PAPERS

XXIV Valcamonica Symposium 2011

64
Gabriella Brusa-Zappellini*
ADORNING THEMSELVES WITH A WOLFS TOOTH, PAINTING A WOLF ON
THE ROCK: LOOKING AT THE ORIGINS OF SYMBOLIC BEHAVIOUR
* CaliieIIa iusa-ZappeIIini
foineiIy Aeslhelic and Ail Hisloiy piofessoi, Associazione Lonlaida AicheoIogica.
galiieIIa.liusazappeIIiniisliuzione.il
Abstract - Adoining oneseIf vilh voIf leelh/painling a voIf on lhe iock. A cognilive junp in lhe alsliaclion IeveIs of lhe
nind`
In lhe hisl hunan sellIenenls, foi a ceilain line, leelh and olhei non ealalIe pails of aninaIs nusl have leen Iefl on lhe
giound anong olhei food vasle. Then, an inleIIigenl handIed ly a conpIex liain, slailed lo pick lhen up and pieice lhen
al lhe iool, chaiging lhen vilh an oinanenlaI synloIic neaning.
Al lhe leginning of lhe Uppei IaIeoIilhic lhe Iasl NeandeilhaI nen adoined lhenseIves, as lhe Sapiens did, vilh hunan
ienains, possilIe anuIels possessing nagicaI effecliveness. SiniIaiIy, lhe inages painled in lhe Auiignaziane caves nay
have had sone nagicaI effecliveness. ul vhal diffeienl synloIic nessages do lhese lvo diffeienl nanifeslalions of hu-
nan lehavioui speak` Is il enough lo juslify lhe alsence of inages in lhe NeandeilhaI cuIluies, lo iefei lo Iinking Iogics
suslained ly neuionaI lasis of lhe liain` Oi is lheie sonelhing eIse` If ve liaveI lack in line, in lhe MiddIe IaIeoIilhic
lolh in Luiope and in Afiica, lhe Musleiian cuIluies and lhe MiddIe Slone Age cuIluies veie quile siniIai, lul nay le
- in lhe hisl soulhein Afiican siles of lhe hisl Sapiens, lhe suifacing of a nev, pailicuIai ciicunslanliaI paiadign couId
conliilule lo shed a Iighl on lhese queslions.
***
Riassunto - Oinaisi con un denle di Iupo/dipingeie un Iupo suIIa ioccia. Un saIlo cognilivo nei IiveIIi di asliazione deIIa nenle`
Nei piini insedianenli unani, pei un lenpo inhnilo, i denli, paili non connesliliIi degIi aninaIi, devono esseie iinasli
aI suoIo fia gIi scaili deI paslo. Ioi, una nano inleIIigenle guidala da un ceiveIIo conpIesso, ha inizialo a iaccogIieiIi e a
foiaiIi aIIa iadice, caiicandoIi di un signihcalo oinanenlaIe di caialleie sinloIico. AgIi inizi deI IaIeoIilico supeiioie, gIi
uIlini neandeilaIiani si adoinano, cone iI sapiens, di vesligia aninaIi, piolaliIi anuIeli dolali di efhcacia nagica. Anche
Ie innagini dipinle neIIe giolle Auiignaziane dovevano aveie una efhcacia nagica. Ma quaIe diveiso Iinguaggio sinlo-
Iico paiIano quesle due diffeienli nanifeslazioni deI conpoilanenlo unano` L sufhcienle, pei giuslihcaie Iassenza di
innagini neIIe cuIluie neandeilaIiane, iifeiiisi aIIe Iogiche associalive soslenule daIIe lasi neuionaIi deI ceiveIIo` O c
deIIaIlio` Se andiano indielio neI lenpo, neI IaIeoIilico nedio in Luiopa e in Afiica, Ie cuIluie Musleiiane e Ie cuIluie
deIIa MiddIe Slone Age eiano piulloslo siniIi, na foise, gia nei piini sili deI sapiens in Sudafiica, Ieneigenza di nuovi,
pailicoIaii paiadigni indiziaii possono conliiluiie a gellaie Iuce su quesli inleiiogalivi.
