Tng quan cc phng php xc nh khun mt ngi

Phm Th Bo, Nguyn Thnh Nht, Cao Minh Thnh, Trn Anh Tun, Phan Phc Don

I. GII THIU Hn mt thp k qua c rt nhiu cng trnh nghin cu v bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi t nh en trng, xm n nh mu nh ngy hm nay. Cc nghin cu i t bi ton n gin, mi nh ch c mt khun mt ngi nhn thng vo thit b thu hnh v u t th thng ng trong nh en trng. Cho n ngy hm nay bi ton m rng cho nh mu, c nhiu khun mt trong cng mt nh, c nhiu t th thay i trong nh. Khng nhng vy m cn m rng c phm vi t mi trng xung quanh kh n gin (trong phng th nghim) cho n mi trng xung quanh rt phc tp (nh trong t nhin) nhm p ng nhu cu tht s v rt nhiu ca con ngi. 1. nh ngha bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi Xc nh khun mt ngi (Face Detection) l mt k thut my tnh xc nh cc v tr v cc kch thc ca cc khun mt ngi trong cc nh bt k (nh k thut s). K thut ny nhn bit cc c trng ca khun mt v b qua nhng th khc, nh: ta nh, cy ci, c th, [105]. 2. ng dng ca phng php xc nh khun mt ngi C nhiu ng dng c v ang thit k, ti ch xin a ra mt s loi ng dng sau: o H thng tng tc gia ngi v my: gip nhng ngi b tt hoc khim khuyt c th trao i. Nhng ngi dng ngn ng tay c th giao tip vi nhng ngi bnh thng. Nhng ngi b bi lit thng qua mt s k hiu nhy mt c th biu l nhng g h mun, . l cc bi ton iu b ca bn tay (hand gesture), iu b 1 o o o

khun mt, [5, 6, 7, 32, 54, 95, 118, 130]. Nhn dng ngi A [29, 38, 46, 55, 56, 58, 60, 61] c phi l ti phm truy n hay khng? Gip c quan an ninh qun l tt con ngi. Cng vic nhn dng c th trong mi trng bnh thng cng nh trong bng ti (s dng camera hng ngoi). H thng quan st, theo di [35, 35, 106] v bo v. Cc h thng camera s xc nh u l con ngi v theo di con ngi xem h c vi phm g khng, v d xm phm khu vc khng c vo, . Lu tr (rt tin ATM, bit ai rt tin vo thi im ), hin nay c tnh trng nhng ngi b ngi khc ly mt th ATM hay mt m s PIN v nhng ngi n cp ny i rt tin, hoc nhng ngi ch th i rt tin nhng li bo cho ngn hng l mt th v mt tin. Cc ngn hng c nhu cu khi c giao dch tin s kim tra hay lu tr khun mt ngi rt tin sau i chng v x l [66, 81, 98, 133]. Th cn cc, chng minh nhn dn (Face Identification) [114]. iu khin vo ra: vn phng, cng ty, tr s, my tnh, Palm, . Kt hp thm vn tay v mng mt. Cho php nhn vin c ra vo ni cn thit, hay mi ngi s ng nhp my tnh c nhn ca mnh m khng cn nh tn ng nhp cng nh mt khu m ch cn xc nh thng qua khun mt [44]. An ninh sn bay, xut nhp cnh (hin nay c quan xut nhp cnh M p dng).

o o

o o o

Dng xc thc ngi xut nhp cnh v kim tra c phi l nhn vt khng b khng. Tng lai s pht trin cc loi th thng minh c tch hp sn c trng ca ngi dng trn , khi bt c ngi dng khc dng truy cp hay x l ti cc h thng s c yu cu kim tra cc c trng khun mt so vi th bit nay c phi l ch th hay khng. Tm kim v t chc d liu lin quan n con ngi thng qua khun mt ngi trn nhiu h c s d liu lu tr tht ln, nh internet, cc hng truyn hnh, . V d: tm cc on video c tng thng Bush pht biu, tm cc phim c din vin L Lin Kit ng, tm cc trn banh c Ronaldo , [50, 94, 134]. Hin nay c nhiu hng tip cn xc nh mt nh c phi l nh kha thn hay khng? Khun mt ngi c xem nh mt yu t xc nh cho mt hng tip cn m c dng gn y [271, 272]. ng dng trong video phone [10]. Phn loi trong lu tr hnh nh trong in thoi di ng. Thng qua bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi v trch c trng, ri da vo c trng ny sp xp lu tr, gip ngi s dng d dng truy tm khi cn thit [69, 105]. Kim tra trng thi ngi li xe c ng gt, mt tp trung hay khng, v h tr thng bo khi cn thit [109]. Phn tch cm xc trn khun mt [112]. Trong lnh vc thit k iu khin robot [42, 43, 124, 151, 236]. Hng my chp hnh Canon ng dng bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi vo my chp hnh th h mi cho kt qu hnh nh p hn, nht l khun mt ngi [277].

II. PHNG PHP XC NH KHUN MT NGI C nhiu nghin cu tm phng php xc nh khun mt ngi, t nh xm n ngy nay l nh mu. Ti s trnh by mt cch tng qut nht nhng hng gii quyt chnh cho bi ton, t nhng hng chnh ny nhiu tc gi thay i mt s nh bn trong c kt qu mi. Da vo tnh cht ca cc phng php xc nh khun mt ngi trn nh. Cc phng php ny c chia lm bn [9] hng tip cn chnh. Ngoi bn hng ny, nhiu nghin cu c khi lin quan n khng nhng mt hng tip cn m c lin quan nhiu hn mt hng chnh: o Hng tip cn da trn tri thc: M ha cc hiu bit ca con ngi v cc loi khun mt ngi thnh cc lut. Thng thng cc lut m t quan h ca cc c trng. o Hng tip cn da trn c trng khng thay i: Mc tiu cc thut ton i tm cc c trng m t cu trc khun mt ngi m cc c trng ny s khng thay i khi t th khun mt, v tr t thit b thu hnh hoc iu kin nh sng thay i. o Hng tip cn da trn so khp mu: Dng cc mu chun ca khun mt ngi (cc mu ny c chn la v lu tr) m t cho khun mt ngi hay cc c trng khun mt (cc mu ny phi chn lm sao cho tch bit nhau theo tiu chun m cc tc gi nh ra so snh). Cc mi tng quan gia d liu nh a vo v cc mu dng xc nh khun mt ngi. o Hng tip cn da trn din mo: Tri ngc hn vi so khp mu, cc m hnh (hay cc mu) c hc t mt tp nh hun luyn trc . Sau h thng (m hnh) s xc nh khun mt ngi. Hay mt s tc gi cn gi hng tip cn ny l hng tip cn theo phng php hc. 1. Hng tip cn da trn tri thc Trong hng tip cn ny, cc lut s ph thuc rt ln vo tri thc ca nhng tc gi nghin cu v bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi. y l hng tip cn dng top-down. D dng xy dng cc lut c bn m t cc c trng ca khun mt v cc quan h tng ng. V d, mt khun mt thng c hai mt i xng nhau qua trc thng ng gia khun mt v c mt mi, mt ming. Cc quan h

ca cc c trng c th c m t nh quan h v khong cch v v tr. Thng thng cc tc gi s trch c trng ca khun mt trc tin c c cc ng vin, sau cc ng vin ny s c xc nh thng qua cc lut bit ng vin no l khun mt v ng vin no khng phi khun mt. Thng p dng qu trnh xc nh gim s lng xc nh sai. Mt vn kh phc tp khi dng hng tip cn ny l lm sao chuyn t tri thc con ngi sang cc lut mt cc hiu qu. Nu cc lut ny qu chi tit (cht ch) th khi xc nh c th xc nh thiu cc khun mt c trong nh, v nhng khun mt ny khng th tha mn tt c cc lut a ra. Nhng cc lut tng qut qu th c th chng ta s xc nh lm mt vng no khng phi l khun mt m li xc nh l khun mt. V cng kh khn m rng yu cu t bi ton xc nh cc khun mt c nhiu t th khc nhau.

bn, v mc khc nhau gia cc gi tr xm trung bnh ca phn trung tm v phn bao bn trn l ng k. phn gii thp nht (mc m) ca nh dng tm ng vin khun mt m cn tm cc mc phn gii tt hn. mc hai, xem xt biu histogram ca cc ng vin loi bt ng vin no khng phi l khun mt, ng thi d ra cnh bao xung quanh ng vin. mc cui cng, nhng ng vin no cn li s c xem xt cc c trng ca khun mt v mt v ming. Hai ng dng mt chin lc t th n mn hay lm r dn gim s lng tnh ton trong x l. Mc d t l chnh xc cha cao, nhng y l tin cho nhiu nghin cu sau ny [200]. Kotropoulos v Pitas [200] a mt phng php tng t [191, 261] dng trn phn gii thp. Hai ng dng phng php chiu xc nh cc c trng khun mt, Kanade thnh cng vi phng php chiu xc nh bin ca khun mt [191]. Vi I(x,y) l gi tr xm ca mt im trong nh c kch thc m x n ti v tr (x,y), cc hm chiu nh theo phng ngang v thng ng c nh ngha nh sau: HI ( x) =
m

Hnh 1: (a) nh ban u c phn gii n=1; (b), (c), v (d) nh c phn gii n=4, 8, v 16.

n y=1

I ( x, y) v

V I ( y) = x=1 I ( x, y) . Da trn biu hnh chiu

ngang, c hai cc tiu a phng khi hai ng xt qu trnh thay i c ca HI, chnh l cnh bn tri v phi ca hai bn u. Tng t vi hnh chiu dc VI, cc cc tiu a phng cng cho ta bit v tr ming, nh mi, v hai mt. Cc c trng ny xc nh khun mt. Hnh 3.a cho mt v d v cch xc nh nh trn. Cch xc nh ny c t l xc nh chnh xc l 86.5% cho trng hp ch c mt khun mt thng trong nh v hnh nn khng phc tp. Nu hnh nn phc tp th rt kh tm, hnh 3.b. Nu nh c nhiu khun mt th s khng xc nh c, hnh 3.c.

Hnh 2: Mt lai tri trc ca ngi nghin cu phn tch trn khun mt.

Yang v Huang [261] dng mt phng thc theo hng tip cn ny xc cc khun mt. H thng ca hai tc gi ny bao gm ba mc lut. mc cao nht, dng mt khung ca s qut trn nh v thng qua mt tp lut tm cc ng vin c th l khun mt. mc k tip, hai ng dng mt tp lut m t tng qut hnh dng khun mt. Cn mc cui cng li dng mt tp lut khc xem xt mc chi tit cc c trng khun mt. Mt h thng a phn gii c th t c dng xc nh, hnh 1. Cc lut mc cao nht tm ng vin nh: vng trung tm khun mt (phn ti hn trong hnh 2) c bn phn vi mt mc u c bn, phn xung quanh bn trn ca mt khun mt (phn sng hn trong hnh 2) c mt mc u c 3

Hnh 3: Phng php chiu: (a) nh ch c mt khun mt v hnh nn n gin; (b) nh ch c mt khun mt v hnh nn phc tp; (c) nh c nhiu khun mt

Hnh 4: Chiu tng phn ng vin xc nh khun mt.

Fan [82] phn on nh mu tm cnh thng qua thut ton tng vng xc nh cc ng vin. Dng c tnh hnh ellipse ca khun mt ngi xc nh ng vin no khun mt ngi. Kim [65] kt hp thut ton watershed cho cc nh c nhiu phngii cng m hnh mu da ngi tm ng vin, ri xc nh khun mt ngi trong video. T l chnh xc khong 87-94%. Phng php ch x l cho cc frame nh ch c mt khun mt v nh ny phi chp thng ch c u v vai. Sahbi v Boujemaa [8] s dng mng neural hc c lng cc tham s cho m hnh Gauss, mc ch tm ng vin trn sc mu da ca ngi. Sau khi c ng vin, hai ng chiu ln hai trc: ng v ngang xc nh khun mt ngi. C nhiu nghin cu sau ny s dng phng php chiu xc nh khun mt ngi. Min [80] dng m hnh mu da khng tham s, Baskan [76], Mateos [74], v Nicponski [45] xy dng b lc, tm ng vin khun mt, sau chiu ln hai trc xc nh cc thnh phn khun mt xc nh ng vin c phi l khun mt hay khng. Cn Mateos v Chicote [34] dng kt cu xc nh ng vin trong nh mu. Sau phn tch hnh dng, kch thc, thnh phn khun mt xc nh khun mt. Khi tm c ng vin khun mt, hai ng trch cc ng vin ca tng thnh phn khun mt, sau chiu tng phn ny xc thc c phi l thnh phn khun mt hay khng, hnh 4. T l chnh xc hn 87%. Farhad v Abdolhorsein [136] dng tri thc v histogram xc nh khun mt trong cc frame lin tc trong mt on video. Tng t, Hidekazu v Mamoru [100, 139] cng dng histogram, nhng hai ng dng thut gii di truyn (Genetic Algorithm GA) lai nh l mt phng php tm kim ngu nhin da vo nh ca biu mu ca nh.

