the disadvantaged.

Apostolic Instrument in the Service the Church This characteristic of Jesuit education stresses the importance of Jesuit education as a means to promote service in and for the Church.
Excellence Jesuit education has always stressed excellence. Traditionally, the emphasis on excellence applied to academic excellence. Go Forth and ?rerc stresses that excellence applies to all aspects of Jesuit education and should not be limited to academic excellence.
132

Magis (The More) This Latin phrase derives directly from Ignatius'

Nores

Spiritual Exercises where he asks the retreatant the question: "What more can I do for Christ?" Go Forth and Teach notes that magis needs to be considered within the context of the individual's gifts and abilities rather than against some absolutized ideal. The goal is to help all the members of the educational community develop all their God given talents to their fullest extent.

Collaboration This is a key new characteristic of Jesuit education emphasized in Go Fonh and Teach. Collaboration stresses the mutual cooperation, interaction, and respect of all those involved in Jesuit education: Jesuits, lay, other religious, students, parents, Board of Trustees, etc., to accomplish the goals of Jesuit education.

Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach is the 1993 document written by the International Commission on the Apostolate of Jesuit Education (ICAJE) and promulgated by Fr. Peter-Hans Kolvenbach, superior general of the Society of Jesus. Ignatian Pedagogy provides a fuller development on lgnatian Pedagogy which was briefly described in the tenth section of Go Fonh and Teach' Currently, Jesuit educational works worldwide are in the process of implementing this model known as IPP, the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm' The opening paragraph of the document describes its purpose well:

l.

This document grows out of the lOth part of The Characteristics of Jesuit Education in response to many requests for help in formulating a practical pedagogy which is consistent with and effective in communicating the lgnatian worldview and values presented in the Characteristics document. It is essential, therefore, that what is said here be understood in conjunction with the substantive lgnatian spirit and apostolic thrust presented in The Characteristics of J esuit Education.

There are five main components in this paradigm which are explained below. In my current thinking the central part of the paradigm is the experience, reflection, and action components. These three always take place in a context and conclude with some type of evaluation, the other two components of the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm'

Context refers to the entire context in which Jesuit education occurs' Particular emphasis is given to the context of the student and the various elements which affect that context from the political situation within a country to the individual's strengths and limitations. Ignatian education always begins with this undersnding of context because it is the starting point which Ignatius insists on for the making of the Spiritual Exercises. The Spiritual Exercises are always adapted to the chaacteristics of the individual making them' Experience is the second element of the paradigm. Experience means all that the student brings to learning by way of experience and lack of experience. The teacher helps the student comprehend fully and understand completely what it is
r33

lN,t'.9art KNg\t

he already knows as well as assists in broadening his experience. Experience not

only includes facts but also the feelings, values, etc., associated with the facts and the higher level thinking skills of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation'

Reflection is the third element in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. Through reflection the student comes to better comprehend and understand his experience and its implications in his life. Reflection is the pivotal point in this paradigm to help the student move from experience and action. Reflection in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm always calls for some kind of action' Reflection frequently is lacking in the educational process, yet its importance is regularly stressed in general educational circles today'

Action is the fourth comPonent in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. Action

means that as a result of reflecting on an experience the student is moved to some type of action. That action may be different given the particular content and elements within it, but the implicit idea is that action is always a step toward greater service of one's fellow peisons based upon a love of God. These actions may be

quite small and not immediately lead to radical transformation, but they should be pieces in that process.

It is important to note that while these three central elements of the paradigm are analyzed separately for discussion that they can be working simultaneously' Ignatian Pedagogy comments upon this:

(2g)

The conrinual interplay, then, of EXPERIENCE, REFLECTION and ACTION in the teaching-learning dynamic of the classroom lies at the heart of an Ignatian pedagogy. It is our way of proceeding in Jesuit schools as we accompany the learner on his or her journey of becoming a fully human person.