Rsum - Se paiei dune denl de Ioup ou peindie un Ioup sui Ia ioche : un saul cognilif dans Ies niveaux dalsliaclion de
Iespiil `
Iendanl lis Ionglenps dans Ies pieniies inslaIIalions hunaines, Ies denls, pailies non coneslilIes des aninaux, onl
ceilainenenl d lie jelees pai leiie, paini Ies aulies dechels du iepas. Lnsuile, une nain inleIIigenle, guidee pai un
ceiveau conpIexe, a connence a Ies ianassei el a Ies peicei a Ia iacine, Ieui donnanl une signihcalion oinenenlaIe a
caiaclie synloIique. Au delul du IaIeoIilhique supeiieui, Ies deinieis NeandeilaIiens se paiaienl, conne Ie sapiens,
de vesliges aninaux, viaisenlIalIenenl des anuIelles dolees dun pouvoii nagique. Les inages peinles dans Ies giolles
auiignaciennes devaienl eIIes aussi conpoilei une efhcacile nagique. Mais queI Iangage synloIique diffeienl ces deux
nanifeslalions dissenlIalIes du conpoilenenl hunain paiIenl-eIIes ` Ioui juslihei Ialsence dinages dans Ies cuIluies
neandeilaIiennes, sufhl-iI de se iefeiei aux Iogiques associalives soulenues pai Ies lases neuionaIes du ceiveau ` Ou lien
y a-l-iI queIque chose daulie ` Si nous iecuIons dans Ie lenps, dans Ie IaIeoIilhique noyen en Luiope el en Afiique, Ies
cuIluies nousleiiennes el Ies cuIluies de Ia MiddIe Slone Age elaienl pIull senlIalIes, nais peul-lie que Ieneigence
de nouveaux paiadignes indiciaiies pailicuIieis dans Ies pienieis siles du sapiens en Afiique du Sud peul conliiluei
a faiie Ia Iuniie sui ces inleiiogalions.
THE FIRST ORNAMENTS
In lhe nosl ancienl hunan sellIenenls, foi an indehnile peiiod of line, leelh - inedilIe pails
of aninaIs - nusl have ienained on lhe giound, Iying alandoned anong lhe sciaps of food. Al a
ceilain nonenl, a gesluie, eslalIishing a nev oidei of neaning, lioke age-oId halils and inliodu-
65
Adorning themselves with a wolfs tooth, painting a wolf on the
rock: looking at the origins of symbolic behaviour
ced a nev vay of lehaving: leelh legan lo le coIIecled and peifoialed lhiough lhe iool lo le hung
aiound lhe neck oi sevn on lo gainenls. We can assune lhal pieviousIy sone pailicuIaiIy haid
leelh had aIieady alliacled nans allenlion and had leen used as avIs oi Ieveis: a piaclicaI use ie-
Ialed lo noloi facuIlies, slailing and hnishing vilh an aclion. In lhis case, foin suggesled funclion.