Rodrigues v Buf [132] dng phng php chn cc keypoint trong nhiu t l khc nhau, c bit tc gi ch dng cc keypoint d tha da trn nhiu phn gii. Da trn quan h hnh hc ca cc thnh phn khun mt, hai ng nhm cc keypoint li xc nh khun mt ngi. Fred [1140] d trn tnh cht i xng ca khun mt ngi, ng xem xt cc phn b trn histogram c tnh cht gn i xng xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh xm n c khun mt chp thng. Berbar [279] kt hp m hnh mu da ngi v xc nh cnh tm ng vin khun mt ngi. Sau kt hp quan h cc c trng v phng php chiu cc ng vin khun mt xung hai trc: dng v ngang xc nh ng vin no tht s l khun mt ngi. 2. Hng tip cn da trn c trng khng thay i y l hng tip cn theo kiu bottom-up. Cc tc gi c gng tm cc c trng khng thay i ca khun mt ngi xc nh khun mt ngi. Da trn nhn xt thc t, con ngi d dng nhn bit cc khun mt v cc i tng trong cc t th khc nhau v iu kin nh sng khc nhau, th phi tn ti cc thuc tnh hay c trng khng thay i. C nhiu nghin cu u tin xc nh cc c trng khun mt ri ch ra c khun mt trong nh hay khng. Cc c trng nh: lng my, mt, mi, ming, v ng vin ca tc c trch bng phng php xc nh cnh. Trn c s cc c trng ny, xy dng mt m hnh thng k m t quan h ca cc c trng ny v xc nh s tn ti ca khun mt trong nh. Mt vn ca cc thut tan theo hng tip cn c trng cn phi iu chnh cho ph hp iu kin nh sng, nhiu, v b che khut. i khi bng ca khun mt s to thm cnh mi, m cnh ny li r hn cnh tht s ca khun mt, v th nu dng cnh xc nh s gp kh khn. a) Cc c trng khun mt Sirohey a mt phng php xc nh khun mt t mt nh c hnh nn phc tp [240]. Phng php da trn cnh (dng phng php Candy [155] v heuristics loi b cc cnh cn li duy nht 4

mt ng bao xung quanh khun mt. Mt hnh ellipse dng bao khun mt, tch bit vng u v hnh nn. T l chnh xc ca thut tan l 80%. Cng dng phng php cnh nh Sirohey, Chetverikov v Lerch dng mt phong php da trn blob v streak (hnh dng git nc v sc xen k), xc nh theo hng cc cnh [157]. Hai ng dng hai blob ti v ba blob sng m t hai mt, hai bn g m, v mi. M hnh ny dng cc treak m t hnh dng ngoi ca khun mt, lng my, v mi. Dng nh c phn gii thp theo bin i Laplace xc nh khun mt thng qua blob. Graf a ra mt phng php xc nh c trng ri xc nh khun mt trong nh xm [180]. Dng b lc lm ni cc bin, cc php tan hnh thi hc (morphology) c dng lm ni bt cc vng c cng cao v hnh dng chc chn (nh mt). Thng qua histogram tm cc nh ni bt xc nh cc ngng chuyn nh xm thnh hai nh nh phn. Cc thnh phn dnh nhau u xut hin trong hai nh nh phn th c xem l vng ca ng vin khun mt ri phn loi xem c phi l khun mt khng. Phng php c kim tra trn cc nh ch c u v vai ca ngi. Tuy nhin cn vn , lm sao s dng cc php ton morphology v lm sao xc nh khun mt trn cc vng ng vin. Leung trnh by mt m hnh xc sut xc nh khun mt trong nh c hnh nn phc tp trn c s mt b xc nh c trng cc b v so khp th ngu nhin [205]. chnh l xem bi ton xc nh khun mt nh l bi ton tm kim vi mc tiu l tm th t cc c trng chc chn ca khun mt to thnh ging nht mt mu khun mt. Dng nm c trng (hai mt, hai l mi, phn ni gia mi v ming) m t mt khun mt. Lun tnh quan h khong cch vi cc c trng cp (nh mt tri, mt phi), dng phn b Gauss m hnh ha. Mt mu khun mt c a ra thng qua trung bnh tng ng cho mt tp a hng, a t l ca b lc o hm Gauss. T mt nh, cc c trng ng vin c xc nh bng cch so khp tng im nh khi lc tng ng vi vector mu (tng t mi tng quan), chn hai ng vin c trng ng u tm kim cho cc c

trng khc ca khun mt. Ging nh xy dng mt th quan h mi node ca th tng ng nh cc c trng ca mt khun mt, a xc sut vo xc nh. T l xc nh chnh xc l 86%. Bn cnh tnh khang cch lin quan m t quan h gia cc c trng nh Leung [154, 206]. Kendall [195] v [212] dng l thuyt xc sut thng k v hnh dng. Dng hm mt xc sut (Probility Density Function - PDF) qua N im c trng, tng ng (xi, yi) l c trng th i vi gi s da vo phn b Gauss c 2N-chiu. Cc tc gi p dng phng thc cc i kh nng (MaximumLikelihood - ML) xc nh v tr khun mt. Mt thun li ca phng php ny l cc khun mt b che khut vn c th xc nh c. Nhng phng php khng xc nh c a khun mt trong nh. Yow v Cipolla [265, 266] trnh by mt phng thc da vo c trng, dng s lng ln cc du hiu t nh v c du hiu v ng cnh. u tin dng b lc o hm Gauss th hai, xc nh cc im mu cht ti cc i a phng trong b lc, ri ch ra ni c th l c trng. Giai on hai, kim tra cc cnh xung quanh im mu cht v nhm chng li thnh cc vng. Tiu chun nhm cc cnh l gn v tng t hng v cng . o lng cc c tnh vng nh: chiu di cnh, cng cnh, v bin thin cng c lu trong mt vector c trng. T d liu c trng khun mt c hun luyn, s tnh c gi tr trung bnh v ma trn hip phng sai ca mi c trng khun mt. Mt vng l ng vin khun mt khi khong cch Mahalanobis gia cc vector c trng u di mt ngng. Ri thng qua mng Bayes xc nh ng vin c phi l khun mt khng. T l chnh xc l 85% [267], tuy nhin mc sai l 28%, v ch hiu qu vi hnh khun mt c kch thc 60x60 im nh. Phng php ny c dng thm vi m hnh ng vin linh hat [158, 267]. Takacs v Wechsler trnh by mt phng php da trn tch c trng vng mc v c ng theo dao ng nh ca mt [250]. Thut ton hot ng trn bn hay vng ca cc mu cht, m hnh ha li vng mc. u tin tnh ton c lng th vng khun mt trn c s b lc. Giai on th hai

tinh ch trn phn gii mn hn. T l sai l 4.69%. Han pht trin mt k thut trn c s morphology trch cc on ging mt (eyeanalogue) xc nh khun mt ngi [182]. ng ni rng mt v lng my l c trng ni bt nht v n nh nht ca khun mt con ngi, v n rt hu dng xc nh khun mt ngi. ng nh ngha cc on ging mt nh l cc cnh trn ng vin ca mt. u tin, cc php tan morphology nh ng, ct b sai khc, v phn ngng trch cc im nh c gi tr cng thay i ng k. Cc im nh ny s tr thnh cc im nh ging mt. Sau mt tin trnh gn nhn sinh cc on ging mt. Cc on ny c dng ch dn tm kim cc vng tim nng c th l khun mt qua kt hp cc c tnh hnh hc ca mt, mi, lng my, v ming. Cc vng ny s c mt mng neural xem xt c phi l khun mt khng, ging [48]. Theo tc gi t l chnh xc l 94%. Amit a ra phng thc xc nh khun mt da trn hnh dng v p dng cho cc khun mt chp thng [145]. C hai giai on xc nh khun mt ngi: tp trung v phn loi chi tit. Lm c th t cc mnh cnh, cc mnh ny c trch t b xc nh cnh n gin thng qua s khc bit cng l qu trnh tp trung. Khi c cc ng vin t qu trnh trn, dng thut ton CART [152] xy dng mt cy phn loi t cc nh hun luyn, xem xt ng vin no l khun mt ngi. Jin [90] dng cu trc hnh hc ca khun mt ngi tm ng vin khun mt trong nh xm v hnh nn khng phc tp. Mi nh ch c mt khun mt ngi, nhng t th iu kin nh sng, khng c nh. T l chnh xc khang 94.25% v thi gian kh nhanh. Chan v Lewis [16] dng k thut lc loi bt tc ng ca nh sng, sau phn on tm v tr cc ng vin l con mt. T cc ng vin ny xy dng mng neural nh Rowley [48] xc nh khun mt ngi. Phng php ny c th xc nh nhiu khun mt trong mt nh, cc khun mt ny

c th c cc t th, v tr, t l khc nhau. T l chnh xc l 53%. Kruppa [21] dng sc mu ca da ngi tm ng vin, nhng ng khng x l cho tng im nh theo cch thng thng, m ng dng m hnh mu da ngi trn tng phn nh ri x l phn on trn . Sau khi c ng vin khun mt, ng dng mt s c tnh v hnh dng xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 85%. Park dng Gaze tm ng vin gc mt, ming v tm mt [27]. ng xy dng SVM c hc trc xc nh cc v tr ng vin c phi l gc mt, ming, v tm mt hay khng theo vt con mt ngi. Sato [67] dng quan h ng vin cm ca khun mt. Tc gi chia lm hai trng hp: thon di v trn xem xt. Tc gi dng GA xem xt mi tng quan ca ng cong, hnh dng khun mt xc nh khun mt. Chai v Ngan [708] xy dng phng php xc nh khun mt ngi da trn c trng v: quan h hnh hc, mt , chi trong nh mu ch c u v vai ca ng vin xc nh. Kim [47] cng phn on tm ng vin khun mt, nhng xc thc khun mt thng qua cc cu trc cc c trng mt, mi, ming, v ng vin ca ng vin. Jang [53] dng phn b mu da phn on tm ng vin ri dng cc c trng hnh hc xc nh khun mt. Christian v Jonh [135] xy dng mt loi c trng mi, l c trng v cong ca cc ng trn khun mt gii quyt vn iu kin nh sng. T c trng cong ny, hai ng quay li phng php PCA xc nh khun mt. Juan v Narciso [111] xy dng mt khng gian mu mi YCgCr lc cc vng l ng vin khun mt da trn sc thi ca mu da ngi. Sau khi c ng vin, hai ng dng cc quan h v hnh dng khun mt, mc cn i ca cc thnh phn khun mt xc nh khun mt ngi. Tng t, Chang v Hwang [127] cng dng mt phng thc nh [111], t l chnh xc hn 80% trong nh xm. Dae v Nam [116] xem xt cc c trng khng thay i khi thay i t th ca khun mt bng cch xem xt cc quan h hnh hc. Sau c

lng cc t th ca khun mt ri xy dng d liu xc nh thng qua PCA. T l chnh xc l 76%. Jin [128] xy dng mt b lc xc nh ng vin khun mt ngi theo mu da ngi. T ng vin ny tc gi xc nh khun mt ngi theo hnh dng khun mt v cc quan h c trng v thnh phn khun mt, vi mt phi c chn lm gc ta xt quan h. T l chnh xc cho khun mt chp thng trn 80%. b) Kt cu Khun mt con ngi c nhng kt cu ring bit m c th dng phn loi so vi cc i tng khc. Augusteijn v Skufca cho rng hnh dng ca khun mt dng lm kt cu phn loi [147], gi l kt cu ging khun mt (face-like texture). Tnh kt cu qua cc c trng thng k th t th hai (SGLD) [183] trn vng c kch thc 16x16 im nh. C ba loi c trng c xem xt: mu da, tc, v nhng th khc. Hai ng dng mng neural v mi tng quan cascade [170] cho phn loi c gim st cc kt cu v mt nh x c trng t t chc Kohonen [199] gom nhm cc lp kt cu khc nhau. Hai tc gi xut dng phng php bu c khi khng quyt nh c kt cu a vo l kt cu ca da hay kt cu ca tc. Dai v Nakano dng m hnh SGLD xc nh khun mt ngi [165]. Thng tin mu sc c kt hp vi m hnh kt cu khun mt. Hai tc gi xy dng thut gii xc nh khun mt trong khng gian mu, vi cc phn ta mu cam xc nh cc vng c th l khun mt ngi. Mt thun li ca phng php ny l c th xc nh khun mt khng ch chp thng v c th c ru v c knh. Mark v Andrew [12] dng phn b mu da v thut ton DoG (a Difference of Gauss) tm cc ng vin, ri xc thc bng mt h thng hc kt cu ca khun mt. Manian v Ross [88] dng bin i wavelet xy dng tp d liu kt cu ca khun mt trong nh xm thng qua nhiu phn gii khc nhau kt hp xc sut thng k xc nh khun mt ngi. Mi mu s c chn c trng. T l chnh xc l 87%, t l xc nh sai l 18%.