Evaluation is the fifth component in the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm. Evaluation refers not only to academic evaluation but to fuller types of evalua-

tion where the student and teacher reflect upon the broader sPectrum of personal growth and commirments. The Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm stresses that the valuation include some type of systematic analysis of how a student is growing in becoming "a person for others."

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APPENDIX B

e*.oclon
Brain-Based Education

J C. --n oLo 11

of Brain-Based Education is a current educational theory that stresses the importance relating what is being learned with how the brain processes information. Leslie Hart began much of this movement in education with his book, Human Brain and Human Lerning. Geoffrey and Renate Caine have expanded upon Hart's original work in their books, Making Connections: Teaching and Human Learning and Mindshifts: A Work on Brain-Based Learning. The Caines postulate twelve points about the human
brain and its relationship to learning:

l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. g.

The brain is a parallel processor. Learning engages the entire physiology.

The search for meaning is innate.

The search for meaning occurs through "patterning'" Emotions are critical to patteming'

Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates parts and wholes' Leaming involves both focused attention and peripheral perception. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes.
Vy'e have

two types of memory: a spatial memory system and a set of systems for rote learning.

in 10. The brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are embedded natural spatial memory. 11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. 12. Each brain is unique.
educaTwo of the key concepts that the caines discuss in their theory of brain-based tion are:

Spatial Memory is the memory we create from interacting with our environeffort' It ment. Spatial memory learns quickly, easily and usually with minimum with our environment' It is the is the memory where we store how we interact yet it is a very powtype of memory that is least used in traditional classrooms, erful one which can be updated quickly and frequently through new experiences'

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lNclus KNew

Taxon Memory is the second kind of memory which the Caines discuss in their theory of brain-based education. Taxon memory is the memory where we store lists and repetitive actions. Taxon memory learns through practice and rehearsal. Once the material is present in taxon memory it becomes fixed and often is stored in isolation from other types of taxon memory. It is the type of memory frequently stressed in the traditional classroom.

Hemispheric Processing
Hemispheric Processing is the result of the educational research which examined the functions of the two hemispheres of the brain in learning. The initial research emphasized the different functions of the left and right hemisphere in the learning process. Current research is beginning to show that both hemispheres are involved in many learning tasks, but that one hemisphere may be used more for a particular learning task.

o Left Hemisphere

Processing refers to a way of processing information that involves verbal, logical, sequential and abstract functioning. It is the type of processing associated with most academic disciplines.

Right Hemisphere Processing refers to a way of processing information that involves non-verbal, intuitive, random, and analogical functioning. It is the type
of process used in art, music and physical education.

Learning Style
Learning Style educational research refers to a student's preferred ways of learning. There are many different theories of leaming style advanced by researches today. Each researcher includes his or her own particular emphasis about what makes up a learning style. The learning channels or modality preference is one of the primary areas of focus for learning style research.

' -

Visual Learners learn primarily by seeing the material. Books, pictures, videos, charts, graphs, etc., all help the visual learner comprehend material easily.

Auditory Learners learn primarily by hearing the material. The auditory learner is usually well suited to a lecture style learning format.
Kinesthetic Learners leam primarily by physically interacting with the material to be learned. They need to move to learn and retain information well that has been learned through some type of physical involvement in the leaming process-the rehearsal of a particular basketball play.

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences is the theory of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Muhiple Intelligences. Gardner posits seven distinct intelligences after he looked at the research from brain damaged patients, phet3.

\penalx B

psychological experiments and psychometric findings. From his examination of this theoretical and research information, Gardner posits seven intelligences. Each one of us is a composite of these seven intelligences. We probably have a couple we have developed well and use all the time. We may have some that are not that well developed and that we do not use regularly.

nomenons such as idiot savants, areas with an identifiable set of core operations, and developmental histories with a distinct set of core operations, and support from both

Nors

Linguistic Intelligence is the ability to use language well. At its highest level of development it is the intelligence of the poet, the playwright, the novelist, etc. Musical Intelligence is the ability to both compose and create music. It is the intelligence of the composer and the musical performer. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence is the ability to work with mathematical symbols and abstract thought easily and well. It is the intelligence of the mathematician and scientist.