Inslead, using leelh as oinanenls inpIies a diffeienl allilude. Heie foin is fieed fion ils piaclicaI
funclionaIily, so as lo lecone an aspecl of inageiy. Il is IikeIy lhal, lefoie leginning lo nake jeveI-
Ieiy, nen and vonen adoined lhenseIves vilh oveis and spiigs oi liid fealheis, a piaclice sliII
cuiienl in nany liadilionaI socielies. Ieihaps nineiaI pignenls, vhich veie expIoiled fion lhe
Lower Paleolithic onwards, were used to decorate the body. Even shells must have been used earlier
as jeveIIeiy lhan aninaI leelh. In IeveIs 21, 22 and 24 of Qafzef in IsiaeI (1OO,OOO-9O,OOO I), sone
sea-worn valves of Glycymeris were found. They were probably not pendants, but their natural holes
nighl have suggesled an oinanenlaI use. Micioscopic anaIysis caiiied oul on Nassarius gibbosulus
sheIIs fion lhe Cave of Iigeons in Moiocco (85,OOO-7O,OOO I) indicales lhal lhe hoIes cannol le
alliiluled lo naluiaI causes (DLiiico el aI., 2OO9). Moieovei, lhe cave is Iocaled aloul 5O kn fion
the coast, and the shells were collected when dead, which would exclude any interest in food. Were
lhey pendanls` Oi veie lhey laigaining chips` VaIves of Spondylus gaederopus from Neanderthal
siles in Muicia (Spain, 5O,OOO I) veie nosl IikeIy used as conlaineis foi coIouiing nalleis (ZiIho
et al., 2010), in any case not used for food. In the hominisation process, symbolic behaviour seems
lo evoIve giaduaIIy, aIong a conlinuun in vhich cognilive and cuIluiaI aspecls inleilvine. Lven
lhe hisl AcheuIian axes nade ly Homo ergaster (1.4 MA), vilh lheii leaulifuI niiioi-Iike synneliy,
seen lo ieecl a quesl foi hainony ialhei lhan neeling puieIy piaclicaI puiposes. Yel vilhin lhis
evoIulionaiy conlinuun of synloIic lehavioui, sone hnds naik nonenls of acceIeialion, if nol
ieaI luining poinls. Ieifoialed leelh conslilule lhe eaiIiesl ceilain evidence of an inaginalive ieIa-
lionship vilh foins. The oIdesl hnds leIong lo lhe Danule iegion and dale lack lo lhe eaiIy Uppei
IaIeoIilhic, a line vhen oui species legan lo sellIe lhioughoul Luiope, noving fion easl lo vesl,
slailing fion lhe sleppes noilh of lhe Iack Sea and lhe Neai Lasl (Olle, 2O1O). WhiIe in Ialei peiiods
zoonoiphic pendanls viII le incIuded anong giave goods, in lhe Auiignacian peiiod a signihcanl
nunlei cane fion Iiving IeveIs and hunling canps. We can lheiefoie lhink lhal lhey veie oljecls
which people carried with them and accompanied everyday life.
LeveI 11 of lhe uIgaiian acho-Kiio Cave (42,OOO I) conlained fox and leai leelh peifoialed
al lhe iool. In lhe Cave of MIadec (Moiavia) 22 ieindeei and leavei leelh cane lo Iighl, vhiIe Cave
Mamutowa (Poland) yielded 13 perforated teeth referable to wolves, foxes, bears, horses, deer and
lovids (KozIovski, 1992). The nunlei of poIai fox canines is Iaige, slalislicaIIy nuch Iaigei lhan
that of the deer residual canines. At this early phase, lion teeth are also frequent (Taborin, 2004). As
vilh lhe zoonoiphic inages fion lhe Auiignacian caves, no oinanenls ieveaI a li-unique coiie-
spondence lelveen food aninaIs and synloIic aninaIs: ve aie deaIing vilh a giealei aninaIislic
iepeiloiie lhan lhal jusl dehned ly lhe usuaI gane. ul vhal do such hnds nean`
Animal teeth do not possess any particular intrinsic beauty. From a certain point of view, they
aie Iike inl: lhey have no vaIue in lhenseIves, lul lhey aie vaIued foi lhe spaik lhey can cieale, in
lhis case, lhe spaik of synloIic lehavioui. Many schoIais have enphasised lheii funclion as evidenl
signs of sociaI diffeienlialion vilhin lhe gioup. The pendanl and parure couId ieecl nenleiship
of a cIan oi an age gioup. ul in a sliII IooseIy hieiaichicaI sociely lheii effecliveness nusl have in-
voIved a nagicaI ialhei lhan a sociaI hoiizon. They veie piolalIy iegaided as poveifuI anuIels:
a souice of eneigy capalIe of liansnilling pailicuIai poveis lo ils possessoi oi piolecling hin/hei
fion eviI inuences. Ieihaps lhe aninaI loolh, an eIenenl lhal iecaIIs lhe javs and ingeslion of food,
couId acquiie a nelonynic neaning in lhe inageiy of eaiIy lines: lhe pail slood foi lhe vhoIe. The
loolh vas lhe aninaI and ensuied lhe aninaIs piesence in absentia. Keeping il couId peihaps nean
caiiying ils povei oi guaidian spiiil. In any case, keeping an oljecl vhich seived no innediale
naleiiaI needs vas an expIicil sign of synloIic lehavioui.