c) Sc mu ca da Thng thng cc nh mu khng xc nh trc tip trn ton b d liu nh m cc tc gi dng tnh cht sc mu ca da ngi (khun mt ngi) chn ra c cc ng vin c th l khun mt ngi (lc ny d liu thu hp ng k) xc nh khun mt ngi. Ti s trnh by chi tit v m hnh ha mu da ngi mt bi sau. d) a c trng Gn y c nhiu nghin cu s dng cc c trng ton cc nh: mu da ngi, kch thc, v hnh dng tm cc ng vin khun mt, ri sau s xc nh ng vin no l khun mt thng qua dng cc c trng cc b (chi tit) nh: mt, lng my, mi, ming, v tc. Ty mi tc gi s s dng tp c trng khc nhau [70, 186]. Yachida a ra mt phng php xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh mu bng l thuyt logic m [156, 259, 260]. ng dng hai m hnh m m t phn b mu da ngi v mu tc trong khng gian mu CIE XYZ. Nm m hnh hnh dng ca u (mt thng v bn xoay xung quanh) m t hnh dng ca mt trong nh. Mi m hnh hnh dng l mt mu 2-chiu bao gm cc vung c kch thc mxn, mi c th cha nhiu hn mt im nh. Hai thuc tnh c gn cho mi l: t l mu da v t l tc, ch ra t l din tch vng da (tc) trong so vi din tch ca . Mi im nh s c phn loi thnh tc, khun mt, tc/khun mt, v tc/nn trn c s phn b ca m hnh, theo cch s c c cc vng ging khun mt v ging tc. M hnh hnh dng ca u s c so snh vi vng ging khun mt v ging tc. Nu tng t, vng ang xt s tr thnh ng vin khun mt, sau dng cc c trng mt-lng my v mi-ming xc nh ng vin no s l khun mt tht s. Sobottka v Pitas dng cc c trng v hnh dng v mu sc xc nh khun mt ngi [241]. Dng mt ngng phn on trong khng gian mu HSV xc nh cc vng c th l mu da ngi (vng ging mu da ngi) [251, 252], cc tin ng vin. Cc thnh phn dnh nhau s c xc nh bng thut ton tng vng phn gii th. Xem xt tin ng vin no va khp hnh dng

ellipse s c chn lm ng vin ca khun mt. Sau dng cc c trng bn trong nh: mt v ming, c trch ra trn c s cc vng mt v ming s ti hn cc vng khc ca khun mt, sau cng phn loi da trn mng neural bit vng ng vin no l khun mt ngi v vng no khng phi khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 85%. Da vo mc cn xng ca cc mu khun mt ngi xc nh khun mt ngi [154]. Mt b phn loi mu da/khng phi mu da dng trong khng gian mu YES cho php lm mn cc vng k c ng cong khng mn, sau khi lc cc vng c th l mu da ngi. Mt mu khun mt dng ellipse c dng xem xt mc tng t ca cc vng c cng mu da ngi vi mu ny thng qua khong cch Hausdorff [188]. Sau cng, xc nh tm mt thng qua cc hm tnh gi tr da trn quan h cn i ca khun mt v v tr hai mt. nh ca mi v tm ca ming c c lng qua khong cch tm mt. Mt hn ch ca phng php ny l ch xc nh trn nh chp thng khun mt, ch c duy nht mt khun mt trong nh, v xc nh c v tr ca c hai mt. Cng c tc gi dng phng php tng t gii quyt [245]. Tri ngc vi phng php x l trn im nh, mt phng php c xy dng trn cu trc, mu sc, v lin quan hnh hc c ngh [262]. u tin dng phn on a t l [144] trch cc vng ng u trong nh da vo m hnh mu da ngi theo Gauss c c cc vng c mu cng vi mu da ngi, gom cc vng ny vo trong cc vng c hnh dng ellipse. Mt vng c hnh dng ellipse c xc nh l mt khun mt ngi nu tn ti mt ming trong vng . Tc gi cho bit c th xc nh cc khun mt cc hng khc nhau khi c thm cc c trng ph nh: ru, mt knh. Kauth trnh by mt biu din dng blob trch c trng, m c trng ny dng t t c ngha cu trc ca a ph ca nh chp t v tinh [194]. Mi vector c trng ti mt im nh bao gm cc ta ca im nh v lin quan theo cc thnh phn ph (hay cc thnh phn kt cu). Cc im nh ny c gom nhm bng cch dng vector c trng c cc vng dnh lin nhau, hoc c dng

blob. Mi vector c trng bao gm ta nh v sc mu c chun ha,

X = ( x, y,

r g , ) [218, 243]. Dng r + g+ b r + g+ b

mt thut ton to cc vng lin kt li vi nhau tng kch thc ca blob v xem xt nu ng vin dng blob no tha mn hnh dng kch thc khun mt th xem l khun mt. Phm vi v mu sc c Kim [197] dng xc nh khun mt ngi. Tnh biu chnh lch ri phn on da trn biu histogram vi gi thuyt cc im nh l nn s c cng su v s lng s nhiu hn cc im nh trong i tng. Dng phn b Gauss trong khng gian mu RGB c chun ha, c cc ng vin ri dng phn loi xc nh cui cng ng vin no l khun mt ngi. Cng cc tip cn ny c Darrell [84]. Hsu c xem l ngi kh thnh cng khi xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh mu [1, 96]. ng xy dng mt b phn loi xc nh cc v tr ca ng vin mt v ming da trn sc mu c trng ca mt v ming. Trn quan h v khong cch ca hai mt v ming xc nh ng vin no s l khun mt thng qua bin i Hough c ng vin no gn ging dng ellipse nht. Jesorsky [270] xc nh cnh ca cc i tng trong nh ri so snh hnh dng kt hp dng khong cch Hausdorff o mc tng t ca khun mt ngi vi cc mu. Sau Kirchberg [17] ci tin dng m hnh Gen (Genetic Model) pht sinh m hnh khun mt ngi t d liu ln xn sau khi phn on trong nh xm kt hp khong cch Hausdorff. Mc chnh xc khang 85%. Yen v Nithianandan [66] dng GA trch cc c trng khun mt, nh mt (lng my), mi, v ming. p dng hnh thi khun mt ging hnh ellipse xc nh khun mt bng GA trong nh mu. Phng php ny cho php gii quyt trong iu kin nh sng khc nhau, t th khun mt khc nhau. Chang [89] xem xt tnh a dng v mt ca khun mt ngi. T y ng xy dng mng wavelet tch cc (Active Wavelet Network) trch cc c trng ca khun mt ri dng hai phng

php lm gim s chiu ca khng gian c trng l LLE (Locally Linear Embedding) v LE (Lipschitz Embedding) v hc cu trc a dng ny xc nh khun mt. Daidi v Irek [117] trch cc c trng ca khun mt bng s phn b tham s xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc cho nh xm v khun mt c chp thng l 91.4%. Ehsan v Jonh [125] dng tp h s Gabor wavelet cc hng khc nhau trch cc c trng ca khun mt. Sau dng entropy cc b xc nh khun mt trong nh xm v khun mt c chp thng hay ta thng nhng c cc v tr khc nhau. T l chnh xc l 94%. Bao [281, 282] dng sc thi mu da ngi xc nh ng vin trong nh mu. Tc gi xy dng cc lut m da vo hai loi c trng: (1) bn ngoi v (2) bn trong. c trng bn ngoi gm: t l chiu cao, din tch, chu vi, mc trn, c trng bn trong gm: quan h mc cn i ca hai mt v ming cng nh t l khong cch vi khun mt. Phng php ny cho php xc nh khun mt nhiu t th, v tr, mc nghing khc nhau trong mi trng phc tp. c bit, tc gi xy dng b iu khin m tch cc khun mt dnh ln nhau. T l chnh xc khong 87%89%. 3. Hng tip cn da trn so khp mu Trong so khp mu, cc mu chun ca khun mt (thng l khun mt c chp thng) s c xc nh trc hoc xc nh cc tham s thng qua mt hm. T mt nh a vo, tnh cc gi tr tng quan so vi cc mu chun v ng vin khun mt, mt, mi v ming. Thng qua cc gi tr tng quan ny m cc tc gi quyt nh c hay khng c tn ti khun mt trong nh. Hng tip cn ny c li th l rt d ci t, nhng khng hiu qu khi t l, t th, v hnh dng thay i ( c chng minh). Nhiu phn gii, a t l, cc mu con, v cc mu bin dng c xem xt thnh bt bin v t l v hnh dng. Oh [119] phn on tm ng vin khun mt, tc gi dng cc mu mt c trc so khp vi cc vng quan tm tm v tr mt trong ng vin.

Sau tip tc tm ming v lng my xc nh ng vin ny c phi l khun mt ngi hay khng. a) Xc nh cc mu trc Sakai c gng th xc nh khun mt ngi chp thng trong nh [232]. ng dng vi mu con v mt, mi, ming, v ng vin khun mt m hnh ha mt khun mt. Mi mu con c nh ngha trong gii hn ca cc on thng. Cc ng thng trong nh c trch bng phng php xem xt thay i gradient nhiu nht v so khp cc mu con. u tin tm cc ng vin thng qua mi tng quan gia cc nh con v cc mu v ng vin. Sau , so khp vi cc mu con khc. Hay ni mt cch khc, giai on u xem nh l giai on s ch tm ng vin, giai an th hai l giai on tinh ch xc nh c tn ti hay khng mt khun mt ngi. tng ny c duy tr cho n cc nghin cu sau ny. Craw a ra mt phng php xc nh khun mt ngi da vo cc mu v hnh dng ca cc nh c chp thng (dng v b ngoi ca hnh dng khun mt) [163]. u tin dng php lc Sobel tm cc cnh. Cc cnh ny s c nhm li theo mt s rng buc. Sau , tm ng vin ca u, qu trnh tng t c lp i lp li vi mi t l khc nhau xc nh cc c trng khc nh: mt, lng my, v mi. Sau Craw m t mt phng thc xc nh dng mt tp c 40 mu tm cc c trng khun mt v iu khin chin lc d tm [164]. Govindaraju ngh mt phng thc xc nh khun mt ngi c hai giai an pht sinh cc gi thuyt khun mt v kim tra n [177, 178, 179]. Mt m hnh khun mt c xy dng trong cc giai on xc nh c trng bng cc cnh. Cc c trng c m t nh cc ng cong ca pha bn tri, ng vin tc, pha bn phi ca khun mt c chp thng. Dng php ton Marr-Hildreth xc nh cnh. Sau dng mt b lc loi b cc i tng khng tham gia vo xy dng khun mt. Lin kt cc cp ca cc on ng vin trn c s mc k v cc hng lin quan. Xc nh cc gc phn on ng vin thnh cc ng cong c trng. Gn nhn cc ng cong c trng bng cch kim tra thuc tnh hnh hc v cc v tr