Spatial Intelligence is the ability to look at one's world and transform it into some artistic form. It is the intelligence of the painte sculpture, and the architect. Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence is the ability to control one's body in physical movement. It is the intelligence of the athlete and the dancer. Interpersonal Intelligence is the intetligence which deals with other people. It is the intelligence of the person who has "good people skills," and one of the primary intelligences in the business world.

Intrapersonal Intelligence is the intelligence which helps us organize and manage our life. It is an internal functioning which tt/e use to sort through what
happens in our lives and to make decisions about the various directions our lives will take. People with this intelligence well developed are usually those whom we respect and admire because they "have their heads on straight."

Iligher Level Thinking Skills

There are many proponents of teaching thinking skills in education today. This school of educational thinking arises from the belief that much of education is only teaching memorization and not teaching students how to think, especially at the more sophisticated levels of thinking'

Teaching/or Thinking means to create an atmosphere in the classroom which

models the higher level thinking skills being taught. One way to consider this is to ask the question: "Do the types of questions and the kind of tasks used in the classroom create and sustain an atmosphere of higher level thinking skills?" If the answer is "yes" then one has created an atmosphere which supports the teachingfor thinking. If the answer is "no" then what is being taught does not promote an atmosphere of the teachingr thinking'
t37

rru431a,t KNe\'

Norss

Teaching o/Thinking means the direct instruction of students in thinking skills' It is especially important for the teacher to model for the students the thinking skills which she is trying to inculcate. Teaching about Thinking also goes by the name of Metacognition' In metacognition one thinks about the very process of thinking. A teacher helps students to learn how to review their own thinking processes so that they learn how to use more effective thinking techniques'

Teaching as Enculturation is a phrase coined by David Perkins and his colleagues to stress that the teacher must practice what she preaches' If the teacher sayi that she is teaching higher level thinking skills, but only asks questions which require short memorized answers, then she fails to establish an atmosphere which enculturates higher level thinking skills. It is another way to think about the teaching o/thinking. This is a phrase which sums uP well what Jesuit education attempts to do in creating students who are "men and women for others" and "students of competence, conscience, and compassion'"

Experiential Based Learning

There is a very strong movement in education today to relate what is learned in the classroom directly with the life experiences of the students. Both of the programs mentioned here contain many of the ideas and concepts discussed in current Jesuit educational documents. Two of the programs that promote this type of experiential based learning are:

ATLAS (Authentic Teaching, Learning, and

Assessment for All Students) Communities is a consortium of educational research groups who are working together to create schools which develop in students habits of mind, heart, and workrelatedto real life experiences. These educators believe that unless schools create these habits and relate learning to the lives of the sndents that true edu-

cation does not take Place.

Robert Marzano's Dimensions of l*arnng is a specially designed learning theory based upon how the mind learns rather than on what ought to be taught' Marano and his colleagues posit five dimensions to learning:

for Pedagogical Paradigm and can serve, with some modifications, as a methodology integrating the lgnatian Pedagogical Paradigm into the classroom.

The Dimensions

of Learning theory contains many

parallels

to the Ignatian

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pc"di*

Authentic, Performance-Based, Alternative Assessment are terms appeanng

Nors

in ways in educational literature today that address the need to evaluate students assessments come other than traditional tests, quizzes, and papers. Portfolio as a way under this broad category as do projects, demonstrations, videos, etc., of evaluating students' academic performance'

Cooperative Learning is an instructional methodology popular in education Robert Slavin, toOay. There are three main proponents of cooperative learning, puts a particular Oavi and Roger Johnson, and Spencer Kagan. Each one learning emphasis on u.iou, elements of cooperative leaning. Cooperative for their learning of a seeks to make the students interdependent on each other grade' particular subject as well as interdependent on each other for their final working in booperatiue learning also helps students to develop better skills for groups and assuming different roles within a group'

r39

t40

Bibliolroyh.y
Armstrong, Thomas. Muttipte Intelligences in the Classroom.Alexandria VA:Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1994. Amrpe, S.J, Pedro. Men

for

Others. Rome: International Center for Jesuit Education, 1973.

