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For the Learning of Mathematics.
http://www.jstor.org
 
Mathematical
Abstraction
as
the
Result
of
a
Delicate
Shift
of
Attention
JOHNMASONStudentsof mathematics ftensaythattheyfindmathe-maticsabstract,andgivethisasthe reasonforbeingstuck,fordislikingmathematicsessons,oreven orwith-drawingrom mathematicsltogether.Yet thepowerofmathematics,andthepleasurehat mathematiciansetfromit,arise frompreciselythe abstractnatureofmathematics.Theaimofthis article isto explorethisunfortunateichotomyfresponseothe ideaof abstrac-tion,to ventureatechnicaluse of the termwhichcould beofhelpomathematicseachers ndstudents alike,andtoprovideacasestudy.The firstquestions whether hewordabstractsactu-ally beingusedn thesameway byfrustratedtudentsandbyinspiredprofessionals.Theverbsusuallypronounceddifferentlytotheadjectiveandnoun,emphasis beingplacedon theprefixabwhen itisusedas anoun oradjectiveasin thebeginningsofpapers,andwhenap-pliedto anidea thatseems unconnectedwithrealityorwhichfails toinspireconfidence hencethepejorativemeaning)ndon the root stem tractwhenusedoreferoaprocessakintoextracting.Thus extractmeanso drawout,and to abstractmeans odrawaway.Eco,in discuss-ingthemeaningof aesthetic n the workofSt.ThomasAquinas,writes hatAestheticseeingnvolvesgraspingheforminthesensible.It therefore occurspriortothe act ofabstraction,becauseinabstractiontheformisdivorcedrom the sensible.Eco,1988,page 193]Ifemphasissplacedondivorced,we areremindedf thestudent'sexperience.Itiseasytosympathisewith thestudent's ense of abstractasremovedromor divorcedfromreality orperhaps,moreaccurately,rommeaning,since ourrealityconsistsnthatwhichwe findmeaning-ful).Butperhapshis senseofbeingoutofcontactarisesbecausetherehas beenlittleornoparticipationntheprocessofabstraction,n the movementfdrawingway.Perhapsallthe studentsare awareof isthehavingbeendrawnawayratherhan thedrawingtself.Ifemphasissplacedonform,we areremindedftheexpert's xperience.Tall[1988]speaksna similarein ofabstractionas)the isolationofspecificattributesfaconceptsothattheycan beconsideredeparatelyfromtheotherattributes.Whenforms becomeobjectsorcomponentsofthought,and whenwithfamiliarity heybecomementallymanipu-lable,becoming,asitwere,concrete,mathematicsindsitsgreatestpower.Butabstractionsnotusthighermath-ematics orthe few. It isanintegralpartofspeakingndthinking.C.S.Peirce,he notedcreatorofpragmaticism,havingdrawnattentiono the abstractionswhichwecallcollections,namely pairs,dozens,sonnets,scores,etc,wrote:.. . thegreatrollingbillowsof abstractionntheocean ofmathematicalhought;butwhenwecometominuteexaminationofit,we shallfind,ineverydepartment,ncessantipplesof the sameformofthought..[Peirce, 1982]Far frombeinganabstrusectivityofexpertmathemat-icians,abstractions a commonexperience.Whythendoesmathematicalbstractionetthereactiontdoes?Mythesiss thatthe usesofthe wordabstractn mathe-maticsbyboth novicesandprofessionalseferso a com-mon,rootexperience:nextremelybriefmomentwhichhappensinthetwinklingof aneye;adelicateshiftofattentionfromseeinganexpressionasanexpressionfgenerality,oseeingtheexpressionsanobjectorprop-erty.Thus,abstractingies betweentheexpressionofgeneralityndthemanipulationfthatexpressionwhile,forexample,constructingconvincingrgument.nthateverso delicatehiftofattentionoccurshedrawingwayof form fromthesensible,heabstraction,eferredointhequotationromAquinas.When heshiftoccurs,tishardlynoticeablend,toamathematician,tseems themostnaturalandobviousmovementmaginable.Consequentlytfailso attract heexpert'sattention.Whenthe shiftdoesnotoccur,itblocksprogressandmakeshestudenteelout oftouchandexcluded,amereobservern apeculiaritual.Somestudentsevenmasteraspectsoftheform of theritualwithoutbeingableoexplainwhyheydowhatheydo.Afew,throughthisprocessof habituationPeirce,1982;MasonandDavis,1988]ind themselvesble toexplainthingstoothers,butmanynevercompletelyosetheirsenseof alienation.Myapproachothethesismakesuseof thetheoryofshiftsof attentionMasonandDavis,1988]andproceedsvia theDisciplineofNoticingMason,1987].presentfewepisodesromamathematicalasestudynwhichouthereaderreasked oparticipate.hecasestudysbasedonpartofwhathappeneduringweekendfmathemat-icalproblemolvingdevotedothethemeofaxiomsandabstracting,withparticipantsaryingrommathemat-icallynaiveundergraduatesosophisticatedraduates