lin quan trong lng ging ca n. Ni cc cp ca cc ng cong c trng thng qua cc cnh nu cc thuc tnh ca n tng thch. So snh cc t l ca cc cp thuc tnh cho mt cnh v n ng mt gi tr tng ng. Nu gi tr ca mt nhm ca ba ng cong c trng (vi cc nhn khc nhau) thp th nhm ny s tr thnh mt gi thuyt. Khi xc nh khun mt trong cc bi bo th thng tin ph s c dng thm l s lng ngi trong nh chn gi thuyt ti u [178] . T l chnh xc ca phng php ny l 70%, tuy nhin cc khun mt phi c chp thng v khng b che khut. Venkatranman v Govindaraju dng cch tip cn tng t, nhng dng wavelet trch cnh [257]. Tsukamoto trnh by mt m hnh hiu qu khi dng mu khun mt (QMF) [253, 254]. Trong QMF , mi nh mu c chia thnh nhiu khi, cc c trng hiu qu c c lng cho mi khi. Tham s ha mt mu khun mt theo: lightness v edgeness l cc c trng trong m hnh. Sau dng cc mu ( c chia thnh cc khi) tnh gi tr faceness (mc l khun mt) ti mi v tr ca nh. Mt khun mt c xc nh khi gi tr faceness vt mt ngng c cho trc. Hnh chiu c dng nh cc mu xc nh khun mt ngi [233]. Dng PCA (phn tch thnh phn chnh Principal Component Analysis - PCA) c mt tp hnh chiu c bn t cc mu khun mt, hnh chiu c m t nh mt mng cc bit. Dng c trng hnh chiu ring kt hp bin i Hough xc nh khun mt ngi. Sau mt phng php xc nh da trn a loi mu xc nh cc thnh phn ca khun mt c trnh by [244]. Phng php ny nh ngha mt s gi thuyt m t cc kh nng ca cc c trng khun mt. Vi mt khun mt s c mt tp gi thuyt, l thuyt DepsterShafer [166]. Dng mt nhn t tin cy kim tra s tn ti hay khng ca cc c trng ca khun mt, v kt hp nhn t tin cy ny vi mt o xem xt c hay khng c khun mt trong nh. Sinha dng mt tp nh cc bt bin nh trong khng gian nh m t khng gian cc mu nh [238, 239]. T tng chnh ca ng da vo s thay i mc sng ca cc vng khc nhau ca khun

mt (nh hai mt, hai m, v trn), quan h v mc sng ca cc vng cn li thay i khng ng k. Xc nh cc cp t s ca mc sng ca mt s vng (mt vng ti hn hay sng hn) cho ta mt lng bt bin kh hiu qu. Cc vng c sng u c xem nh mt mu t s m l mu th trong khng gian nh ca mt khun mt vi thch hp t dng chn nh cc c trng chnh ca khun mt nh hai mt, hai m, v trn. Lu gi thay i sng ca cc vng trn khun mt trong mt tp thch hp vi cc cp quan h sng hn ti hn gia cc vng nh. Mt khun mt c xc nh khi mt nh tha tt c cc cp sng hn ti hn. tng ny xut pht t s khc bit ca cng gia cc vng k cc b, sau ny c m rng trn c s bin i wavelet biu din cho xc nh ngi i b, xc nh xe hi, xc nh khun mt [222]. tng ca Sinha cn c p dng cho h thng th gic ca robot [151, 236]. Hnh 5 cho thy mu ni bt trong 23 quan h c nh ngha. Dng cc quan h ny phn loi, c 11 quan h thit yu (cc mi tn mu en) v 12 quan h xc thc (cc mi tn xm). Mi mi tn l mt quan h. Mt quan h tha mn mu khun mt khi t l gia hai vng vt qua mt ngng v 23 quan h ny vt ngng th xem nh xc nh c mt khun mt.

Hnh 5: Mt mu khun mt, c 16 vng v 23 quan h (cc mi tn).

Phng php so khp mu theo th t xc nh khun mt ngi do Miao trnh by [214]. giai on u tin, nh s c xoay t -20o n 20o vi mi bc l 5o v theo th t. Xy dng nh a phn gii, hnh 1, ri dng php tan Laplace xc nh cc cnh. Mt mu khun mt gm cc cnh m t su thnh phn: hai lng my, hai mt, mt mi, v mt ming. Sau p dng heuristic xc nh s tn ti ca khun mt trong nh, phng php ny cho php xc nhiu khun mt, nhng kt

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qu khng tt bng xc nh mt khun mt (chp thng hoc xoay) trong nh xm. Wei v Lai [78] dng b lc phn on kt hp thut ton tm lng ging gn nht xc nh ng vin khun mt, t ng vin ny sau so khp vi cc mu xc nh trc bit ng vin c phi l khun mt hay khng. T l chnh xc l 80%. Darrell [84] dng phn on tm ng vin, dng ng vin ny xc nh khun mt ngi da vo mu ri theo vt chuyn ng ca ngi. Dowdall dng ph ca mu da ngi xc nh ng vin. Sau chiu cc ng vin ny so sanh vi cc mu c trc xc nh ng vin no l khun mt ngi. Phng php ny ch xc nh cho khun mt chp thng v gn thng, gc quay khong t -10o n 10o [86]. Holst xy dng mt h thng t cc mu vi cc c trng kp [92]: (1) thnh phn, gm: mt, mi, v ming; (2) hnh dng khun mt, trn phn gii thp. ng dng hai phng php tm kim trong khng gian d liu ca mnh xc nh khun mt ngi.

Iwata [39] xy dng mu mi c trng gm bn c trng theo bn hmg: ngang, bn phi pha trn, ng, v bn tri pha trn ca khun mt chp thng hoc gn thng trong nh xm. so khp tng phn ca mu kt hp xc sut cc lng ging. T l chnh xc ca phng php ny l gn 99%. Keren [33] xy dng khi nim Antifaces xc nh khun mt ngi (tng qut cho cc i tng 3-chiu). Da trn nhiu loi mu kt hp gi thuyt phn b xc sut tm nhng i tng khng c mi tng quan tm khun mt ngi. ng cho bit, phng php ny nhanh hn eigenface v SVM v mc chnh xc gn tng ng. Feris [59] dng mng wavelet th nht xc nh ng vin khun mt khi so khp vi cc mu hc trc. Sau tc gi dng mng wavelet th hai xc nh cc thnh phn nh mt, mi, v ming thng qua cc c trng gc cnh. T cc thnh phn ny xem xt tnh ha hp c quyt nh cui cng ng vin no l khun mt ngi. b) Cc mu b bin dng Yuille dng cc mu bin dng m hnh ha cc c trng ca khun mt, m hnh ny c kh nng linh hot cho cc c trng khun mt [268]. Trong hng tip cn ny, cc c trng khun mt c m t bng cc mu c tham s ha. Mt hm nng lng (gi tr) c nh ngha lin kt cc cnh, nh, v thung lng trong nh tng ng vi cc tham s trong mu. M hnh ny tt nht khi ti thiu hm nng lng qua cc tham s, Mc d kt qu tt vi mu bin dng trong theo vt i tng trn c trng khng m hnh theo li, mt hn ch ca hng tip cn ny l cc mu bin dng phi c khi to trong phm vi gn cc i tng xc nh. Mt hng tip cn da trn dng gp khc (snake) [193, 208] v cc mu xc nh khun mt [202]. u tin mt nh s c lm xon li bi mt lc lm m ri dng php ton morphology lm ni bt cnh ln. Dng mt ng gp khc c n im nh (gi tr n nh) tm v c lng cc an cong nh. Mi khun mt c xp x bng mt ellipse v bin i Hough, ri tm mt ellipse ni tri nht. Mt tp c bn tham s m t nt ellipse c dng nh ng vin xc nh

Hnh 6: Phn nhm d liu khun mt v nhm d liu khng phi khun mt.

Froba v Zink lc cnh phn gii thp ri dng bin i Hough so khp mu theo hng cnh xc nh hnh dng khun mt dng chp hnh thng dng xm. T l chnh xc trn 91% [25]. Shu v Jain xy dng ng ngha khun mt [85]. Ng ngha theo hnh dng v v tr cc thnh phn khun mt. Hai ng t b ng ngha ny xy dng mt th quan h d dng so khp khi xc nh khun mt ngi.

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khun mt. Vi mi ng vin, mt phng thc tng t nh phng thc mu bin dng [268] dng xc nh cc c trng mc chi tit. Nu tm thy s lng ng k cc c trng khun mt v tha t l cn i th xem nh xc nh c mt khun mt. Lam v Yan cng dng ng gp khc xc nh v tr u vi thut ton greedy cc tiu ha hm nng lng [203]. Thay v dng ng gp khc th Huang v Su [13] dng l thuyt dng chy xc nh ng vin khun mt da trn c tnh hnh hc. Hai ng dng l thuyt tp ng mc (Level Set) loang t cc khi ng ban u c c cc khun mt ngi. Lanitis m t mt phng php biu din khun mt ngi vi c hai thng tin: hnh dng v cng [204]. Bt u vi cc tp nh c hun luyn vi cc ng vin mu nh l ng bao mt, mi, cm/m c gn nhn. Dng mt vector cc im mu m t hnh dng. Tc gi dng mt m hnh phn b im (Point Distribution Model PDM) m t vector hnh dng qua ton b cc c th. Dng tip cn nh Kirby v Sirovich [198] m t cng b ngai ca hnh dng c chun ha. Mt PDM c hnh dng nh khun mt dng xc nh khun mt bng m hnh hnh dng tch cc (Active Shape Model - ASM) tm kim v c lng v tr khun mt cng nh cc tham s v hnh dng. Cc mnh ca khun mt c lm bin dng v hnh dng trung bnh ri trch cc tham s cng . Cc tham s hnh dng v cng c dng phn loi. Cootes v Taylor p dng cch tip cn ny xc nh khun mt [161]. u tin, hai ng nh ngha nt vng hnh ch nht cha cc c trng quan tm. Dng phn tch nhn t [146] lm va cc c trng hun luyn c mt hm phn b. C uc cc c trng l ng vin nu o xc sut vt qua mt ngng khi dng ASM. Sau khi hun luyn xong c th xc nh khun mt ngi. Hng tip cn theo ASM c m rng bng hai lc Kalman c lng cc tham s v hnh dng v cng dng theo vt khun mt ngi [169].

4. Hng tip cn da trn din mo Tri ngc vi cc phong php so khp mu vi cc mu c nh ngha trc bi nhng chuyn gia, cc mu trong hng tip cn ny c hc t cc nh mu. Mt cc tng qut, cc phng php theo hng tip cn ny p dng cc k thut theo hng xc sut thng k v my hc tm nhng c tnh lin quan ca khun mt v khng phi l khun mt. Cc c tnh c hc trong hnh thi cc m hnh phn b hay cc hm bit s nn dng c th dng cc c tnh ny xc nh khun mt ngi. ng thi, bi ton gim s chiu thng c quan tm tng hiu qu tnh ton cng nh hiu qu xc nh. C nhiu phng php p dng xc sut thng k gi quyt. Mt nh hay mt vector c trng xut pht t mt nh c xem nh mt bin ngu nhin x, v bin ngu nhin c c tnh l khun mt hay khng phi khun mt bi cng thc tnh theo cc hm mt phn lp theo iu kin p(x | khuo ma v p(x | khog phakhuo ma . n t) n i n t) C th dng phn loi Bayes hoc kh nng cc i phn loi mt ng vin l khun mt hay khng phi l khun mt. Khng th ci t trc tip phn loi Bayes bi v s chiu ca x kh cao, bi v p(x | khuo ma v p(x | khog phakhuo ma n t) n i n t) l a phng thc, v cha th hiu nu xy dng cc dng tham s ha mt cch t nhin cho p(x | khuo ma v p(x | khog phakhuo ma . n t) n i n t) C kh nhiu nghin cu theo hng tip cn ny quan tm xp x c tham s hay khng c tham s cho v p(x | khuo ma n t)

p(x | khog phakhuo ma . n i n t)

Cc tip cn khc trong hng tip cn da trn din mo l tm mt hm bit s (nh: mt phng quyt nh, siu phng tch d liu, hm ngng) phn bit hai lp d liu: khun mt v khng phi khun mt. Bnh thng, cc mu nh c chiu vo khng gian c s chiu thp hn, ri sau dng mt hm bit s (da trn cc o khong cch) phn loi [255], hoc xy dng mt quyt nh phi tuyn bng mng neural a tng [48]. Hoc dng SVM (Support Vector Machine) v cc phng thc kernel, chiu hon ton cc mu vo