Aschenbrenne S.J., George. "Consciousness Examen ," Review

for Religious,3l, 1992.

Authentic Teaching, Learning, and Assessment Education Development Center, I 993.

for

Alt Students. Newton, MA: ATLAS Communities,

Bellah, Robert N.; Madsen, Richard; Sullivan, William M.; Swidle Ann; and Tipton, Steven M. Habits of the Heart: Individuatism and Commitment in American Le. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers; Perennial Books, 1987.
Blakeslee, Sandra. "seeing and Imagining: Clues to Working of the Mind's Eye," New York Times,August 31, 1993, p.Cl.

Bloom, Benjamin S.; Englehart, D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; and Kratwohl, D' R., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook l: Cognitive Domain. New York: David Mckay Co', 1956.
Caine, Geoffrey and Renate and Crowell, Sam. Mindshifts: A Workbook on Brain'Based Lcarning. Redlands, CA: 4C Connections, 1991. There is a recent revision of this book published under the title of Mindshifts: A Brain-Based Process for Restructuring Schools and Renewing Education. Tuscon, Z:Znphyr Press, 1994.
Caine, Renate Nummela and Geoffrey. Making Connections: Teaching

utd Human Lcrning. Alexandria,

and

VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. Curriculum Development, 1992.

Costa,

Art L.,

ed. Developing

Minds,2 vols., rev. ed. Alexandria: VA: Association for Supervision

Dunn, Kenneth and Rita. Teaching Students Through Their Leaming Styles: A Practical Approach. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing Company, 1978.
Fogarty, Robin and Bellanca, James. Patterns Skylight Publishers, 1 989.

for Thinking:

Patterns

for Transr.

Palatine,

IL: IRI Group,

Foundtions. Carl E. Meirose, S.J., ed. Washington, DC: Jesuit Secondary Education Association,1994.
Ganss, S.J., George E. The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius: A Translation and Commentary. St' Louis:

Institute for Jesuit Sources, 1992'

Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds, New York: Basic Books, 1993.

t4t

tN.crus KNew

Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: Theory of Muttipte Intelligences. New York: Basic Books, 1985. Gardner, Howard. Muttiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books, 1993'

Go Forth and Teach: The Characteristics of Jesuit Education. Washington, DC: Jesuit Secondary
Education Association, 1987. Reprinted in Foundations (see above). Gregorc, A.F, Gregorc Style Delineator: Development, Technical and Administrative Manual. Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems, 1982.
Grinder, Michael. Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt,Znd ed. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press, 1991.

Harmin, Merrill. Inspiring Active Learning: A Handbook Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1994.

for

Teachers. Alexandria, VA: Association for

Hart, Leslie A. Human Brain and Human Learning. New Rochelle, NY: Brain Age Publishers, 1987.
Herman, Joan L.; Aschbacher, Pamela R.; and Winters, Lynn. A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment.

Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992.

Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach.Rome: Society of Jesus, 1993. Published in the United States in Foundations (see above).
Jensen, Enc. The Learning Brain. Del Mar, CA: Turning Point for Teachers, 1994'

Kolb, David. Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1984.
Lazear, David. Multiple Intelligence Approaches
Tuscon, AZ:Zephyr Press, 1994.

to

Assessment: Solving the Assessmenr Conundrum.

Lazear,David. Seven Pathways of Learning. Tuscon,

Lazear, David. Seven Ways of Knowing.Palatine, Laze^r, David. Seven Ways of Teaching. Palatine,

PrZ: Z,ephyt Press, 1994.

IL: Skylight Publishing'

1991.