FortheLearningofMathematics9,2(June 1989)2FLMPublishingAssociation,Montreal,Quebec,Canada
 
andtutors oftheOpenUniversity.Byengaginginthemathematicaltasks,itismy predic-tion thatyouwillexperienceaspectsofabstractingwhichIhavefoundsignificant.Bymeans oftheseexamples, youwill(throughtheprocessofgeneralisingfrommyexam-ples)construe what I meanbyvariousterms,suchasshiftofattention,characterising,andabstracting,andbecausethedescriptionsarerelated to mathematicalexperience,youwill be morelikelyto noticetheirapplicabilityinmathematical moments inthefuture.Thisin turnwillenableyou,shouldyousowish,to takealternativeaction,orat leastto bemore sharplyawareofaspectswhichmightotherwisehave been overlooked.AsSt.AugustinewroteIn thehallsofmemorywe beartheimagesofthingsonceperceived,asmemorialswhichwe cancon-templatementally,and canspeakof with agoodconscience andwithoutlying.Butthesememorialsbelongtousprivately.Ifanyonehearsmespeakofthem,providedhehas seenthemhimself,hedoesnot learn frommywords,butrecognisesthe truth ofwhat Isay bytheimageshehasinhisownmemory.But if he hasnothadthesesensations,obviouslyhebelievesmywords ratherthanlearnsfromthem.[St.Augustine, 389]Evenwith theinfluence of amoderntranslation,thisobservationofSt.Augustineneatly expressesthepurposeofmy offeringa casestudy,andtheeffectIintendittohave.Thevalidityofmythesis liesintheextenttowhichyourecognisetheaspectswhichIstress,andtheextenttowhichyoufindsuchawarenesshelpfulinthefuture.Thismethodologyisitself aprocessofabstraction,movingasitdoesfromexperience,toexpressingexperience,to tak-ingsuchexpressionsasdescriptionsofpropertiesofmanyexperiences,tomanipulatinglabelsofthoseexperiencesinsubsequentdescriptions.InFloydet al[1982],ahelixwasusedtodescribetheexperienceofmovingfrommanipulatingobjects (physi-cal,pictorial,symbolic,mental)togetting-a-sense-ofsomefeature orpropertyof thoseobjects,toarticulatingthatpropertyas anexpressionofgenerality,tofindingthatexpressionbecomingaconfidence-inspiringentitywhichcan bemanipulatedandusedto seekoutfurtherproperties.Isuggestthattheprocessofabstractinginmathematicsliesin themomentarymovementfromarticulatingtomanipulating.^~~ ^^
VÎ^KîdSS.~____^teujo£^N.^
Articulationof aseeingofgenerality,firstinwordsandpictures,andthen inincreasingly tightandeconomicallysuccinctexpressions,usingsymbolsandperhapsdia-grams,is apinnacleofachievement,oftenachievedonlyaftergreatstruggle.Itturnsinto amerefoothillasitbecomesastagingpostforfurtherworkwiththeexpres-sionasamanipulableobject.Theheliximagenotonlyhelpstolocateabstractinginaflowing process,butalsoreinforcesthenotionthatwhatisabstractfor onepersoncanbecomeconcreteandconfidence-inspiringforothers[Mason,1980].Thelanguageofprocessandobjectisalittletooglib,for inthestressingwhich thewordsimply,thereis atendencytoignoretheexperienceof asense-ofwhichaccompaniesor isassociatedwiththeexpression,andwhichdoes notdisappearwhen theexpressionbecomesanobjectofattention. On thecontrary.Theexpressionactsas asignaltorecall salientassociations. Justasthereis ahugedifferencebetweendrawing yourownfigureinorder tostabiliseyourmentalimageryandtoextendyourthinkingpower,sothere is ahugedifferencebetweenexpressing yourowngeneralityanddoingsomeoneelse'salgebra.Algebraicexpressionsprovideagenericexampleof howmeaningcan remainconnectedtosymbols:itisimportant,foralgebraicthinkingtodevelopeffectively,tomaintain a dualawareness ofexpressions,asentities orobjects,and asstatements abouthowa calculationis tobeperformed[Mason,1982].In thelanguageofTall andVinner[1981],theconcept imageisextendedandmademorepowerful bythemanipulabilityof theexpression,not narrowedand refined.CasestudyAsequence:Expresstoyourselfin action(bydoingit)andinwords(bytalkingtoyourselfora col-league)a rule forcontinuingthefollowingarray[Honsberger1970page87]:
105 11
261213713...481491516Nowattend tothecentralline,andgeneratemoreterms.Find awayofgeneratingevenmoretermswithoutfillingin the othernumbers.Expressyourrule ingeneralterms,andasaformula. Pause nowandtryit.Comment:Theactionoffillinginmorenumbers,whetherperformedphysicallyorjustmentally,servestoclarifyandcrystalliseasense ofwhatisgoingon,andpreparesthewayforaverbalstatement of ageneralrule.Forexample,thepresenceof thesquarenumbersincertain3
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