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Terms
DARWIN – DESCIn On the Origin of Species byDarwin argued that the organisfrom ancestral species. He profor evolution, stating that a popgenerations if individuals with coffspring than others. Naturaladaptationadaptationadaptationadaptation, a prevalence of inhorganisms’ survival and reproduDarwin’s field research took plaaround South America. He wasof plants and animals, diverse efossils. An especially importantspecies on the islands resembleDescent with modificationDescent with modificationDescent with modificationDescent with modification, larelated through descent from ahabitats over the years, they acideas can be summarized:Natural selection is diff Natural selection occurinherent among the indiThe product of natural senvironment.Darwin knew that organisms’ plimited survival. In each generafavored traits allowed organismthe frequency of favored traits iIn contrast, artificial selectionartificial selectionartificial selectionartificial selectionmodified other species over mabreeding stock. For example, alnumerous breeds of dogs preseIt is important to remember thaorganism may become modifiedthe next generation. Additionalcan evolve.http://www.gui(Text from Biology, 6
th
Edition,
and Concepts for Mechanisms of Evolution
ENT WITH MODIFICATIONeans of Natural Selection, Charless now inhabiting the Earth descendedosed natural selectionnatural selectionnatural selectionnatural selection as a mechanismulation of organisms can change overertain heritable traits leave moreelection caused evolutionaryevolutionaryevolutionaryevolutionarye
 
rited characteristics that enhancetion.e on the voyage of the HMS
Beagle 
 able to observe many different speciesvironments, and study South Americanarea was the Galápagos Islands, where Darwind those living on the South American mainland.er known as evolution, was Darwin’s idea thatunknown ancestor. As the descendants camecumulated adaptations that fit them to specificrential success in reproduction.through an interaction between the environmvidual organisms making up a population.election is the adaptation of population of orgapulation size would increase exponentially unleion, environmental factors selected some traits to produce more offspring than those withoutn a population, otherwise known as evolution.is the breeding of domesticated plants and ani y generations by selecting individuals with thel dogs are the same species, but artificial selectit today.t natural selection can only amplify or diminishduring its lifetime, but such characteristics willly, individuals do not evolve – a population is thdesbyjulie.blogspot.com AP Biologyby Campbell and Reece)learned that animalll organisms wereto live in differentways of life. His mainnt and the variabilityisms to theirss certain factorsover others. Thesesuch traits, resulting inals. Humans havedesired traits ason has resulted in theheritable variations. Annot be passed on toe smallest unit that
 
http://www.guidesbyjulie.blogspot.com AP Biology(Text from Biology, 6
th
Edition, by Campbell and Reece)
Terms and Concepts for Mechanisms of Evolution
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION AND NATURAL SELECTION
Examples of Natural Selection 
 A prevalent example of natural selection is the evolution of insecticide resistance in hundreds of insectspecies. Widespread use of pesticides has resulted in populations that are unaffected. Initially, acertain pesticide may kill 99% of the insects, with subsequent sprayings being less and less effective.The survivors will pass their resistance gene onto future generations, resulting in a population that hasadapted to change in its environment.Extensive use of antibiotics has had a similar effect on certain diseases caused by bacteria.
Fossils 
 FossilsFossilsFossilsFossils are relics or impressions of organisms from the past, preserved in rock. Most fossils are foundin sedimentary rockssedimentary rockssedimentary rockssedimentary rocks formed from the sand and mud that settle to the bottom of seas, lakes, andmarshes. Fossils within layers show that a succession of organisms has populated Earth throughouttime. Georges Cuvier developed the study of fossils, known as paleontologypaleontologypaleontologypaleontology. He recognized thatextinction occurred often throughout the history of life and that each stratum of fossils wascharacterized by fossil species, with older stratum containing fossils increasingly dissimilar to modernlife. However, he was an opponent of evolution and advocated catastrophismcatastrophismcatastrophismcatastrophism, the idea that eachboundary corresponded in time to a catastrophe that destroyed many of the species living there at thattime.Later, towards the end of the 18
th
century, Jean Lamarck placed fossils in an evolutionary context.Lamarck compared current species with fossil forms and saw several lines of descent. However, hethought that acquired characteristics could be inherited – for example, the long neck of the giraffe wasobtained through successive generations as giraffes’ stretching their neck in several generationsresulted in the final length. There is no evidence that acquired characteristics can be inherited. Evenso, his theory deserves credit for its claim that evolution is the best explanation for the fossil recordand diversity of life, its recognition of Earth’s age, and its emphasis of adaptation to the environmentas a primary product of evolution.
Homology 
 Similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry is known ashomologyhomologyhomologyhomology. Anatomical homologiesAnatomical homologiesAnatomical homologiesAnatomical homologies are anatomical similarities betweenspecies grouped in the same taxonomic category. For example, mammalshave similar forelimb structure, despite differences in function. Theforelegs, flippers, wings, and arms of different mammals are variations on acommon structural theme. Such signs of evolution are called homologoushomologoushomologoushomologousstructuresstructuresstructuresstructures. These structures include vestigial organsvestigial organsvestigial organsvestigial organs, structures of 
 