Was lhis a lehavioui specihc lo Homo sapiens oi aIieady of lhe NeandeilhaIs` Iion lhe leginning
of the early Upper Paleolithic, for at least 10,000 years, Europe underwent a transition characterised
by the coexistence of the last Neanderthals and the anatomically modern newcomers. Only in this
peiiod, and nol lefoie, peifoialed leelh appeaied on lhe siles of sone NeandeilhaI gioups. Think,
foi exanpIe, of lhe excavalion of Quinay (Iiance), vhich yieIded lhiee fox canine leelh, one voIf
canine and three deer residual canines. Are these innovations the result of an autonomous deve-
Iopnenl of lhe Mousleiian cuIluie, oi did NeandeilhaIs legin lo use oinanenls ly inilaling lhe
66
Gabriella Brusa Zappellini
lehavioui of nevconeis, lhal is, ly accuIluialion` The queslion is sliII open and fai fion an agieed
soIulion. ul ve can assune lhal if sone nodein piaclices inuenced lhe NeandeilhaIs, lhis vas
lecause lhey found feiliIe giound in lheii ninds, vheie synloIisalion piocesses had aIieady le-
gun lo acl. On lhe lasis of cuiienl knovIedge, hovevei, lheie is no evidence of hguialive alliludes
oulside oui species. elveen hanging a voIfs loolh aiound lhe neck and painling a voIf on a iock
face, lheie is a gap vhich is nol onIy lehaviouiaI lul aIso cognilive (Iiguies 1 and 2). NonelheIess,
lolh opeialions leIong lo lhe synloIic ieaIn of hunan aclion. olh lhe zoonoiphic inage and lhe
aninaIislic neckIace 'piesenlify alsence.
ul lhe voIfs loolh hung aiound lhe neck is sliII a naleiiaI dalun, il is an oljecl associaled vilh
physical manipulation, the sense of touch, with the body, with its moods and movements over the
leiiiloiy. UnIike lhe aninaIislic oinanenl, lhe aninaI depicled on lhe iock cannol le physicaIIy
caiiied ly nan, if anylhing, il can le caiiied inside his nind. ul lheie is sonelhing noie. If a nec-
kIace is sliII a 'lody, zoonoiphic inages aie visions lhal have lecone esh. In lhe iepiesenlalion,
lhe leing of lhe aninaI vhoIIy consisls in lhe peiceplive pIay of nalching ils foins vilh oui innei
zooIogicaI iepeiloiie: no Iongei vesliges, lul puie foins of lhe inageiy.
In the case of the ornament, the process of symbolisation remains within the same semantic ho-
iizon, noving fion lhe pail (lhe loolh) lo lhe vhoIe (lhe aninaI), vhiIe lhe inage iequiies a noie
conpIex opeialion: exliacling lhe foin fion ils spheie of leIonging and liansfeiiing il lo a diffeienl
conlexl vilhoul conpionising ils idenlily and ils effecliveness. This is an opeialion lhal invoIves
associalive conneclions lelveen diffeienl IeveIs of expeiience - spaliaI, expeiienliaI, cognilive - and
pIacing ilseIf on a highei IeveI of alsliaclion conpaied vilh lhe naking of jeveIIeiy. We couId pIace
the imitations of perforated teeth on the same route. The earliest evidence is probably a copy of a deer
iesiduaI canine nade oul of deei hoin found in lhe Cave of IslaIIosk (Hungaiy), in a deposil daled lo
44,3OO 19OO I. In lhis case, lhe copy of lhe canine vas ollained ly using a pail of lhe sane aninaI.
As line passed, ve hnd an incieasing nunlei of copies nade oul of diffeienl naleiiaIs, such as ivoiy
oi slealile. An enlIenalic hnd cones fion lhe sile of Tiou Magiile (eIgiun). In a Iayei daled aiound
3O,OOO yeais ago, nexl lo a ied deei peifoialed loolh, a peifecl Iineslone copy has leen found.