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Lewis, Byron and Pucelik, Frank. Magic of NLP Demystified. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press, 1992.
Marzano, Robert J. A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning' Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992. Marzano, Robert J.; Pickering, Debra J.; Arrendondo, Daisy E.; Blackbum, Guy J.; Brandt, Ronald S.; and Moffett, Cerylle A. Teacher's Manual: Dimensions of Learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992'

Marzano, Robert J.; Pickering, Debra; and McTighe, Jay. Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1993.

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Metts, S.J. Ralph E. Four Hallmarks of Jesuit Pedagog': Prelection, Reflection, Active I'earning, and Repetition. New York: JSEA Commission on Research and Development, 1991. Reprinted in Foundations (see above).
Metts, S.J., Ralph E. Learning

or

Not. Buffalo: United Educational Services, 1992.

Meyers, Chet and Jones, Thomas B. Promoting Active Learning: Strategies San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

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the College Classroom.

O'Keefe, J. and Nadel, L. The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Mind. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.

O'Malley, S.J., John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Orlich, Donald C.; Kauchak, Donald P.; Harder, Robert; Pendergrass, R.A.; Callahan, Richard C.; Keogh' Andrew J.; and Gibson, Harry. Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction,3rd. ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, 1990.
Ostrander, Seila and Schroeder; Lynn. Superlearning. New York: LaureVConfucian Press, 1979'

Tetlow, S.J., Joseph A. "The Most Postmodern Prayer: American Jesuit Identity and the Examen of Conscience ,lg2}-1990," Studies in the Spiritualiry of Jesuits,26,no. I (January,1994). St. Louis: The Semina on Jesuit Spirituality.
Tishman, Shari; Jay, Eileen; and Perkins, David N. "Teaching Thinking Dispositions: From Transmission to Enculruration." Theory into Practice (Teaching Higher Level Thinking Skills) Summer, 1993. Columbus, OH: College of Education: The Ohio State University, 1993, pp. 147-153.
West, Thomas, G. In the Mind's Eye: Visual Thinkers, Gifted People V/ith Learning Difficulties, Computer

Images, and the Ironies of Creativity. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991.

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t44

lnev.
Action
.'.......'..2,5,7-9,13,14,22,24-25,31, 33, 55, 56, '72,73,77, , 109, ll1, 113, ll5,122,1.28,133,134

Anarysis Annotations
Active leaming

8,27'30,33, 45, 46, 55, 67 , 126 "9,33 Apostolic Instrument in the Service of the Church ..8, 15,21,23-25,30,32,33,46,48,50, 52,53,56,69, Application 70,73,74,86,87, 88, 105, 109, rl3-115,127 ...........8,21,23-25,30,33, 15,32,46,48,50,52,53, Application of the Senses

:'.'....:::.::.-...---.'......' 1

il i1 I 'lrl)L?;L??,;:7',\\:^

Authentic, Performance-Based, Alternative

George ATLAS Communities .............. Auditory Leamers

Bellanca, Blackburn, Guy

Aschbacher, Pamela Aschenbrenner, S.J.,

'10, 82, 89-93, 95, 101, lO2'

Assessment

I75' l4I """"""10, 62,'17,78' 136

"""""""25' l4l
""""'10'
139

"""""""'86' 141 James ""'94' 142 .......... """""""51t l4l Blakeslee, Linda """86' 88' 141 Bloom, Benjamin 10, 65, 69,71'72'78' 137 Body-Kinesthetic Intelligence ..'.10,35-37,39,45,46,55-57,67,70,76'll4' 135' 136 Brain-Based Education """"""""94' 142 Brandt, Ronald '38' 39' 135' 141 Caine, Geoffrey """"""""'36' 38' 39' 135' I4l Caine, Renate """"""54' 143 Callahan, Richard """""'9' 33' 131' 133 Collaboration ............... ..................6, 8, 15, 26,33,32,53-56,71,',72,75,77,87, 112-115, 128 colloquy """"138 Competnc", conscience, and compassion '..'..... 14, 17 , 18,22,32, 33, 47 , 55,68, 71, 76, 87 , 713, ll5, 126 ..........4,8, composition of Place """"""16' 86' 98' 108 .......... Comprehension """""'6' 45'71'75'76 Concuding activities """'9' 2l'33' 130 Contemplatio ad Amorem ........9,8, 15, 17, 18,20-25'27,32,33'46'48,50-52,68, Contemplation ............
Contemplation to Attain the Love of