http://www.guidesbyjulie.blogspot.com AP Biology(Text from Biology, 6
th
Edition, by Campbell and Reece)
Terms and Concepts for Mechanisms of Evolution
marginal importance to the organism. Vestigial organs are remnants of structures that had importantfunctions in ancestors. For example, whales have small pelvic bones that are no longer in use.Humans have a remnant of the tailbone (coccyx).Embryological homologiesEmbryological homologiesEmbryological homologiesEmbryological homologies –––– homologies can be seen during embryonic development. All vertebrateembryos have structures called pharyngeal pouches in their throat regions at some stage indevelopment.Molecular homologiesMolecular homologiesMolecular homologiesMolecular homologies –––– all species of life use the same genetic machinery of DNA and RNA, with anessentially universal genetic code.Some homologies are shared by all life because they date back to the ancestral past. Homologies thatevolved more recently are shared by smaller groups. For example, the vertebrate branch contains thesame basic five-digit limb structure illustrated for mammals. Evolutionary relationships among speciesare also documented in similarities between DNA and proteins.In contrast, analogousanalogousanalogousanalogous structuresstructuresstructuresstructures are similar due to their function, but not their structure. Thesestructures evolved independently, such as the wings of birds, bats, and insects. They are a result of convergent evolutionconvergent evolutionconvergent evolutionconvergent evolution. Homologies are a result of divergent evolutiondivergent evolutiondivergent evolutiondivergent evolution.
Biogeography 
 The geographic distribution of species, biogeographybiogeographybiogeographybiogeography, first suggested evolution to Darwin. Speciestend to be more closely related to other species from the same area than to other species with thesame way of life but located in different areas. Islands generally have endemicendemicendemicendemic populations, meaningplants and animals found nowhere else in the world. However, these species are closely related tothose from the nearest mainland or neighboring island.HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREMThe HardyHardyHardyHardy----Weinberg theoremWeinberg theoremWeinberg theoremWeinberg theorem states that the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a population’sgene pool remain constant over the generations unless acted upon by agents other than Mendeliansegregation and recombination of alleles. This is analogous to shuffling a deck of cards: no matter howmany times the deck is reshuffled, the deck itself remains the same. A population’s gene pool will notchange over time if the only factors influencing it are meiosis and random fertilization. The HardyHardyHardyHardy----Weinberg equationWeinberg equationWeinberg equationWeinberg equation, p² + 2pq + q² = 1, is used to find frequencies of alleles and genotypes. Thismechanism of inheritance preserves the genetic variation that is the substrate for natural selection.A population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium must satisfy five conditions:1.
 
It must be very large. Small populations can be influenced by genetic drift, which is chancefluctuation in the gene pool.
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thingsweforget

Can you please allow download?

reply12 / 21 / 2009
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