A Round The well Head

The drilling of an oilwell can at times be an extremely complexes operation.

No one person can know it all and the success of failure is totally dependent on the strength of the team involved in the operation

In this lesson we will start at the beginning (the drive pipe) and work our way down the well using the different casing string as a guide to some of the operations and function that one would expect to meet while drilling an average well

Introduction

Although good planning is essential it must also be understood that no two well will be the same and one must always be alert to the unexpected.

Casing String Design

A string of casing for a particular application is designed around the expected operating conditions.

The operating conditions (internal and external pressure, tension) generate loads on the casing, and the casing string must be able to withstand these loads without failure.

To perform a casing string design, the operational loads are compared to the minimum performance properties, and the parameters of the casing selected such that the minimum performance properties are greater than the expected loads.

The designer must consider:

The designer must consider: the internal operating pressure against the casing's burst rating or the connection leak resistance; the external operating pressure against the casing's collapse resistance; and, the tensile loads, usually from the casing's own weight, against the joint strength.

As pressures are commonly described as gradients (psi/ft or kPa/m) and the weight of the casing string is described as some mass per unit length (lb/ft or kg/m), the operational loads at a given depth can be readily determined.

Alternately, actual values of the expected loads may be known and compared against the tabulated minimum performance properties.

The operational limits

The operational limits of the casing will be governed by one of the following:

Joint strength - either fracture or pull-out

Collapse resistance Burst resistance or connection leak resistance

Consequently, once the limiting operational condition is determined, the maximum operating depth of the casing string can be calculated based on that condition.

The Setting Depths in the above "Casing Dimensional and Minimum Performance Data" are calculated in this manner.

In some instances, the operational limit of a specific size/weight/grade and connection combination is the collapse resistance, in others the burst, and in yet others, the joint strength.

A depth corresponds to this limit, and that value is the Setting Depth.

Setting Depth
In all Setting Depth calculations for casing, a Safety Factor is accounted for in the tabulated values.

The Safety Factors used are those commonly accepted by companies are between 1.0 and 1.8 for Burst and Collapse; and, 1.6 for Tension.

These Safety Factors provide for somewhat conservative Setting Depth values, since the calculations are based on the minimum - not nominal - performance properties of the casing.

However, in certain situations, the designer may elect to use Safety Factors greater than those above.

If there is a risk of casing wear for example, the designer may choose one weight heavier pipe to allow for the wear with no loss in burst or collapse, but the extra weight must be dealt with in the tensile calculations with the possible risk of the preferred weight/grade/ connection combination being unsuitable.

Further, in situations where high pressure stimulation treatments are expected, greater burst capability may be desired, and a higher grade or heavier weight of casing selected for the bottom section of the hole.

Additionally, if the risk of encountering H2S is great, the design may be modified so as to reduce the stress levels in the casing string by selecting higher grades or heavier weights.

Grade Analysis
Finally, if the casing is to be run in a deviated wellbore or subjected to thermal recovery, the design must accommodate the loading extremes anticipated, and the Safety Factors adjusted accordingly.

H40, J55, K55, L80 and matching proprietary grades constitute the bulk of material sold.

This section focuses on these grades and also includes reference to less common grades, such as C95. The characteristics that distinguish each grade will be addressed.

Casing grades are manufactured to meet, as a minimum, API specifications as described in API Spec 5CT.

General Quality Control Standards

The level of control within API increases with material grade.

For example, H40, J55, K55 and N80 have chemical controls on maximum acceptable levels of phosphorus and sulfur.

Some of these materials must be upgraded by means of additional requirements with respect to quality control before they should be used in sour service applications.

J55 and K55, in particular, can provide very satisfactory results in H2S applications when additional chemistry controls and a few basic physical specifications, such as maximum hardness level, are specified.

Specifications Affecting Casing Ratings

The assumption that additional rating capabilities can only be achieved with higher weights or higher grades is not always the case.

Increasing the weight versus the grade may also be more or less effective for a specific performance specification.
Note the following effect on casing ratings: - collapse resistance does vary with minimum yield strength but is a stronger function of wall thickness (or weight per meter). - burst resistance increases linearly with minimum yield strength and, according to API formula, linearly with wall thickness. the tensile body yield rating increases linearly with minimum yield strength and also with cross-sectional area (weight per meter).

Specifications Affecting Casing Ratings

Increasing the cross- sectional area, however, also increases the tensile loads that will be present and, therefore, has little benefit with respect to maximum setting depth.

-the pullout strength for a given size and weight of casing is dependent on the minimum yield strength and the minimum ultimate strength.

The minimum ultimate strength alone governs the fracture strength, which may be more or less than the pullout strength of casing coupling.