Context

God

69,

!-7 3, 77, 87, 95, 1 09- 1 1 1, l l 3- 1 1 5, 127, 129, 130

.......".'.....1, 3,6-9,ll, 16, 18,25,27'32'33'39'4I'42'45' 49, 54,63, 84, gO, 95-97, 108-110, 112, ll3, 115, 122, 130, 133

""""""""9'

95

t45

lNa3:u5 KNe\V

Cooperative

Leaming ........... Learning ................

..10, 83, I13,

I18,

139

Cura Personalis Dimensions of Discernment Dunn,

10, 81, 82, 89, 91,93-97,100-102, 115, 138, 142

..................9,28,33, 45,92, 132

.....,...2,9,33, 130,32

Kenneth

"""""""'60' l4l

..............1,3,6,8, ll, 16, 19,31,35-37,56,59,77,101 psychology .'......'.'..'9, 33,128,129 Election ................7-9,33, 57,78, 86, 88, 91, 96, 100-102, 109, 122, 133, 134 Evaluation ..............,24,25, 127, 128, l4l, 143 Examen .................8 ,24,25,33,87, 127 Examination of Conscience .............. .....9, 17,33, l3l, 132 Excellence 18,22, 24, 25,29, 31, 33,34, 39-41, 45, 46, 49-53, 55, 56, 62, Experience .2, 3, 5-9, 13, 14,
Educational Experiential-Based Faith that Does Justice Finding God in AII First

Week

Learning ............... Things

73,76,77,87,88,90,95-101, 105,109, lll-113,

ll5, 120, 122,126, l3l,

....9,33,132 ......9,21,33, 130 .............8, 20-22,24,25,33, 41, 48, 127, 128 ,21, 96, l4l-143 ..9,20,33, 130 .................15,17,20,23,37,74,141 .59, 60, 64-73,75-79,89, 122, 136, 137, l4l, 142
..2,7

133, 134 .....................10

George Gardner, Howard Gibson, Harr ........ Go ForthandTeach Grace Sought

Ganss, S.J.,

Foundations ................ Fourth Week ........

.......2,9,28,33,81,83,91-93,110, l15, 125, l3l-133,142 5, 8, 15, 18,32,33, 68, ll3, ll4, 126,127
.............63,l'42 .................54,143 ...............46,142 ..............37, 135, 142 10, 57, 136

..........54,143

Grinder, Harde Harmin, Hart, Hemispheric Processing Herman, Joan

Michael Robert Menill Leslie

......'..' HigherLevelThinkingSkills Ignatian Education Ignatianmethodology ...............

..............

....10,81-83,85,87,88,95,

l0l,

..................1,6, 11,18,26,27,30,31,34-36,45,54,56,57, 59, 60, 66, 77-79,81, 87, 91, 96, 101-103, 111, 113 .......7,8,22,91,96-101, 109, l15, I33, 134, 138 Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm Ignatian Pedagogy .........2,7-9,13,14,27-30,33,45,73, 81, 83, 88,91,93, 96-100, ll0, 133, 134,142 .2,9,133,142 Ignatian Pedagogy: A Practical Approach ......14,87, 110 Ignatian questions t+6

102, l15, 134, 137,138,143 ....107-109, 122,132,133

"""'100,

142

lndcx

Imagination ...............5,

Interpersonal Intelligence Intrapersonal Intelligence

Jay,

Indifference Eilleen

17 -1g, 22,

23,26, 48,50-52, 54, 69,7l-''13,87, 88, 96, 98,

............... ..............-

.'..10, 66, '71'72'75,77,78,137

""""20'

Il2-ll4'

126, 127 36' 37 728

'

""""""""'10,66' 69-72'78' 137 """'85' 94' 142' 143

JesuitEducation ...........2,3,g,28,29,33,45,81,91-93, 97,103,107-110, 125, l3l-133, 138, l4l,l42 ...........'.'....2,8,24,32,74,108, 125, 127,130'137'133'143 Jesuits .'.'...'.'.'.'2,8, 1'7 ,22,33, 50, 74' 108' 125' 731-133' 142 Jesus Christ
Kauchak,

Donald Keogh, Andrew Kinesthetic Learners Kingdom, the ............. .........