LspeciaIIy duiing lhe coIdesl peiiods, il is IikeIy lhal lhe iaiily of deei (an aninaI vilh a pailicu-
Iai synloIic vaIue) Ied lo lhe hisl slep. Copying a canine - iniliaIIy an econonic opeialion, peihaps
due lo ils scaicily - iequiies nol onIy an undenialIe lechnicaI nasleiy, lul aIso a nev opennin-
dedness. In a context where the object must have been valued not so much for its beauty as for its
effectiveness, the copy was not valued as a simulation, as it would be in subsequent, ancient and
modern, contexts.
In a nalch sliII vhoIIy pIayed in leins of nagicaI povei and nol of aeslhelic lasle, a nev vay
of lhinking vas eslalIished lhiough lhe inilalion. If lhe piaclice of nagic iequiies aulhenlicily, ve
couId lhink lhal in lhe copy lhe efhcacy of lhe aninaI is no Iongei found in naleiiaI eIenenl, lul
in ils siniIaiily of shape: lhe naluiaI canine and lhe Iineslone canine have lhe sane povei lecause
lhey have lhe sane shape. In lhis case, il is lhe foin lhal eslalIishes lhe nagic equivaIence, an al-
sliaclion aIieady conliguous lo lhe voiId of inages.
THE BIRTH OF IMAGES
If lhe oinanenl and painled depiclions leIong lo lhe sane concepluaI hoiizon, lhe naking of
inages, hovevei, naiks a valeished, aflei vhich lhe NeandeilhaI and Homo sapiens are to be consi-
dered differently. The Neanderthals adorned themselves with jewellery, but they did not leave any
painlings, unIike lhe sapiens. Why` Is lhe inage a cuIluiaI invenlion` Is il ieIaled lo enviionnenlaI
ciicunslances and lhe iise of nev aliIilies lo liansnil knovIedge, oi is il lhe iesuIl of lhe evoIulion
of lhe neuioIogicaI sliucluies of lhe liain`
In The Mind in the Cave. Consciousness and the Origins of Art (2002), David Lewis-Williams, deve-
Ioping a lheoiy aIieady pul foivaid in Les Chamanes de la Prhistoire (written in 1996 with Jean Clot-
les), suggesls an inleipielalive paiadign vheie a seiies of cuIluiaI and neuiolioIogicaI eIenenls
inleilvine in iecipiocaI suppoil. Accoiding lo Levis-WiIIians, inages do nol naluiaIIy leIong lo
nans peicepluaI expeiience. In oidei foi a hand lo diav vilh coIoui oi lo engiave vilh a luiin
lvo-dinensionaI hguies on a iock (and foi lhe gaze lo iecognise lhen), a nan needs lo have acluaIIy
aIieady seen lhis lvo-dinensionaI phanlasnagoiicaI voiId noving lefoie his eyes.
The peicepluaI expeiience of lhe inages piecedes lheii naking. ul hov is lhis possilIe` The
ansvei lo lhis appaienlIy paiadoxicaI queslion can le soughl, accoiding lo Levis-WiIIians, in lhe
67
Adorning themselves with a wolfs tooth, painting a wolf on the
rock: looking at the origins of symbolic behaviour
shananic iiluaIs of lhe IaIeoIilhic hunlei-galheieis: lhe nenlaI visions of lhe afleiIife, piojecled
on lhe vaIIs in a haIIucinaled slale, paved lhe vay lo 'hguialive lehavioui. The oiigin of lhe zoo-
noiphic hguies of lhe caves can lheiefoie le liaced lack lo a quile pailicuIai visionaiy expeiience,
accessible only to an anatomically modern mind, already able to control the entire spectrum of levels
of consciousness, to re-elaborate dreams and visions, and to socialise them. Paleolithic man, accor-
ding lo Levis-WiIIians, descended inlo lhe loveIs of lhe eailh nol lo painl enpiiicaI aninaIs, lul
lo seek visions and lo neel, in a slale of liance, lhe aninaI-spiiils, an expeiience laiied lo lhe sliII
aichaic cognilive sliucluies of lhe NeandeilhaI.