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khng gian c s chiu cao hn d liu b ri rc hon ton v ta c th dng mt mt phng quyt nh phn loi cc mu khun mt v khng phi khun mt [220]. a) Eigenface Kohonen a ra phng php dng vector ring nhn dng khun mt [199], ng dng mt mng neural n gin chng t kh nng ca phng php ny trn cc nh c chun ha. Mng neural tnh mt m t ca khun mt bng cch xp x cc vector ring ca ma trn tng quan ca nh. Cc vector ring sau ny c bit n vi ci tn Eigenface. Kirby v Sirovich chng t cc nh c cc khun mt c th c m ha tuyn tnh bng mt s lng va phi cc nh c s [198]. Tnh cht ny da trn bin i Karhunen-Leve [176, 192, 211], m cn c gi di mt ci tn khc l PCA [189] v bin i Hotelling [104]. tng ny c xem l ca Pearson trnh by u tin vo nm 1901 [223] v sau l Hotelling vo nm 1933 [185]. Cho mt tp cc nh hun luyn c kch thc n x m c m t bi cc vector c kch thc m x m, cc vector c s cho mt khng gian con ti u c xc nh thng qua li bnh phng trung bnh khi chiu cc nh hun luyn vo khng gian con ny. Cc tc gi gi tp cc vector c s ti u ny l nh ring sau gi cho n gin l vector ring ca ma trn hip phng sai c tnh t cc nh khun mt vector ha trong tp hun luyn. Nu cho 100 nh, m mi khun mt c kch thc 91x50 th c th ch dng 50 nh ring, trong khi vn duy tr c mt kh nng ging nhau hp l (gi c 95% tnh cht). Turk v Pentland p dng PCA xc nh v nhn dng khun mt [255]. Tng t [198], dng PCA trn tp hun luyn nh cc khun mt sinh cc nh ring (cn gi l eigenface) tm mt khng gian con (khng gian khun mt) trong khng gian nh. Cc nh khun mt c chiu vo khng gian con ny v c gom nhm li. Tng t cc nh khng c khun mt dng hun luyn cng c chiu vo cng khng gian con v gom nhm li. Cc nh khi chiu vo khng gian khun mt th khng b thay i tnh cht c bn, trong khi chiu

cc nh khng c khun mt th xut hin s khc nhau cng khng t. Xc nh s c mt ca mt khun mt trong nh thng qua tt c khong cch gia cc v tr trong nh v khng gian nh. Khong cch ny dng xem xt c hay khng c khun mt ngi, kt qu khi tnh ton cc khong cch s cho ta mt bn v khun mt. C th xc nh c t cc tiu a phng ca bn ny. C nhiu nghin cu v xc nh khun mt, nhn dng, v trch c trng t tng vector ring, phn r, v gom nhm. Sau Kim [23] pht trin cho nh mu, bng cch phn on nh tm ng khng gian tm kim bt i. b) Hng tip cn da trn phn b Sung v Poggio pht trin mt h thng xc nh khun mt ngi da trn phn b [246, 247], chng t bng cch dng phn b cc cc mu nh cng mt lp i tng c th c hc t cc mu negative v positive. H thng ca hai ng bao gm hai thnh phn: m hnh phn b ca cc mu l khun mt/khng phi khun mt v mt phn loi a tng da vo th gic. Mi mu l khun mt v khng phi l khun mt c chun ha v x l thnh nh c kch thc 19 x 19 im nh v xem nh mt vector hay mu c 361-chiu. Sau cc mu c nhm vo cc nhm, mi nhm gm su mu cng loi l khun mt hoc nhm khng phi l khun mt bng thut ton k-trung bnh (k-mean), hnh 6. Mi nhm s c m t nh mt hm Gauss a chiu vi mt nh trung bnh v ma trn hip phng sai. Hnh 7 cho thy cch tnh khong cch ca hai ng. Hai o khong cch dng tnh khong cch gia nh a vo v tm ca nhm. Thnh phn khong cch u tin l khong cch Mahalanobis c chun ha gia hnh chiu ca mu cn kim tra v tm ca nhm, tnh trong khng gian con c s chiu thp hn, c m t bng 75 vector ring ln nht. Thnh phn khong cch th hai l khong cch Euclide gia mu cn kim tra v hnh chiu ca n trong khng gian con c 75- chiu ny. Dng hai khong cch ny xc nh khong cch t mu cn kim tra n tm mt nhm. T nay chng ta c th bit mu cn kim tra gn nhm no nht. Bc cui cng dng mng a tng (Multilayer Perceptron Network MLP)

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phn loi da vo 12 cp khong cch (c 12 nhm) khi mng ny c hun luyn trc . D dng chn mu khun mt hun luyn, nhng khng d chn mu khng phi l khun mt hun luyn. Dng phng php bootstrap gi gii quyt vn ny. Bt u t tp nh khng phi khun mt trong tp mu hun luyn hun luyn MLP. Dng b xc nh khun mt ngi xc nh mt ngi trn mt dy cc nh ngu nhin, sau chn cc mu khng phi khun mt ngi m b xc nh l khun mt ngi xem nh l mu khng phi khun mt ngi mi hun luyn tip tc. Phng php ny b qua vn chn mu no trong cc mu tng tnh hiu qu, c nhiu nghin cu sau ny v vn ny [48, 220].

Hnh 7: (a) Khong cch gia mu cn kim tra v cc nhm; (b) hai thnh phn khong cch.

Moghaddam v Pentland a ra mt m hnh hc theo xc sut da trn c lng mt trong khng gian c s chiu cao bng khng gian ring [216]. Hai ng dng PCA tm khng gian con m t tt nht mt tp cc mu khun mt ngi. Phng php ny vn gi li cc mi tng quan tuyn tnh chnh trong d liu v loi b cc th yu khc. Phng php ny phn r mt khng gian vector thnh hai khng gian con m hai khng gian con ny loi tr ln nhau v cng b sung cho nhau: khng gian con chnh (khng gian c trng) v phn b trc giao. V th, mc tiu mt c phn r lm hai thnh phn: mt trong khng gian chnh (da vo cc thnh phn chnh) v phn b trc giao, hnh 8. Xy dng h thng hc da vo Gauss nhiu bin v Gauss hn hp, h thng ny hc da trn thng k cc c trng cc b ca mt khun mt. Dng cc mt xc sut xc nh khun mt trn c s c lng kh nng cc i. Phngphp

ny uc p dng cho xc nh khun mt, m ha khun mt, v nhn dng. So snh vi hng tip eigenface c in [255], phng php ny cho thy hiu qu hn trong xc nh v nhn dng khun mt [196]. Yang s dng mt hn hp nhiu phn tch h s lm tiu ch xc nh khun mt. Phn tch h s (Factor Analysis FA) l mt phng php thng k m hnh ha tnh hip bin cu trc ca d liu c s chiu cao bng cch dng m lng nh cc bin tim tng. FA cng tng t PCA trong vi kha cnh. Tuy nhin, PCA khng ging FA, khng nh ngha mt m hnh mt thch hp cho d liu. Hn na, PCA khng hiu qu khi c nhiu c lp trong cc c trng ca d liu. Tng hp t [148, 150, 167, 168] cho thy cc mu c chiu t cc lp khc nhau vo khng gian con PCA thng c th khng hiu qu. Trong cc trng hp khi cc mu c mt cu trc chc chn, dng PCA s cho kt qu kh tt. Hinton dng FA nhn dng cc con s, ng so snh FA v PCA [184]. Mt m hnh hn hp ca cc phn tch h s c m rng nhn dng khun mt ngi [174]. C hai nghin cu u cho thy FA tt hn PCA. T t th, hng, cm xc, v nh hng nh sng trn din mo ca khun mt ngi, phn b cc khun mt trong khng gian nh c th c biu din tt hn bng mt m hnh mt a phng thc khi mi phng thc gi cc c tnh chc chn ca din mo chc chn ca khun mt. H trnh by mt m hnh theo xc sut khi dng mt hn hp cc phn tch h s (Mixture of Factor Analyzer MFA) xc nh khun mt ngi. Dng thut ton EM c lng cc tham s trong m hnh hn hp.

Hnh 8: Phn r mt nh khun mt vo khng gian chnh F v phn b trc giao F .

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Phng php th hai [263] dng bit s tuyn tnh Fisher (Fishers Linear Discriminant FLD) chiu cc mu t khng gian nh c s chiu cao sang mt khng gian c trng c s chiu thp hn. 14

V trn c s phn tch bit s tuyn tnh, cc tc gi xy dng phng php Fisherface [148] v nhng phng php khc [249, 269] gii quyt tt hn phng php Eigenface [255] trong nhn dng khun mt. Khi dng FLD phn loi mu s tt hn PCA khi chiu. Do , kt qu phn loi trong khng gian con c chiu c th kh hn cc phng php khc ( [213] trnh by r v kch thc tp hun luyn). Trong phng thc th hai, cc tc gi phn r cc mu hun luyn khun mt v khng phi khun mt vo trong vi lp con bng nh x t t chc Kohonen (Kohonens Self Organizing Map SOM) [199]. Hnh 9 cho thy mt i din ca mi lp khun mt. T cc mu c gn nhn li, tnh cc ma trn cc gi tr ri rc v tnh cht mu trong lp hay gia lp, bng cch pht sinh php chiu ti u trn c s FLD. Mi nhm con, m hnh ha mt nh mt phng thc Gauss vi cc tham s trong Gauss c c lng bng phng php cc i ha kh nng [167]. Qut trn ton b nh a vo bng mt ca s ri tnh xc sut mc ph thuc lp. Dng lut quyt nh da trn cc i ha kh nng xc nh c phi l khun mt hay khng. C hai phng php trong [263] c t l chnh xc l 92.3% cho MFA v 93.6% khi dng FLD.

c) Mng Neural Mng neural c p dng kh thnh cng trong cc bi ton nhn dng mu, nh: nhn k t, i tng, robot t vn hnh. Xc nh khun mt ngi c th xem l bi ton nhn dng hai loi mu, c nhiu kin trc mng neural c trnh by. Mt thun li khi dng mng neural xc nh khun mt l tnh kh thi ca h thng hc khi c s phc tp trong lp ca cc mu khun mt. Tuy nhin, mt iu tr ngi l cc kin trc mng u tng qut, khi p dng th phi xc nh r rng s lng tng, s lng node, t l hc, , cho tng trng hp c th, hnh 10.

Hnh 10: M hnh mng Neural theo Rowley

Hnh 9: i din ca mi lp khun mt. Mi i din tng ng tm ca mt nhm.

Choi [31] xy dng h thng xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh mu bng c trng ca mt ngi thng qua phn on xc nh ng vin khun mt da trn phn b mu da ca khun mt.

Agui trnh by mng neural x l c th t [143]. Gia on u dng hai mng con song song m d liu vo l cc gi tr cng ca nh ban u v cc gi tr cng ca nh c lc bng thut ton lc Sobel vi ca s lc 3x3. u vo ca mng giai on hai bao gm d liu u ra t hai mng con v cc gi tr c trng c trch ra, nh: c trng lch chun ca cc gi tr im nh trong mu a vo, mt t l ca s im nh trng trn tng s im nh ( chuyn sang nh nh phn) trong mt ca s, v c trng thit yu v hnh hc. Mt gi tr xut ti giai on hai cho bit c tn ti hay khng khun mt ngi trong vng a vo. Qua kinh nghim, tc gi ch ra rng nu cc nh cng mt kch thc th mi dng phng php ny c. Propp v Samal pht trin mng neural xc nh khun mt ngi sm nht [224]. Mng neural ca hai ng gm bn tng vi 1,024 u vo, 256 u k tip trong tng n th nht, tm u k tip trong tng n th hai, v hai u ra. Tng t nh mng neural x l theo th t c a ra sau [251]. Phng php ca Soulie [242] duyt mt nh a vo vi mng neural c thi gian tr [258] (kch thc ca s l 20x25 im nh) xc nh khun mt. Dng bin i wavelet phn r nh cc phn 15

c kch thc khc nhau xc nh khun mt. Vaillant dng mng neural dng xon xc nh khun mt ngi [256]. u tin to cc nh mu khun mt v khng phi khun mt c kch thc 20x20. Dng mt mng neural, mng ny c hun luyn, tm cc v tr tng i ca cc khun mt cc t l khc nhau. Ri dng mt mng khc xc nh v tr chnh xc ca cc khun mt. Mng u tin dng tm cc ng vin khun mt, ri dng mng th hai xc nh ng vin no that s l khun mt. Burel v Carel dng mng neural a tng c t mu hn vi thut ton Kohenens SOM hc cc mu khun mt v hnh nn, m cc mu ny c phn loi trc. Giai on xc nh khun mt bao gm duyt trn mi nh c bin i t nh bn u cc phn gii khc nhau. ti mi v tr v kch thc ca s duyt, iu chnh sng. Mi ca s c chun ha s c phn loi bng MLP. Feraud v Bernier dng mng neural kt hp t ng [171, 172, 173]. tng da trn [201] mng kt hp t ng c nm tng th c th biu din mt phn tch thnh phn chnh phi tuyn. Dng mt mng kt hp t ng xc nh cc khun mt chp thng ri m rng bng cch xoay 60 t tri sang phi khun mt chp thng, mng ny s tn dng cc trng s khi xy dng vi d liu khun mt chp thng cho cc t th mi. Hai ng cho bit kt qu cng tng t [231]. Phng php ny cng dng cho LISTEN [159] v MULTRAK [149]. Lin xy dng mng neural quyt nh trn c s xc sut (Probabilistic Decision-based Neural Network PDBNN) [209]. Kin trc ca PDBNN th tng t mt mng c hm trn nn tng tng t tia (Radial Basis Function RBF) vi cc lut hc c h tr xc sut. Thay v chuyn ton b nh khun mt thnh mt vector c cc gi tr cng hun luyn cho mng neural, ng s trch vector c trng da trn cng v thng tin cnh trong vng khun mt c cha lng my, mt, v mi. Hai vector c trng c trch th a vo hai PDBNN v hp nht cc kt qu c kt qu phn loi. Trn c s 23 nh ca Sung v Poggio [248]. ng cho mt s kt qu so snh vi cc mng khc [48, 248].