""""10' 62'77' 78' 136 """""""'9' 20'33' 129

""""""54' """""""54'

143 143

Learning Style

..........10, 59, 60-62, 63, 66,67,77-79' ll4, 136 Learningtheory.....l,3,6,8, 11,16, 19, 31,35-37,56,59,75,77,81, l0l, 108' 107, 111, 114, 115, 138 .......'...10, 47,49,50, 52,55-57 '71,74, 136 Left Hemisphere Processing

...........

Linguistic Intelligence Logical Mathematical Intelligence.'........'....

Madsen,

Richard Magis""""""'8'33'73'87'95'99'110'133 Mary........."""'16,54"74'75'113'128'130 Marzano, Robert

Men and Women for Others

"""""""'65 '66'77 '78'137 """"""'90' 141

""'10' 9l'93-102' 138' 142

"""10'65'70 '77 '78'137

Meditation Memory

.....8, 15, 17, 18, 21-25,27,32,33,46,48-50, 69-73' 87, 109, 113, 114, 127,129 ..6, 10, 2l-23, 38-42, 48-57, 68-71,73,75,87,96,98, 113, ll4, 120, 126, 135, 136

'...'......"."....

"""""'2' 9' 33' 93' 109' 138 """"""43'

Metacognition ............ Metts, 5.J., Rutph

................10,2',1,55,56,86,88, 102, 113, 138

143

Multiple Intelligences '.'..........'.. Multi-dimensional learning

Musical

Intelligence R.A.

"""""'10' 59 """"""'59-79' 8l 65' 69'74'75'77 """"'10' '78' 137

Nineteenth Annotation
Pendergrass,

Retreat Concem
t47

""""""""""'9
""""""54'
143

Personalized Care and

""""""""'9'

30' 45'

9L'92' 108' 126

rqNclus KNe\/

Preferential Option for the Poor

Points

Principle and Foundation

Ratio

Prelection Preludes Preparatory Prayer

.........

...........

'.'....'....'-4-6. 8, 15, 16, 18, 19,21,23,26,29,135 """"""'9, 33,132 57,59,78,81,95,102,I07 ..........'..'....3,8-11,31,33-35, ..4, 8, 17, 23,33,52,69 ..................4, 14, 16, 17 ,23,31, 47, 52, Ll3, 126 ."'8, 19, 20,33,36, 128

Studiorum(|S99) Recall .............2-9,11-19, Reflection

....'...'..4' I l, 16, 17,25,41,48,55, 63, 70,71,86 27,22,24-37,33-35, 52,55-57,59,72,76-79,81, 84, 88, 89, gl, 96,98-103, l0?, 109-113, 115, 120, 122, 125, 126, l3l-734, 143 ..8,9,24,30,33,95, 103, 105, 107, 109-111, ll3, 127,128,131, 143 Repetition .........27-29,45, 109, ll0, 125, 126,130 Retreatdirector 13,20-29,45-55, 66-76,87, 88, 95, 96, 108, ll0, 126-130, 133 Retreatant .........10, 35,36,47-49,51, 53-57, 71,73,74,136 Right Hemisphere Processing ....."."'8, 20,23,33, 50, 74, 127, 129 Second Week ........ .....2,8,33,74,108, 125, 132,133,142 Society of Jesus ...........10, 65,66,69-72,77,78, 137 Spatial Intelligence ...10,39-42,48-57,'.10,71,73, lI4, 135 spatial Memory ..1,6-8, ll-13, 14-16,17,19-27,29-33'35-37,40,42,45-50, Spiritual Exercises 52-55, 5',7, 59,60, 66-69, 73-76,81-83, 87, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99, 102, 103, 107-l I l, ll3-115, 122, 125-130, 132, r33, l4l ....'..1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 33, 36,91,108,112,125 St. Ignatius .....18,20,29,45,46,67,97,110, 114, 132,133 Startingpoint .........