UnIike nenlaI inages, lhal aie Iinked lo lhe neuiaI lasis of lhe funclioning of lhe nodein liain,
painted depictions require a further cultural step, that is, to exhibit communicative intentionality in
keeping vilh lhe needs of a diffeienlialed, conicled and conpIex sociely. In lhe hisl cuIluies of Lu-
ropean sapiens, lhe hxing of visions nusl have conliiluled lo slienglhening lhe pieslige of lhose in
lhe gioup vho, lhiough lhe Iiving nenliane of lhe cave, veie alIe lo inleiacl vilh lhe supeinaluiaI
creatures of the spirit world.
Sone queslions nov aiise. Hov can ve expIain lhe cIeai iesenlIance lelveen lhe aninaI spi-
iils of lhe nenlaI visions and lhe enpiiicaI aninaIs of lhe suiface voiId` Is il enough lo iefei lo a
hunling cuIluie lo accounl foi lhe pievaIence of lhe aninaI depiclions in lhe eaiIiesl ail foins, oi is
a fuilhei ieeclion necessaiy`
STRATEGIES OF THE EMOTIONAL LANGUAGE
If every perception is a projection of the mind on to the perceived object, it must nonetheless be
iecognised lhal lhe aninaI depiclions of lhe eaiIiesl lines aie in nosl cases naluiaIislic. Whelhei h-
guialive inages oiiginaled in lhe visions of liance, oi ly lhe inpuIses of a ciealivily vhich iecogni-
sed lhe piesence of Iaige zoonoiphic ciealuies in lhe naluiaI foinalions, in lhe case of decoialed ca-
ves ve aie faced vilh a highIy inaginalive allilude of lhe nind, liiggeied ly lhe visuaI ienindei of
lhe sensilIe ieaIily. In lhe pIay of Iighl and shadov, aninaIs acluaIIy appeaied lefoie leing diavn
ly hand: lhe iocks conveyed lhe aninaIs piesence. Iiojecled on lo lhe cave vaIIs ly a haIIucinaled
nind oi evoked ly lhe unevenness of lhe iock suifaces, lhe hguies oiiginaled fion an aIleied slale
of perception which drew on the memories of the surface world. Was this perception altered by a
psycholiopic sulslance oi ly a sulslanliaI inaliIily lo cope vilh a slale of oveivheIning enolion`
'The visuaI Ianguage of Aichaic Hunleis, LnnanueI Anali viole, 'is a univeisaI Ianguage,
chaiacleiized nol onIy ly syslens of iepiesenlalion and slyIes lhal aie veiy siniIai in diffeienl
pails of lhe voiId, lul aIso ly associalions of hguies and synloIs lhal foIIov lhe sane Iogic, vhich
indicales lhe sane vay of lhinking and expiession (Anali, 2OO2, p. 11). So, ve aie deaIing vilh a
univeisaI Ianguage of visuaI foins.
Now, if the processes of creativeness which structure the artistic impulse are to be viewed as a
Ianguage, lhe IogicaI anaIysis of lhese piocesses couId expIain sone olheivise olscuie aspecls of
naking ail. ul vhal Ianguage do lhe eaiIiesl inages speak` We couId say lhal, vhiIe lhe aninaIi-
slic oinanenl speaks lhe Ianguage of nelonyny - lhe pail slands foi lhe vhoIe - lhe zoonoiphic
depiclion speaks lhe Ianguage of nelaphoi. Lel us le cIeai. In lhe nelaphoi, lhe dynanics of oi-
dinaiy Iogic, lased on lhe piincipIe of non-conliadiclion, expIode, Ieading lo lhe eneigence of a
diffeienl lype of cognilive oiganisalion, vhich eslalIishes an inaginaiy idenlily slailing fion lhe
iesenlIance of lhe piedicales (lhal nan is sliong, lhe Iion is sliong, lhal nan is a Iion). In lhe visuaI