Theo nh gi cc phng php dng mng neural xc nh khun mt ngi ca nhiu tc gi, th nghin cu ca Rowley [48, 231] c xem l tt nht i vi nh xm. Mt mng a tng c dng hc cc mu khun mt v khng phi khun t cc nh tng ng (da trn quan h cng , v mt khng gian ca cc im nh) trong khi Sung [246] dng mng neural xc nh mt hm bit s cho mc ch phn loi mu c phi l khun mt hay khng da vo o khong cch. Hai ng cng dng nhiu mng neural v vi phng thc quyt nh ci thin kt qu, trong khi Burel v Carel [153] dng mt mng n, v Vaillant [256] dng hai mng phn loi. C hai thnh phn chnh x l: nhiu mng neural (xc nh mu no l khun mt) v mt m un quyt nh (a ra quyt nh cui cng t nhiu kt qu xc nh). Hnh 9, thnh phn u tin ca phng php ny l mt mng neural nhn mt vng nh c kch thc 20x20 im nh v xut ra mt gi trc trong khong t -1 n 1. Khi a vo mt nh, nu kt qu gn -1 th ngha l mu ny khng phi l khun mt ngi, nhng nu kt qu gn 1 th y chnh l khun mt ngi. xc nh khun mt c kch thc ln hn 20x20 im nh, c chn mt t l ri duyt ri xc nh, ri li thay i t l (bin thin t l ny do ngi xy dng quyt nh). Gn 1050 mu khun mt c kch thc, hng, v tr, v cng khc nhau dng hun luyn mng. S gn nhn cho mt, nh ca mi, gc cnh, v tm ca ming ri dng chun ha khun mt v cng mt t l, hng, v v tr. Thnh phn th hai l phng php trn cc xc nh chng cho nhau v a ra quyt nh. Php ton logic (AND/OR) l mt quyt nh n gin nht v phng php bu c c dng tng tnh hiu qu. Rowley [48] a nhiu cch gii quyt bi ton quyt khc nhau nhng chi ph tnh ton t hn Sung v Poggio nhng t l chnh xc cao hn. Mt gii hn ca phng php ca Rowley [48] v Sung [246] l ch c th xc nh khun mt chp thng v ta thng (nghing u). Sau Rowley [49] ci tin c th xc nh khun mt b xoay bng mng nh hng (Router Network), hnh 11, s thm tin trnh xc nh hng khun mt v

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xoay v li t th chun (chp thng), tuy nhin khi quay li d liu nh trn th t l chnh xc li gim i, ch cn khong 76.9%.

Hnh 11: Mt v d cho d liu vo v d liu ra ca mng nh hng.

Lee [71] pht trin tng ca Rowley [48] cho xc nh khun mt trong nh mu. ng dng m hnh mu da ngi bng Gauss xc nh cc ng vin, sau loi bt nhng ng vin no khng tha mn tnh cht hnh dng gn ging hnh ellipse. Cui cng ng dng mt mng neural c hun luyn xc nh khunmt ngi. T l xc nh chnh xc l 88.9%, cn t l xc nh sai l 11.1%. Da trn nghin cu ca Rowley [48], Hazem [108] ci tin tc x l tng ln ng k. Kwolek [131] dng b lc Gabor trch c trng, dng c trng ny hun luuyn cho mng neural xon. Mng neural xon l mng neural m mi node mi tng c th lin kt vi cc lng ging cc b tng pha trc ca n. T l chnh xc l 87.5%. d) SVM Support Vector Machine (SVM) c Osuna [220] p dng u tin xc nh khun mt ngi. SVM c xem nh l mt kiu mi dng hun luyn phn loi theo hm a thc. Trong khi hu ht cc phng php khc hun luyn phn loi (Mng Bayes, Nueral, RBF) u dng tiu ch ti thiu li hun luyn (ri ro do kinh nghim), trong khi SVM dng quy np (c gi l ti thiu ri ro cu trc), mc tiu l lm ti thiu mt bao bn trn trn li tng qut. Mt phn loi SVM l mt phn loi tuyn tnh, dng mt siu phng tch d liu. Da trn mt kt hp c cc trng s ca mt tp con nh cc vector hun luyn, cc vector ny c gi l support vector. c lng siu phng th tng ng gii mt bi ton tuyn tnh bc hai. Osuna [220] pht trin mt phng php hiu qu hun luyn mt SVM vi t l ln p dng cho bi ton xc nh khun mt ngi. 17

ng dng 10,000,000 mu c kch thc 19x19 im nh, h thng ca ng c t l li t hn Sung v Poggio [247], nhng nhanh hn gn 30 ln. SVM cng c th dng xc nh khun mt ngi v ngi i b vi phn tch Wavelet [219, 221, 222]. Shihong v Masato s dng bin i wavelet Gabor trch c trng ca khun mt cng nh khng phi khun mt a vo cho SVM hc [15]. Kang v Lee [14] xy dng ng dng cho robot i b vt qua con ngi v chng ngi vt da trn xc nh khun mt. Hai ng dng phn on ni kt hp SVM phn loi. Tng t Kui v Silva [22] cng xy dng ng dng cho phng thng minh bng cch xc nh khun mt ngi da trn eigenface lm d liu cho SVM hc phn loi. Bileschi v Heisele [18] dng phn gii thp hc thnh phn khun mt trong nh xm vi cc khun mt chp thng hoc ta thng cho SVM xc nh khun mt. Trong khi Terrillon [20] dng tnh cht mu da ngi tm ng vin kt hp SVM v cc m men Fourier-Mellin trc giao gii quyt. Thay v lc n gin, Shu-Fai v KwanYee [72] dng QuaTree tm ng vin khun mt ngi trong nh mu. Sau kt hp wavelet phn tch mu cho SVM hc trong nhiu t l. a phn khi cho SVM hc, cc tc gi u dng hai lp khun mt v khng phi khun mt hc. Wang [75] ch dng mt lp khun mt trong nh mu xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc khong 81%. Fang v Qiu [83] kt hp SVM v thut ton leo i xc nh khun mt. Zhang v Zhao [51] xy dng SVM da trn histogram ca khun mt v khng phi khun mt xc nh khun mt. T l chnh xc khong 92% cho khun mt chp thng hoc gn thng trong nh mu. Je li xy dng nhiu SVM xc nh khun mt ngi theo th t quyt nh kt hp phng php bu c trong nh mu [30]. Julien [129] xy dng mt cu trc SVM mi gm nhiu SVM kt ni song song vi nhau hc d liu t khng gian eigenface. T l chnh xc hn 93% trong nh xm vi khun mt n c chp thng.

e) Mng lc tha Yang xut mt phng php dng mng lc d tha (Sparse Network of Winnows SNoW) [181, 230] xc nh khun mt ngi vi cc c trng khc nhau v biu din trong cc t th khc nhau, v di iu kin nh sng khc nhau [264]. ng thi nghin cu phng php hc s khai tt nh th no khi dng cc c trng a t l. SNoW l mt mng tha dng cc hm tuyn tnh v dng lc cp nht lut [210]. Phng php ny thch hp cho hc trong min khi cc c trng tim nng to cc quyt nh sai khc nhau m khng bit mc u tin. Mt vi c tnh ca kin trc hc ny l rt him d liu c phn chung, c ch nh cc c trng v lin kt trong d liu, k thut quyt nh, v cp nht lut hiu qu. T l li l 5.9%, hiu qu cng nh cc phng php khc [48, 160, 220, 237]. Gundimada [4] da trn kin trc SNoW xy dng ba mng, mng th nht phn loi da trn phn b cng , hai mng da trn phn b mu da ngi tm ng vin kt hp phng php lm ni bt cnh. Xy dng cc mu y t th ca khun mt, mi b phn loi s tng ng cho mt hng, mi hng lch nhau 10o. f) Phn loi Bayes Tri ngc vi cc phng php trong [48, 220, 248] da vo din mo trn ton khun mt, Schneiderman v Kanade m t mt phn loi naive Bayes uc lng xc sut ni cc din mo ti v tr cc b trn khun mt v v tr ca cc mu khun mt ngi (cc vng con trn khun mt) trong nhiu phn gii [73, 237]. Hai ng nhn mnh tnh cht din mo khun mt v tr cc b bi v vi vi mu v tr cc b ca mt i tng s c tnh cht duy nht, cng xung quanh mu mt th c bit hn v tr m. y l hai l do dng phn loi naive Bayes (khng xem xt thng k nhng ph thuc gia cc vng). u tinphn loi ny cung cp c lng tt hn ca cc hm mt c iu kin ca cc vng ny. Th hai, mt phn loi Bayes cung cp mt dng hm ca theo xc sut nhn thng k ca din mo v tr cc b v v tr ca n trn i tng. Ti mi t l, mt nh khun mt ngi c phn r lm bn vng hnh ch nht con. Chiu cc vng ny xung khng

gian c s chiu thp hn (dng PCA xy dng) v lng t ha thnh mt tp cc mu c gii hn, v thng k mi vng c chiu, cc thng k ny c c lng t cc mu c chiu xung khng gian c s chiu nh hn, m ha din mo cc b. Khi t l kh nng ln hn t l ca cc xc sut u tin th c khun mt ngi. ng cng cho thy so snh gia phng php ny v [48], hng tip cn ny cho php xc nh cc khun mt b xoay v nhn nghing. Schneiderman v Kanade sau kt hp bin i wavelet xc nh cc khun mt nhn nghing v xe hi [58]. Rickert cng dng cch chn cc c trng cc b [229]. Cc c trng cc b c trch ra bng cch p dng cc b lc a t l v nhiu phn gii trn d liu nh a vo. Dng phng php gom nhm d liu v mt Gauss hn hp tm phn b ca cc vector c trng. Sau khi hun luyn cho m hnh v tinh ch, tnh kh nng ca cc vector c trng ca cc nh phn loi. Phng php ny cho kt qu tt cho xc nh khun mt ngi cng nh xe hi. Thang [77] xc nh khun mt ngi thng qua phn loi mng Bayes kt hp, hay cn gi l mng Bayes c cu trc nh rng (Forest-Structured Bayesian Network), xc nh cc bit s. Kt hp phng php Bagging xy dng phn loi tch hp nhm xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh xm. T l chnh xc hn 90%. Nam v Rhee [110, 123] xy dng mng Bayes hc phn loi theo ng cnh: mu da, nh sng, v kt cu khun mt v kt hp mng FuzzyART xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh. Hai tc gi ny cng dng thm khong cch Mahalanobis [122] khi kt hp mng RBF v FuzzyART xc nh khun mt c nhiu t l khc nhau. Hai tc gi pht trin bng cch dng nhiu phn loi Bayes chn ng vin thng qua cc c trng thng tin v cng v kt cu ca khun mt [126]. T l chnh xc hn 87%. Lee v Kim [120] dng c trng Haar wavelet 1-chiu hun luyn cho mng Bayes xc nh nhiu khun mt chp thng trong nh xm thng qua PDF ca cc mu khunmt ngi v mu