Hence, the ultimate strength is always an important factor in the tensile rating of a casing coupling.

Casing String
Drive or conductor Pipe, Driven, Drilled or Jetted Surface casing drilled to cover fresh water zones Intermediate casing drilled and will cover any problematic formations

The construction of the well head and associated equipment is dependent on the casing string that will be installed in the well bore.

Production or protective casing often the longest string and drill to just above or into the production zones

Liners use to support production string or as contingency and well extensions

Drive Pipe or conductor

Reasons for such pipe:

To return drilling fluid and cutting back to surface and clean the hole. Protect fresh water sands; Stop washouts under the drilling rig; To give a base and support for the next string of casing; Protect the following casing string; As the hole is drilled, cuttings must be removed; For this to be affective a riser is attached to the drive pipe. This can be accomplished in several ways. The pipe can be left free standing and the rig crew will weld on a flow line. The pipe may have to be connected back up and a flow line welded on.

Running procedures
Pipe Handling
Extreme care should be used when handling pipe. Pipe should not be moved unless the threads are protected with thread protectors and/or handling or lifting plugs.

To insure protection of the threads, it is recommended that the pipe be lifted with straps rather than hooks and the protectors be snug tight

Single joint elevators are recommended for light casing or tubing but not necessarily required. If a soft line is used it should always be double wrapped when picking up a joint of pipe.
For large and heavy casing it is suggested the block and crane be used

Picking up Drive Pipe

In the example being used we will pick up a joint of 48" drive pipe with the hammer slung below the block. By doing it this way at no time will the block move more than one foot off the centre of the hole and when picking up will run directly up the derrick and on the centre line Drawing Shows the pipe lifted into the v-door by the crane. It is pick up even, the slings strung to balance the pipe The load is then lowered onto the floor and the pick up sling from the hook are shackled to the pad eyes and secured

Picking up Drive Pipe

The driller or person operating the draw-works then takes the weight of the pipe lifting the pipe just from the floor. At the same time the crane operator booms down but keeps the tension on the rear sling. This will slack of the forward sling enabling the crew to move it to the back or remove it.

The crane now booms back at the same time holding the tension in the remaining sling until it is back over the back pick up point.
This done both the driller and crane pick the load up 3 ft.

Picking up Drive Pipe

The load must be allowed to turn on its own centre at the same time the crane sling will follow the bottom of the pipe onto the rig floor and will act as a tag line the back end of the load should not scrape along the rig.
Once the load is centre of the floor it can be rested down until the remaining sling is removed.

The pipe should then be lifted above the joint in the rotary before the stabbing guides are tack welded into position.
The pipe can then be lowered, levelled and welded

How to run
There are three ways of putting this casing into the ground; Driven ( driving with a diesel hammer ) Drilled ( The hole drilled beforehand the casing is then run and cemented in to place ) Drill and drive ( The pipe will be driven to refusal. A bit will be run and a short section of hole drilled. The pipe will then he hammer in until refusal, the same processes repeated until the pipe is at the required depth ). When drilling and driving never drill over the length of the pipe joint to be driven Most country will insist the this casing cover the fresh water tables even if it means driving it deeper than the program is planned for. Drive Shoe Hard stringers can collapse the drive shoe

Shock or Bumper Sub

Under Size Stabiliser Bit Sub with float installed Bit 26 inc

Driving Pipe
A rotary that has a size of 48in. would need to have the master bushing taken out and the pipe adapted to hang on the rotary.

However a rotary is not limited by the manufactures size over the years, I have run 48 inc pipe using a 36 in rotary. This will mean taking the rotary out and using the skid beams as a false rotary.

The drawing shows the 36 inc pipe that is to be driven sitting on the rotary table before it is welded and driven. It is sitting on the same pad eyes that it was picked up with.

Driven using a diesel hammer

Cellar Deck
On land, the hole for this shallow casing is often dug with an auger drill mounted on a truck, or driven using a diesel or steam hammer. Such casing can be driven to 250 feet. Conductor casing measuring between 16 to 24" outside diameter is used onshore, and between 24 to 48" for offshore. The size of this casing will depend on the depth of the hole, the deeper the hole the larger the casing. On land a cellar is dug. This will house the well if completed. The Cellar will normally house only one well. however I have worked over cellars that have as many a six wells.

Offshore Diverter
A diverter may be used with an overshot packer over the conductor pipe.

Rotary Diverter housing and assemble Connection

Irrespective of how the pipe is put in place there are some factors that have to be considered. Extension

If the casing is being welded, it must have an earth, the welding rods must go into a bucket and not down the side of the rotary.