inage, on lhe conliaiy, il is lhe shape - oi lhe shapes fealuies peiceived as saIienl - lhal pIays lhe
ioIe of lhe piedicale, eslalIishing a uid and poIynoiphic idenlily: lhe slaIagnile cascades vhich
have lhe sane shape as lhe nannolhs, aie nannolhs (Iiguies 3 and 4). We aie faced vilh a pai-
licuIai associalive Iogic, lhe synneliicaI Iogic of Ignacio Malle Ianco, vhich chaiacleiises and
sliucluies lhe synlax of lhe enolionaI Ianguage. OnIy a sliong enolion - oiiginaling in a lianshgu-
ied ieIalionship vilh lhe aninaI voiId - couId have Ied lhe eye lo iecognise a gieal aninaI-spiiil
in naluiaI iock foinalions, oi lo ie-eIaloiale in nenlaI inageiy a supeinaluiaI voiId popuIaled ly
zoonoiphic ciealuies. In lhis sense, lhe shananic paiadign nighl iepiesenl a pailicuIai vaiialion
- lypicaI of sone cuIluies - of a noie geneiaI ailislic inpuIse doninaled ly a sliong enolion, ly an
innei disquiel aining lo oveicone ilseIf ly ieIeasing ilseIf inlo lhe foins. ul vhal enolionaI slale
nighl have Ied lo lhis pailicuIai piopensily`
Tiying lo exliacl lhe enolion fion ils hguialive expiession in oidei lo undeisland ils neaning is
ceilainIy iisky. A phenonenoIogicaI viev, hovevei, couId piovide sone cIues. The ickeiing ane
68
Gabriella Brusa Zappellini
nade lhe aninaIs depicled on lhe vaIIs seen lo shake and nove, even if lhey ienained conslanlIy
nolionIess. In lheii iIIusionislic dynanisn, lhey shaie lhe heal of lhe Iiving and lhe coId of lhe ni-
neiaI, ciyslaIIising lhe ov of Iife in lhe innoliIily of lhe inoiganic. Il is a nagic of lhe vision vhich
inleiveaves line and space, piojecling lhe nind inlo a nylhicaI dinension vheie Iife and dealh
aie neiged. Theie is lhus a pIace vheie lhe feai of dealh nighl spiII inlo lhe iIIusion of iegeneia-
lion. Ail as a slialegy againsl lhe disiuplive povei of dealh` Sone hunan skeIelons found in lhe
Cussac Cave (Iiance), Iaid in an innei ioon, aie of lhe sane dale (25,OOO I) as lhe engiavings lhal
suiiound il. An inpoilanl cIue`
ul vhal is lhis anxiely aloul dealh expiessed lhiough a zoonoiphic inageiy` In IaIeoIilhic cuI-
luies, food is lhe nain souice of lhe iegeneialion of Iife eneigy. To Iive, lhe hunlei sheds lIood, ie-
ducing lhe Iiving lo an ineil lhing: in lhe neal neaI, a Iife offeied ilseIf as a viclin, so lhal Iife couId
iegeneiale. This is peihaps lhe oiigin of an unquenchalIe disquiel iequiiing a iepaialive slialegy,
of a guiIly enolion inducing anxiely aloul lhe Iife vhich is leing laken.
A PARADISE LOST?
It is not possible to demonstrate that the emotional dimension responsible for the birth of symbo-
Iic foins is lo le liaced lack lo lhe anguish of dealh. We nighl lhink lhal lhis feai is iooled in an
ancesliaI pasl, vhen a lipedaI ape adopled a ialhei unusuaI lehavioui foi a piinale, choosing neal
as a food, which transformed a habitual prey into a formidable predator, an irreparable breach in
lhe evoIulionaiy piogianne of naluie. ul lhis is a vague hypolhesis, vhich peihaps pushes ieec-
lions loo fai lack in line lo give suppoil lo an inleipielalive paiadign of lhe oiigin of ail. A iecenl
discoveiy in a Soulh Afiican sellIenenl couId add a Iess fiagiIe piece of lhe jigsav.