18

khng phi khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 98%. Zhu [97] dng wavelet trch cc tham s c trng da vo histogram ri dng mng Bayes c hc xc nh khun mt ngi trong nhiu t l khc nhau. Duy Nguyen [280] dng b lc Sobel xc nh cc c trng ri dng phn loi naive Bayes nh Schneiderman v Kanade xc nh khun mt ngi. g) M hnh Markov n Mt gi thuyt quan trng ca m hnh Markov n (Hidden Markov Model HMM) l cc mu c th c c tnh ha nh cc tin trnh ngu nhin c tham s v cc tham s ny c c lng chnh xc, y l mt trong nhng nh ngha r rng. Khi pht trin HMM gii quyt bi ton nhn dng mu, phi xc nh r c bao nhiu trng thi n u tin cho hnh thi m hnh. Sau , hun luyn HMM hc xc sut chuyn tip gia cc trng thi t cc mu, m mi mu c m t nh mt chui cc quan st. Mc tiu hun luyn HMM l cc i ha xc sut ca quan st t d liu hun luyn bng cch iu chnh cc tham s trong m hnh HMM thng qua phng php phn on Viterbi chun v cc thut ton Baum-Welch [227]. Sau khi hun luyn xong, da vo xc sut xc nh mt quan st thuc lp no. Mt cch trc quan, c th chia mt mu khun mt ngi thnh nhiu vng khc nhau nh u, mt, mi, ming, v cm. C th nhn dng mt mu khun mt ngi bng mt tin trnh xem xt cc vng quan st theo mt th t thch hp (t trn xung di, t tri qua phi). Thay v tin tng vo mc chnh xc v tr l dng cho cc phng php da trn so khp hay da trn din mo (ni xut hin cc c trng nh mt v mi cn xc nh v tr l tt ly c ton b chi tit ca c trng). Mc tiu ca hng tip cn ny l kt hp cc vng c trng khun mt vi cc trng thi ca m hnh. Thng cc phng php da vo HMM s xem xt mt mu khun mt nh mt chui cc vector quan st, vi mi vector l mt dy cc im nh, hnh 12a v hnh 13. Trong qu trnh hun luyn v kim tra, mt nh c qut theo mt th

t v mt quan st c xem nh mt khi cc im nh, hnh 12a v hnh 13. p dng mt nh hng theo xc sut chuyn t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc, hnh 12b, d liu nh c m hnh ha bng phnb Gauss nhiu bin. Mt chui quan st bao gm tt c gi tr cng t mi khi. Kt qu xut ra cho bit quan st thuc lp no. HMM c dng nhn dng khun mt ngi v xc nh khun mt ngi. Samaria [235] dng nm trng thi tng ng nm vng, hnh 12b m hnh ha tin trnh xc nh khun mt ngi. ng hun luyn tng vng cho HMM. Mi tnh trng s ph trch xem xt vng tng ng a ra quyt nh ph hp. Nu kt qu xem xt cui cng vt qua mt ngng th quan st ny s l khun mt ngi.

Hnh 12: M hnh Markov n: (a) cc vector quan st hun luyn cho HMM; (b) nm trng thi n.

Samaria v Young dng HMM 1-chiu (hnh 12) v 2-chiu (hnh 13) trch c trng khun mt dng nhn dng khun mt [234, 235]. HMM khai thc cu trc ca khun mt tun theo cc chuyn tip trng thi. T cc cng c c trng quan trng nh: tc, trn, mt, mi, v ming, hai ng phn tch theo t nhin t trn xung di, mi vng c thit k thnh mt trng thi 1-chiu. Mi nh c phn on chun thnh nm vng theo th t t trn xung di to thnh nm trng thi. Hai ng dng phn on Viterbi thay cho phn on chun v cc tham s trong HMM c ti c lng bng thut ton Baum-Welch. Tng t [234], Nefian v Hayes dng HMM v bin i Karhunen Leve (Karhunen Leve Tranform KLT) xc nh khun mt ngi v nhn dng [217]. Thay v dng cc gi tr cng th, cc vector quan st s bao gm cc h s (dng KLT c) th kt qu s tt hn [234], v t l chnh xc khi dng HMM 2-chiu (hnh 13) l 90%.

19

Hnh 13: Xc nh khun mt bng HMM cc trng thi, mi trng thi li c nhng trng thi nh bn trong: trng thi trn c ba trng thi nh bn trong; trng thi mt c nm trng thi nh bn trong.

Rajagopalan a ra hai phng php xc sut xc nh khun mt ngi [228]. Tng phn vi [248], dng mt tp cc Gauss nhiu bin m hnh ha phn b ca khun mt ngi, phong php u tin trong [228] dng htng k c th t mc cao hn (Higher Order Statistic - HOS) c lng cng . Tng t [248], cc phn b khng bit ca khun mt v khng phi khng mt c gom nhm bng su hm cng da trn HOS ca cc mu. Nh trong [246], s dng tri gic nhiu tng phn loi, mt vector a vo x l gm mi hai o lng khong cch gia mu nh v mi hai nhm. Tip cn ny da trn c s sinh mt dy quan st t nh ri dnh HMM hc cc tham s tng ng. Kt qu ca ng cho thy c hai phng php HOS v HMM u c kt qu xc nh khun mt ngi cao hn [48, 248], nhng nhiu xc nh nhm hn. Filareti dng c trng sc mu kt hp thng tin v su ca nh lm d liu u vo dy cho HMM xc nh khun mt ngi [63]. Phng php ny cho php gii quyt vn v iu kin hnh nn, sng, che khut, t th khun mt. Hong [121] xy dng m hnh Markov n hc d liu da trn cc c trng Haar-like xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 96%. h) Hng tip cn l thuyt thng tin Thuc tnh trong khng gian ca mu khun mt c th c m hnh ha qua nhiu din mo khc nhau. Dng ng cnh phn on l mt phng php hiu qu, xc nh ng cnh thng qua cc im nh ln cn. L thuyt trng ngu nhin Markov (Markov Random Field MRF) cung cp mt tin li v cch ph hp m hnh ha cc thc th da vo ng cnh nh cc im nh v cc c trng c mi tng quan. Theo nh l 20

Hammersley-Clifford, mt MRF c th c c tnh ha tng ng bng mt phn b Gibbs v cc tham s thng cc i ha sau khi c lng [225]. Nh mt s la chn, cc phn khun mt ngi v khng phi khun mt c th c c lng qua cc histogram. Dng thng tin quan h Kullback, tin trnh Markov cc i ha bit s trn c s thng tin gia cc lp xc nh khun mt ngi [160, 207]. Lew p dng thng tin quan h Kullback [162] kt hp hm xc sut p(x) khi mu l khun mt ngi v q(x) khi mu khng phi l khun mt ngi xc nh khun mt ngi [207]. ng dng 100 c th khun mt ngi gm chin quang cnh c lng phn b ca khun mt. Dng 143,000 mu khng phi khun mt c lng hm mt xc sut (PDF) thng qua histogram. T y chn c cc im nh giu thng tin nht (Most Informative Pixel MIP) cc i ha thng tin quan h Kullback gia p(x) v q(x) (c c mt phn tch lp cc i). Phn b MIP tp trung cc vng mt v ming, nhng b qua vng mi. MIP c dng c c cc c trng tuyn tnh dng cho phn loi v m t bng phng php ca Fukunage v Koontz [175]. Dng mt ca s duyt trn tan b nh xy dng khong cch t khng gian khun mt (Distance From Face Space DFFS), c nh ngha [283]. Nu DFFS n khng gian con khun mt ngn hn khong cch n khng gian con khng phi khun mt, hnh 8, th xem nh xc nh c khun mt trong ca s. Thng tin quan h Kullback cng c Colmenarez v Huang dng cc i ha bit s trn c s thng tin gia cc mu negative v positive ca khun mt [160]. Phn tch cc nh t tp hun luyn ca mi lp (lp khun mt ngi v lp khng phi khun mt ngi) nh cc quan st trong tin trnh ngu nhin v ac c tnh ha bng hai hm xc sut. Hai ng dng mt hc cc qu trnh x l Markov ri rc m hnh cc mu khun mt v hnh nn ri c lng m hnh xc sut tng ng. Qu trnh hc c chuyn thnh bi tan ti u chn c tin trnh cc i bit s trn c s thng tin gia hai lp. Tnh t l kh

nng dng cho m hnh xc sut c hun luyn ri dng xc nh khun mt ngi. Qian v Hang [225] trnh by mt phng php dng c hai phng php trn c s quang cnh v m hnh ha. u tin, mt thut ton dng tri thc min mc cao ca nhng g khi nhn vo th quan tm ngay gim s chiu khng gian tm kim (thay v tm trn ton b khng gian c trng, ch cn tm trn khng gian con c nhng c trng quan tm). Thut ton ny chn cc vng trn nh lm mc tiu khi c din mo quan tm xut hin bng thut ton xc nh vng (phng php watershed). Dng cc vng c chn xc nh khun mt so khp mu v so khp c trng thng qua trng ngu nhin Markov v cc i c lng sau. Feng v Shi [102] dng KFD (Kernel Fisher Discriminant) phn tch nh c khun mt ngi ri hc cc c trng ny xc nh khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc trong nh xm khong 72%. i) Hc theo quy np Cc thut ton hc theo quy np c p dng xc nh khun mt ngi. Huang dng thut ton C4.5 [226] xy dng cy quyt nh t cc mu khun mt ngi [187]. Mi mu hun luyn l mt ca s c kch thc 8x8 im nh v c m t nh mt vector c 30 thuc tnh v entropy, trung bnh, v lch chun ca cc gi tr cng ca im nh. Mi node ca cy quyt nh s ch r quyt nh trn mt thuc tnh n. T l chnh xc khi xc nh khun mt c chp thng l 96%. Duta v Jain [273] m t mt phng php hc khi nim khun mt ngi bng thut ton Find-S ca Mitchell [215]. Tng t [248], hai ng c on phn b ca cc mu khun mt ngi bng p(x | khuo ma thng qua mt tp cc nhm theo n t) Gauss v khong cch t mu khun mt n tm nhm nn nh hn khang cch ln nht t cc im n tm nhm (ngha l name trong phn bao ca nhm). Sau dng thut ton Find-S hc khong cch ngng. Phng php ny c vi c tnh ring. Th nht, khng dng cc mu khng phi l khun mt ngi, trong khi [48, 248] dng c hai loi mu. Th hai, ch dng duy nht phn tm hun luyn. Th ba, cc vector c trng gm c cc

nh vi 32 mc cng hac kt cu, trong khi [248] dng ton b t l cc gi tr cng . T l chnh xc l 90%. Bernhard Froba v Andreas Ernts [25] dng cy quyt nh c nhiu nhnh cho php xc nh khun mt ngi nhn nghing t -60o n 60o, mi node c kh nng loi b ca s con hin hnh ang xt hoc phn loi vo mt trong ba lp quay. T l chnh xc cho nh xm l 90%. Socolinsky [91] dng phn loi CCCD (ClassCover Catch Digraph) kt hp boosted tree-like thng qua o cross-correlation xc nh khun mt ngi da trn tp mu hun luyn. Ramana [112] dng cy quyt nh nh mt cng c phn loi xem phn no s l khun mt ngi. Trong khi xy dng cy ng kt hp c cascade tng tnh hiu qu. j) AdaBoost Hc vi AdaBoost l mt phn loi mnh phi tuyn phc HM(x), c xy dng t M phn loi yu [274], H M ( x) =

m=1

mhm ( x) m=1 m
M

vi x l mu cn

phn loi, hm(x){-1,1} l M phn loi yu, m0 l cc h s trong , v

m=1

m l nhn t

chun ha. Mc tiu ca Adaboost l hc mt dy cc phn loi yu. Gi s c mt tp N mu hun luyn c gn nhn {(x1,y1), , (xN,yN)}, vi yi l nhn tng ng ca mu xi
n

. Tnh mt phn

b ca cc mu hun luyn [w1, , wN] cp nht trong sut qu trnh hc. Sau bc lp m, mu kh phn loi (xi,yi) c trng mi wi(m), n bc lp th (m+1), mu ny s c tm quan trng hn. Viola v Jones dng AdaBoost kt hp cascade xc nh khun mt ngi [52] vi cc c trng dng Haar wavelet-like [221, 275]. Tc x l kh nhanh v t l chnh xc hn 80% trn nh xm. Schneiderman v Kanade dng wavelet trch c trng ri xy dng h thng hc vi Adaboost, da trn xc sut v histogram xc nh khun mt ngi [26]. T l chnh xc trn 90%. Chen [37] c lng tham s nh iu chnh nh sng cho ph hp cho cc mu bng SVM. Sau