I have had some hard times getting a diverter out due to bits of welding rods being wedged down the side. Drive Pipe

Overshot

Pilot Hole
Riser-less drilling may be the new in deep water drilling for top hole but it has been used for many years in areas of shallow gas. Pilot hole are drill with the rig in the pinned down position and ready to move at the first sign of trouble.

If the pilot hole being drilled is dry the rig will jack up and open up the pilot hole.
It is also use in many places offshore if sea bad is to hard to drive pipe. In Norway this is now the way both the conductor and the surface is put in place. Thus allowing the use of salt water as a drilling fluid while the returning cutting are allowed to settle on the seabed

Drive Shoe and supports

Depending on the way the conductor is run will be the next step, If it has been driven there is no need to cement.
The drive shoe is welded before being run
Flat bottom will go straight

However it should have some form of support strong enough to hold the pipe if it slips when the well is spud. Spud is the term use when a new hole is started and often applied when the conductor pipe is cleaned out.

The support may be slings attached to the main rig beam and attached to the conductor using padeyes or wedges forced down between the guide and the pipe or on land a base plate welded to the drive pipe.

Never cut the bottom

Support

Wedge support

Welded

Hanging

Wedge support; often used on platforms and the casing supported by the production deck

Welded; used on land and the support are welded to the casing and a 1 inc base plate
Hanging; Often used on exploration well when the rig is cantilevered out over the water the slings are fixed to padeyes installed below the rig floor

Inner-String Systems: Tools

There may be occasions when the pipe can not be driven for example the possibility of shallow gas

In this case a smaller pilot hole will be drilled and opened up to allow the casing to be run, should this be the case the casing will need to be cemented in place after it has been run

To save both time and cost a drill pipe cement string will be run inside the casing that will stab into the casing shoe. After circulating the annulus clean the cement will be pumped into place and the cementing string pulled free and laid out.

This is known as inner string cementing and involves using two sets of drill pipe elevator that are used as slips and pick up elevators.

Internal cementing
While circulating and before pumping the cement, circulate at the rate and pressure you expect to see while cementing.

In the following animation we will see the procedure as it happens at the shoe. Such a cement job would be use on large casing such a 30 using the shoe and possible a non return valve

While doing so, a constant check must be kept at the surface too see no fluid overflows from the top of the casing, if it dose more weight must be applied on the seals.

However it is also possible to use a self filling valve and a wiper plug to hold the back pressure once the cement has been put into place,

It is important that a competent person remains on the floor throughout the pumping of the cement and that the fluid level between the cement stinger and the casing is monitored for any flow

Using the float collar to sting into The basic tools used down hole are as such, use two centralise to centre up the string with the lower one being as close to the stabbing tool as possible

Using the guide shoe to sting into

Screw-in

Pipe wipe plug seats here J latch Stab-in

Surface Casing:

Characteristics:

Surface casing is set to Protect, water sands, case unconsolidated formations, provide primary well control, support other casing. and case off lost circulation zones.

Such a string would be run and cemented back to surface. It is normally the first casing to support some for of secondary well control equipment. Equipment such as a diverter or 21 1/4 bop.
Casing size range from 7 5/8 on a shallow holes to 20 inch on deep holes. Hole may have sever hole erosion Shallow string may be pumped out easily.

Drilling fluid often viscous with little water loss control or drilled with water

Surface casing is often run to depths between 1000 and 3000 feet and will often need top up cement job to complete cementing to surface.

Guide shoe
Casing may stick easily in unconsolidated formations. Lost circulation or water flows could be a problem. Centraliser Most area require that it be cemented to surface. Guide shoe and float collar are commonly used. Known as the shoe track Packing off can cause high pressure and can burst the casing. Often run thought the bent section of the hole. This is also the section of the well where most time is lost on Bottom Hole Assemblies, much of this time can be save by knowing and understanding the tools needed and when to be ready.

Shoe Joint

Centraliser
Guide shoe

Packing off
In washed out sections of the well the fill can escape while being washed away, however in firm and full gauged hole such as the formations that would be needed to set the casing shoe, any fill would have to be approached with extreme caution and washing the casing or drill string back to bottom could present a real problem with packing off. Such packing off has been known too blown apart casing or brake down the formation due to the sudden increase in internal and external pressure created by the rig pumps that gets trapped below the pack-off.

