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Algorithms and Complexity
Herbert S. Wilf University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia, PA 19104-6395
Copyright Notice
Copyright 1994 by Herbert S. Wilf. This material may be reproduced for any educational purpose, multiplecopies may be made for classes, etc. Charges, if any, for reproduced copies must be just enough to recoverreasonable costs of reproduction. Reproduction for commercial purposes is prohibited. This cover page mustbe included in all distributed copies.
Internet Edition, Summer, 1994
This edition of Algorithms and Complexityis availableat the web site
<http://www/cis.upenn.edu/ wilf>
.It may be taken at no charge by all interested persons. Comments and corrections are welcome, and shouldbe sent to
wilf@math.upenn.edu
A Second Edition of this book was published in 2003 and can be purchased now. The Second Edition containssolutions to most of the exercises.
 
CONTENTSChapter 0: What This Book Is About
0.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Hard vs. easy problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 A preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter 1: Mathematical Preliminaries
1.1 Orders of magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2 Positional number systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.3 Manipulations with series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.4 Recurrence relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.5 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.6 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 2: Recursive Algorithms
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.2 Quicksort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.3 Recursive graph algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.4 Fast matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472.5 The discrete Fourier transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502.6 Applications of the FFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562.7 A review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 3: The Network Flow Problem
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633.2 Algorithms for the network flow problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.3 The algorithm of Ford and Fulkerson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.4 The max-flow min-cut theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693.5 The complexity of the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703.6 Layered networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.7 The MPM Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763.8 Applications of network flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Chapter 4: Algorithms in the Theory of Numbers
4.1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814.2 The greatest common divisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824.3 The extended Euclidean algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854.4 Primality testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.5 Interlude: the ring of integers modulo
n
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894.6 Pseudoprimality tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924.7 Proof of goodness of the strong pseudoprimality test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944.8 Factoring and cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974.9 Factoring large integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994.10 Proving primality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100iii
 
Chapter 5: NP-completeness
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045.2 Turing machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095.3 Cook’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.4 Some other NP-complete problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165.5 Half a loaf ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195.6 Backtracking (I): independent sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.7 Backtracking (II): graph coloring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245.8 Approximate algorithms for hard problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128iv
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