Accoiding lo lhe nosl iecenl sludies of popuIalion genelics, lhe incipienl chaiacleis of nodein
nan nusl have eneiged in Afiica aiound 2OO,OOO yeais ago duiing a niId cIinale phase. Then,
aiound 19O,OOO yeais ago, a 'cIinale calasliophe (Maiine Isolope Slage 6) changed lhe enviionnen-
laI condilions, giaduaIIy expanding lhe deseil aieas. Il is in lhis gIaciaI peiiod, deslined lo Iasl up
lo 13O,OOO yeais ago, lhal lhose genelic liails lhal chaiacleiise oui species veie eslalIished. ul in
vhal ecoIogicaI niche couId lhe snaII gioup of Homo sapiens deslined lo coIonise lhe voiId suivive`
Accoiding lo lhe Aneiican schoIai Cuilis W. Maiean, onIy lhe exislence of a iegion iich in food
couId pievenl oui eneiging species fion iisking exlinclion, a hypolhesis lhal has found sone sup-
port in recent excavations. While food resources became scarcer in the rest of Africa, some areas of
lhe soulhein coasl (Cape IIoiaI Region) couId have offeied a safe haven. In a slielch of 1OO sq. kn
il vas possilIe lo expIoil a food suppIy lhal vas nol affecled ly dioughl and coId, and consisled
of geophyles, peienniaI pIanls vilh luIls iich in cailohydiales, and noIIuscs veiy iich in pioleins
and onega-3 fally acids.
The excavations conducted by Marean with Peter Nilsen from 1999 in the caves of Pinnacle Point
(Soulh Afiica) have ieveaIed seveiaI occupalion IeveIs ianging lelveen 164,OOO and 48,OOO yeais
ago. In pailicuIai, Cave II13 conlained, even in lhe eaiIiesl occupalion Iayeis, aIongside hiepIaces,
a Iaige nunlei of sheIIs (alikreukal), lhin siIciele lIades and snaII lIocks of ochie.
Having anaIysed aII lhe hnds, Maiean suggesled lhal lhe cave nusl have leen inhaliled ly ana-
lonicaIIy nodein peopIe, vho aiound 15O,OOO yeais ago knev lhe lechniques of heal liealnenl of
slones and deveIoped a caIendai syslen lased on lhe Iunai phases, used foi coIIecling noIIuscs.
Oui specihc oiigins shouId lheiefoie le found vilhin a cuIluie of aichaic galheieis of sheIIhsh
and vegelalIes. Iossessing nolalIe cognilive aliIilies, lhese oui diiecl anceslois nusl have slailed lo
deveIop lheii nylhs and leIiefs oulside lhe hunling piaclices (indeed, lhe iaie lone ienains of seaI
and vhaIe nake us lhink of a spoiadic expIoilalion of aIieady dead aninaIs). Nov, aiound 125,OOO
yeais ago, lhe aiiivaI of vainei condilions caused a diaspoia lhal Ied lhis geneialive nucIeus of
sapiens lo nigiale and nuIlipIy oulside Afiica. Il is al lhis poinl lhal lhe hunling of Iaige nannaIs
slailed lo eslalIish ilseIf, logelhei vilh genlIei galheiing, as lhe doninanl node of pioduclion. Was
lhis a shock lhal iequiied lhe nev lIoody dynanics lo le incIuded vilhin a hoiizon of neaning lhal
had aIieady leen voven foi niIIennia inlo lhe lhieads of a diffeienl nylhic inageiy`
The NeandeilhaIs nanufacluied efhcienl voiking looIs and jeveIIeiy lo adoin lhenseIves, lul
the sapiens, vilh lheii visionaiy inages, pioduced exliaoidinaiy insliunenls lo fanlasise. The Ne-
anderthals became extinct, the sapiens colonised the world, not only the surface world, but also the
sulneiged voiId of inageiy.
69
Adorning themselves with a wolfs tooth, painting a wolf on the
rock: looking at the origins of symbolic behaviour
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Fig. 1 Wolfs tooth perforated at the root, Chtelperronian, Quin-
ay (France), redrawn by G. Brusa-Zappellini.
Fig. 2 Wolf, polychrome paint, Font-de-Gaume (France),
Magdalenian, drawing by H. Breuil.
Fig. 3 Natural stalagmitic formations, Pech-Merle (France)
(photo by R. Laborie).
Fig. 4 Mammoth, black paint, Pech-Merle (France) (photo by R.
Laborie).