21

cng dng Adaboost xc nh khun mt ngi vi t th chp thng. T l chnh xc l 89.7%. Lu [58] dng phn tch bit s tuyn tnh (Linear Discriminant Analysis LDA) trch c trng. Sau hun luyn b phn loi yu boosting phn loi khun mt ngi. Shinji v Osamu [137] xy dng cc trng ca khun mt bng cch s dng nhiu mc phn gii thp xc nh khun mt ngi thng qua Adaboost. Jin [113] ch ra nu dng tng phng php so khp mu hay cascade ring r th mc chnh xc gn nh nhau, nhng mc xc nh sai kh cao. Tc gi kt hp hai phng php ny gim t l sai ca phng php xc nh khun mt ngi. Ou [115] thy rng khi dng cascade AdaBoost xc nh khun mt ngi th thng thng dng thut ton greedy tm cc trng ca b phn loi yu th khng uc ti u. Tc gi xut dng GA thay th cch tm trn nhm tng tnh hiu qu. k) Cc c trng Haar-like v phn loi vi cascade Viola v Jones dng bn loi c trng Haarlike c bn xc nh khun mt ngi [52, 221], hnh 13. c trng Haar c a thch v c hai l do: (1) phn loi mnh trong vic xc nh khun mt ngi hay khng phi khun mt ngi; v (2) c hiu qu [276] khi dng bng tng cc vng [284] hoc k thut nh y [52].

gim t l sai. Cui cng dng cascade x l khut. Maeynet v Thiran [62] xc nh c trng Gauss khng ng hng v Haar-like kt hp Adaboost xc nh khun mt ngi. Tng t Song [99] cng dng AdaBoost xc nh khun mt ngi kt hp mu da ngi. Ri dng cc thng tin ny theo vt cc i tng l con ngi trong phng. Ishii [64] xy dng phng php BDF (Block Difference Feature) vi cc c trng Haar-like xc nh cc t th ca khun mt, ri dng kt qu ny so snh vi d liu c hc trc v xc nh c khun mt hay khng trong nh. l) Hc vi FloatBoost Li v Zhang a ra mt khi nim mi l FloatBoost [103]. Phng php ny hc da trn phn loi boosting t l li cc tiu. Nhng phng php ny cho php quay lui sau khi ti mi bc khi hc bng AdaBoost cc tiu c t l li trc tip, cc tiu theo hm m. C hai vn gp khi dng phng php AdaBoost: o Th nht: AdaBoost cc tiu theo hm m ti bin qua tp hun luyn. y l tin li, tuy nhin mc tiu cui cng trong cc ng dng dng phn loi mu th thng l cc tiu mt gi tr trc tip (tuyn tnh) kt hp vi t l li. Mt phn lai mnh c hc bng AdaBoost th gn im ti u ca ng dng trong iu kin t l li. Vn ny khng thy ti liu ni n c li gii. o Th hai: AdaBoost li mt thch thc nu dng phn lai yu hc. Hc phn loi ti u khi dng phn loi yu cn c lng mt khng gian c trng, iu ny l vn kh, c bit khi s chiu ca khng gian kh ln. Mt thut ton hc yu c hiu qu v d dng th rt cn thit. FloatBoost xem nh mt cu ni gia mc tiu ca hc boosting thng thng (cc i bin) v nhiu ng dng dng cc tiu t l li thng qua vic kt hp phng php tm kim Floating v AdaBoost kt hp k thut quay lui. Tian [101] xy dng cy xc nh trn c s hc tch cc bng thut ton gom nhm c-mean m da

Hnh 13: Bn loi c trng Haar wavelet-like.

nh y II(x,y) ti v tr (x,y) l tng cc im nh trn v bn tri ca (x,y) [52],

II ( x, y) =

x ' x , y ' y

I ( x, y)

Lienhart pht trin cc c trng Haar-like thnh mt b c trng mi [19] kt hp phn loi cascade xc nh khun mt ngi. Lin [79] dng boost loi trng hp hc qu khp ng thi s dng hun luyn tng cng

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trn nn tng FloatBoost. Tc gi dng cc c trng Harr wavelet-like p dng cho phng php ca mnh. Phng php ny cho php xc nh nhiu khun mt ngi nhiu t th khc nhau trong nh mu.

Hnh 15: Mt v d v c php nh.

m) Phn loi da trn c php hay mnh Tu [141] da trn khi nim c php trong x l ngn ng xy dng th c php ca nh da trn ni dung nh, hnh 15, vi chui Markov. Sau khi c c cc t vng, ng dng phng php Adaboost c hun luyn trc xc nh cc i tng. Hoc c th xem tng vng ca khun mt ngi nh cc phn cu thnh mt khun mt, ri xy dng cc gi thuyt xc nh khun mt ngi. Bastian [278] xy dng mt l thuyt tng qut cho cc loi i tng. n) Phn loi da trn loi b Elad xy dng mt phn loi da trn khi nim loi b ti a (Maximal Rejection Classifier MRC) khc hn tng phn loi khc. Cc phng php khc tm mc chung ca mt cc th no so vi cc lp chn c th vo lp no. ng chn cch loi b nhng lp m c th ny khng c hoc c t mi tng quan, chi ph loi b khng cao lm [28]. ng tnh PDF ca hai lp: khun mt ngi v khng phi khun mt ngi. ng xem khun mt ngi l target v khn phi khun mt ngi l clutter. ng tm ngng loi b theo xc sut thng qua bit s tuyn tnh Fisher (FLD). ng chiu d liu xung mt vector chiu, thng qua php chiu ny xc nh khunmt ngi.

o) Hng tip cn tng hp Cc cc phng php c chia lm bn phn loi chnh theo bn hng tip cn. Tuy nhin, c nhiu phng php khng hon ton ri vo mt trong bn hng tip cn ny m trong nhiu hng tip cn khc nhau. V d, phng php so khp mu dng m hnh khun mt ngi v cc mu con trch cc c trng khun mt [163, 177, 232, 238, 269], v sau dng cc c trng ny xc nh khun mt. Hn na phng php da trn tri thc v phng php so khp mu khng tht s tch bit, t c nhiu hng gii quyt dng tri thc ca con ngi nh ngha cc mu khun mt ngi [164, 232, 238]. Kim [24] kt hp cc c trng lng ging ca khun mt xy dng cc mu theo cc hng, sau dng k thut xc nh cnh EBM (Edge-like Blob Map) theo cng . ng xy dng logic m kt hp PCA c lng t th cc khun mt. Taur v Tao [68] xy dng phn loi neurofuzzy (neuro-fuzzy classifier NEFCAR) c o tin cy bit nh no l khun mt ngi. Cc ng vin c chn thng qua phn an mu da. Chen s dng MRF kt hp hnh thi hc xc nh khun mt ngi [87]. ng dng cc b lc top-hat, bottom-hat, v watershed phn on nh i tng ang di chuyn nhm tm ng vin khun mt. Sau cng dng MRF v hnh dng ellipse ca khun mt xc nh ng vin no l khun mt. Garcia v Tziritas [2, 11] sau khi lc nhng vng no c mu l mu da ngi tm ng vin, sau dng thut ton trn vng to ng vin mn hn. Hai ng dng phn tch theo wavelet phn r ng vin xem c cng kt cu vi khun mt ngi hay khng thng qua khong cch Bhattacharrya. T l chnh xc khong 95%. Cooray v Connor [3] v Lee [36] dng k thut lai trn c s trch c trng v PCA xc nh khun mt ngi. Hai ng dng cc c trng v mu sc ca mt v ming xc nh cc vng ny. T nay p dng l thuyt eigenface chun ha khng gian tm kim, ng thi dng khong cch gia hai mt c kt qu cui cng. Zhang [41] kt hp m hnh mu da ngi phn on tm ng vin khun mt. ng xy dng mng neural nh ca Rowley [49] quay khun 23

mt sau so khp cc mu c sn. Phng php ny cho xc nh cc khun mt cc t th khc nhau trong nh mu, thi gian x l s gim hn v khng gian tm kim b thu hp. Tng t Haizhou [40] cng dng phng php nh th nhng thay i qu trnh xc nh. ng so khp mu dng tm ng vin. Sau dng mng neural phn lai ng vin no l khun mt ngi. Li [138] dng kernel hc nh l mt nh x phi tuyn, u tin ng dng KPCA (Kernel PCA) chn cc c trng v khng gian c trng hc. Sau ng dng KSVC (Kernel Support Vector Classifier) kt hp FLD phn loi u l khun mt ngi. Yin v Meng [107] dng phn on nh tnh cht mu da ngi, t y tc gi tm c v tr ca mt theo tiu chun mc cn i xem cc vng ny l cc ng ng ca khun mt. T cc ng vin ny, tc gi so khp vi cc mu c sn xc nh ng vin no l khun mt ngi. T l chnh xc l 85%. Lingmin [93] v Emanuele [142] dng l thuyt hc theo xc sut xy dng m hnh xc nh khun mt ngi. Trong khi Emanuele dng c trng Haar wavelet xc nh c trng ri dy cho SVM phn loi. Lingmin dng ba lp: tng cui dng mi tng quan hnh hc cc mu, tng gia xt tnh a dng ca cc thnh phn khun mt ngi vi HMM, v tng trn cng dng m hnh th cho quan h ba thnh phn to thnh mt hnh tam gic (xt tnh can i). III. KH KHN V THCH THC TRONG BI TON XC NH KHUN MT NGI Vic xc nh khun mt ngi c nhng kh khn nht nh [57] nh sau, hnh 16: o Hng (pose) ca khun mt i vi my nh, nh: nhn thng, nhn nghing hay nhn t trn xung. Cng trong mt nh c th c nhiu khun mt nhng t th khc nhau. o S c mt ca cc chi tit khng phi l c trng ring ca khun mt ngi, nh: ru quai nn, mt knh, . o Cc nt mt (facial expression) khc nhau trn khun mt, nh: vui, bun, ngc nhin, . o Mt ngi b che khut bi cc i tng khc c trong nh.

o o o o o o

iu kin nh, c bit l v sng v cht lng nh, cht lng thit b thu hnh. Trc to ca my nh so vi nh. Kch thc khc nhau ca cc khun mt ngi, v c bit l trong cng mt nh. Mu sc ca mi trng xung quanh, hay mu sc qun o ca ngi c chp ly nh. Xut hin thnh phn khun mt hay khng. Nhiu khun mt c vng da dnh ln nhau.

Cc kh khn trn chng t rng bt c phng php gii quyt (thut tan) bi tan xc nh khun mt ngi s khng th trnh khi mt s khim khuyt nht nh. nh gi v so snh cc phng php xc nh mt ngi, ngi ta thng da trn cc tiu ch sau: o T l xc nh chnh xc l t l s lng cc khun mt ngi c xc nh ng t h thng khi s dng mt phng php xy dng so vi s lng khun mt ngi tht s c trong cc nh (detection rate). o S lng xc nh nhm l s lng vng trong nh khng phi l khun mt ngi m h thng xc nh nhm l khun mt ngi (false positives). o Thi gian thc hin l thi gian my tnh xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh (running time). IV. KT LUN Bi vit ny c gng cung cp mt ci nhn tng quan cc phng php xc nh khun mt ngi v mt cch phn loi cc hng tip cn t nh xm n nh mu da vo gn 300 bi bo, bo co ca cc phng nghin cu, v lun vn trn th gii. Xc nh khun mt ngi trong nh l mt bi ton hp dn, thch thc nhiu ngi nghin cu v tnh ng dng to ln trong thc t. Hy vng vi bi vit ny s gip nhiu ngi c c nhng kin thc nht nh, gip nhiu ngi khng phi mt nhiu thi gian khi bt u nghin cu bi ton hp dn ny, cng nhau vn ra bin khi tri thc ca th gii.

24

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(e) (f) Hnh 16: Cc kh khn ca vic xc nh mt ngi:

(a) hng mt nghing; (b) mt knh en v nn; (c) nh b chi bi n; (d) my nh t pha trn v sau lng ngi b chp; (e) vng da cc khun mt dnh nhau; (f) mu mi trng xung quanh gn vi mu da ngi; (g) cht lng nh km.

TI LIU THAM KHO

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