What are the limitations on op-amp performance?

Draft #1
Presented by: Mylne DiPenta Date: Sept 18, 2012

Proposed answer:
An op-amp has 3 important limitations that we have not discussed yet. 1. The common-mode rejection is not perfect. Instead of assuming that common-mode signals will be completely removed, we use the Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (listed on the datasheet) to find out how much they will be attenuated. 2. The op-amps output cannot actually go from -10V to 10V instantly; the amount of time the output takes to change its voltage is measured by the slew rate. Any signal with a highenough frequency will attempt to change the output faster than is physically possible, resulting in slew rate distortion. 3. Slew-rate distortion makes waveforms have diagonal segments. If the input signal frequency is high enough, the output signal will be triangular. 4. The op-amp, like a discrete amp, has internal capacitances that limit its gain at high frequencies. We can predict how much gain is possible at a particular frequency by using the Gain Bandwidth Product (aka Unity Gain Frequency), which is listed on the datasheet. Source #1: Wikipedia Common-Mode Rejection Ratio A perfect operational amplifier [would amplify] only the voltage difference between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the amplification of these identical voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). [1] Common mode rejection ratio is the common-mode gain, which is typically much smaller than the differential gain. The CMRR is defined as the ratio of the powers of the differential gain over the common-mode gain, measured in positive decibels (thus using the 20 log rule):

CMRR
[2] Slew-Rate Distortion The slew rate of an electronic circuit is defined as the maximum rate of change of the output voltage. Slew rate is usually expressed in units of V/s. The slew rate can be measured using a function generator (usually square wave) and oscilloscope [as in diagram at left]. [3]
Figure 1 Slew rate effect on a square wave

Slew-induced Distortion (SID, or sometimes: Slew-rate Induced Distortion) is caused when an amplifier or transducer is required to change output (or displacement), i.e. slew, faster than it is able to do so without error. [4] p. 1 of 4

Finite Bandwidth All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. [T]he gain of a typical op-amp is inversely proportional to frequency and is characterized by its gainbandwidth product (GBWP). For example, an op-amp with a GBWP of 1 MHz would have a gain of 5 at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This gives it the characteristics of a first-order low-pass filter with very high DC gain. [1] How this helps me answer the question:

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

This might seem like an intimidating formula but its not bad if we break it down piece by piece. This formula shows something already converted into decibels. Lets look at it not in decibels first. That leaves Ad / ACM. Ad is the differential gain; the usual Rf/Rin + 1 or Rf/Rin gain that we always calculate in an op-amp circuit. For example, a typical amp could have a gain of 15, expecting the output signal to be 15 times bigger than the input. ACM is the common-mode gain; in other words, if we have 100mV of noise in and 20nV of noise out, then the common-mode gain is 0.0000002. Not much of a gain the noise output is thousands of times smaller than the input. If we divide then, we get a ratio of how much the signal is getting bigger compared to how much the noise is getting smaller (rejected). In this case, 15 / 0.0000002 is 75 000 000. In other words, if the input signal and noise are the same amplitude, the output signal will be 75 million times bigger than the noise. Not bad. Lastly, we convert this times bigger (signal vs. noise) into decibels. Since were talking about voltage, we use 20log(something). In this case, 20log(75 000 000) is roughly 157 dB. This is the Common-Mode Rejection Ratio. Saying that the signal will be 157 dB above the noise is the same as saying that the signal will get multiplied 75 000 000 times more than the noise. The reverse could also be done; if the CMRR is 90 dB, we could convert back to linear terms (31 622) to figure out that the signal would be amplified 31 622 times more than the noise. If we know that the signals gain (differential gain) is 15, then 15/AVCM = 31 622; in other words, the commonmode gain is approx.. 0.0004.

Slew-Rate Distortion
This source says that slew rate means that maximum speed that the output can change its voltage. If the input changes from -10V to 10V in 1us, but the op-amp can only change its output that much in 2us, then the output will be slopier" than the input. The diagram shows this; the input is a square (or nearly square) wave, and the output is sort of trapezoidal. If the frequency was much higher, the input signal might start to transition back down before the output signal had finished travelling up; the output would therefore never reach its 1 state, and would start downward halfway through its upward edge, resulting in a triangle wave. This is bad enough in square waves, where only the 0 or 1 matters; but in a sine wave, it would change the shape of the wave entirely.

Finite Bandwidth
We know from measurement that the op-amp does have gain at 0Hz (DC). However, this source says that it acts like a low-pass filter; in other words, it is going to decrease its possibility for gain as the frequency gets higher. This source is saying that you can figure out how much that gain p. 2 of 4

Source #2: Malvino Common-Mode Rejection Ratio See Malvino, Ch 18, Section Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (p. 667) Slew Rate Distortion See Malvino, Ch 18, section Slew Rate (p. 669) Finite Bandwidth See Malvino, Ch 18, section Bandwidth (p. 676) Recent: 2007 Reviewed by experts: Yes

How does my real-world experience contradict or support this?

All the amps we built had a high roll-off region. Also, digital chips have a switching time they cant go from 0V to 5V instantly, instead it takes a few microseconds. That could be the same effect as slew rate distortion.

Clarity:
No issues known yet.

Cause:
Slight differences in the transistors at the op-amp inputs cause their DC base voltages to not be exactly 0V. These tiny differences between the transistors get amplified, even if the signals applied to the transistors are identical, causing the output to have a small noise voltage instead of the 0V we should expect from an ideal op-amp.

Connections to the model:

Any change of a signals shape is considered distortion An op-amp ideally only amplifies the difference between its inputs

Questions that need to be answered to accept this:

None that I know of yet.

Questions for the future:

None that I know of yet.

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Bibliography
[1 W. Contributors, "Operational Amplifier," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 8 September 2012. ] [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Operational_amplifier&oldid=511378686. [Accessed 9 September 2012]. [2 Wikipedida contributors, "Common-mode rejection ratio," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 18 ] September 2012. [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commonmode_rejection_ratio&oldid=513378343. [Accessed 2012 September 2012]. [3 Wikipedia contributors, "Slew rate," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 30 August 2012. [Online]. ] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slew_rate&oldid=509882319. [Accessed 18 September 2012]. [4 Wikipedia contributors, "Slew-induced distortion," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 12 June ] 2012. [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slewinduced_distortion&oldid=497300645. [Accessed 18 September 2012]. [5 A. Malvino and D. J. Bates, Electronic Principles, 7th Ed., Boston: McGraw Hill, 2007. ]

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