"'.."""'2,9,33, l3l

Student
swid,er,

.........16,28,29,32,38,43,46,60'62,63,66,84,86,89-92,

Ann Synthesis
Sullivan, William

11:11:" :,

Memory Teacher
Taxon

..........-.4'7,15, 18, 26,28,38,45, 56'77,85,92,94,96,97, 100, l0l, 109, lll, ll2,ll7-122, l3l-134, 138,142 ........2-6,8, 10, ll, 14-18,24-27,29,31,32,34' 35,39,40,41,42,45, Teaching 54-57,59, 60, 62, @,75-79,8l-89, 9l-93, 96,97,100-103, 107' 108, ll0, lll, 115, ll9, 12l-123, 131, 134, 135, 137, 138, l4l-143 .'10,86,88, l0l, 102'115, 138 Teaching aboutThinking ...10, 81 ,82,84,85, 87, l0l, 102, ll0, l15, 138 Teaching as Enculturation ......... 10, 84, 85, 87, l0l, 102, 115,137 TeachingrThinking ...10, 83, 85-88, l0l, 102, ll5, 138 Taching o/Thinking
Tetlow, S.J.,

: :::33: 86, 88, 134 .................10,40,42,49-53,56, 57, 70,71, ll4, 136

,,t,,. .--.

--..'11 .23,52,73,

132-134,136,142

lil

Joseph Third Week Three Classes of persons Three Ways of Being Humble
Tishman, Shari

............9, 20, 33, 130 .........9, 20,33, 129 '9,20,33, 129

""""'24,143

........

""""85,

143

Tvo Stndards Understanding

*:"ffffi :----'r-:1,,--ti,:,-|,ii",, -*L!n

Whole person learning

................ ...............

48' 50' .........1, 3, ?, 8, 11, 16, 2L,23,24'n '28' 30' 37 '39'45' 99, l04', 53, 56, 69-:.1,73,74,77,87 ,88, 90, 92,94,96, 98,

""""'9' 20'33' I29

52'

Will,

Winters, Lynn .........

the

I29 ,,,.'.'...'7, 13,20,22,24,48-50, 52, 56, 69-72' 99, ll5, ...........,-...100, 142

t49

Reading Chart Guide

STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD

Current Educational Theories

PREPARATION
Night Before:
Preparing Subject Matter for Nexl Day

At the time ol Prayer:

Preparatory Prayer

First Prelude
(Composition

of Place) Learning Modality

Visual

Second Prelude (Ask for the grace sought)

Auditory Kinesthetic

/in
selecting posture

Hemisphere
Left
Right

Types of Memory
Spatial Taxon

Multiple lntelligences
Verbal/ Linguistic Logical/ Mathematical Musical Visual/Spatial Body/ Kinesthetic lntrapersonal lnterpersonal

STRUCTURE OF AN IGNATIAN PRAYER PERIOD CONCLUDING ACTIVITIES MAIN PART OF

PRAYER
Application of the Senses

Usually broken down into Points

Meditation

To prayer itself
Colloquy Closing Prayer

After
Post Prayer
Reflection

Comtemplation

Current Educational Theories

Learning ModalitY

/ /
some

some

Visual

Auditory
Kinesthetic

Hemisphere

some

some

Lefl Right

Types of Memory
Spatial

/
/ {
,/

some

/
I {

some

Taxon

MultiPle lntelligences

Verbal/ Linguistic Logical/ Mathematical

Musical Visual/SPatial

some

Body/ Kinesthetic
lntraPersonal

some

lnterpersonal