Packed-off Due to the limited space between the casing and the walls of the wellbore, washing down must be carried out slowly, Moving to many cuttings to fast will bull up at the collars and form an bridge. Pressure trapped in the annuals and below the check valves can not be bleed off and will increase while attempting to free the pipe

Warning:

Always insure the circulating head is install with the optimum make

Use safety lines on all high pressure lines

Cement Functions of cement

There are many reasons for using cement in the wellbore, all will use one if not all of the following four main functions and they are, a) Provided support for the casing string against corrosive formation fluids
b) Support the axial load of the casing string c) Provide isolation between active formations d) Support the wellbore Although there are many reasons for pumping cement into a wellbore there are only two type of job, The good one and the bad one. A good job takes understanding and planning as no two jobs are the same. Understanding is and always has been the key too success

Cement
Today's well cement systems must perform in a variety of down hole conditions, from 0 C - over 350 C., and at bottom hole pressures in excess of 30,000 psi. Bad cement bonding around the shoe and continued back to the weaker formation

Companies to day have manufactured and developed complete lines of cement additives, which modify the characteristics and performance of the cement slurry.

This means that a slurry can be designed to function over the wide range of conditions that occur in the wellbore.

The results can be devastating

Cement
Here we see the drill string in the wellbore circulating our a gas kick.
The weakest point in the open hole section is often considered to around the casing shoe. If there is a bad bond here and the gas pressure is high the possibility of charging up other formations is real. Should the formation being charged brake down we will in fact create an underground blowout a very common scenario. However it may not stop at that. With shallow set casing and weak surface formation the gas will work its way to surface washing around the protecting casing and BOPs and a major surface blowout will accrue. The type of blowout will very often create a grater at surface and the rig will be swallowed.

Cement
Advances over the years have taken the art of cementing a well to much higher levels. Companies such as Halliburton and Baker now design cement programs to suite almost any type of condition, programs that are tested before arriving at the location and retested using the materials at the location .

Modern technology and pumping technique will now do much of the work, it is just a matter of letting the cementing company know what you need and where to put it. However it is important that the man on the rig understand the basic of what is happening and what's more important why.

Shoe Join and Guide Shoe

Casing Collar

Float Join and Float

The disadvantage of installing the float on the top of the second joint is that you would still have to pick up a joint to test the float and that joint would have a locking compound on the threads. if for any reason the float was to fail breaking the joint back out can be a problem

Stop Collar 5 feet down from the collar

With the average casing joint being between 31 an 40 feet most companies will install a joints of casing between the shoe joint and float collar, or they will install the float collar on top of the second joint

Centraliser

joint of casing

Centraliser

Stop Collar 5 feet up from the shoe

Casing pin

Guide Shoe

Float Collar

Baffle plates and Plugs

Sometimes installed one joint above the float collar is a baffle plate or as some people call it the plug catcher, this is not always used.

Normally the bottom plug land on the float collar where under pressure the diaphragm will rupture allowing the cement to pass. Conventional 5 wiper top plug (solid) These are just the most common plugs there are others. Conventional 5 wiper top plug (hollow) Diaphragm Rubber holder Cast aluminium insert

However there is a top plug that is often used that is hollow that needs to be discussed
Conventional 5 wiper bottom plug

ANTI-ROTATION PLUGS
This type of top and bottom plug have been designed to decrease the drill out time. They uses reinforced locking teeth built into the plugs, which lock together between the plugs and the float equipment to eliminate rotation of the plugs during drill out. The body of the plugs is manufactured using a plastic core which eliminates the aluminium and large mass of rubber found in conventional cementing plugs. No metal parts are used and the plugs are completely pdc (polycrystaline diamond compact) drillable. Drill out times of the plugs are greatly decreased so the use of this equipment can result in significant cost reductions through the decrease in rig time. Cementing plugs are tested to withstand pressures over the burst rating of the casing in which they are run.

Well head
Surface casing (20 +/-) is set and cemented into place. The casing is then cut at the correct height and the well head is installed it can ether be welded on or screw type. When the head is welded on it must be pre heated and kept at this tempter while the welding is on-going. As this is the base of the well head levelling off is very important Cooling down: This must be done gradually so as not to crack the welds and allow the steel to keep it tempering. Testing the welds is accomplisher by pressure testing with oil thought the side ports.
Test Ports Welds

Surface casing

If Internal testing is required it can be done using a test cup run on drill pipe down inside the casing just below the welds
Important: This must be installed level

Drive Pipe

Well Heads

If we install a diverter it is just a matter of changing the overshot packer from the last size to the new size casing.

If a Blowout Preventer is to be installed we must first install the well head There are basically two types, Weld on and Screw on.

Irrespective of the one used the final cut or landing must be level and if on a production platform the correct height as this is the beginning of constructing the well head system the will be use for the production tree is the well produces

Intermediate Casing
Of all the casing installed this one normally takes the worst beating. Prolonged drilling can and often will damage it. Corrosion is common as such a string will often cover salt zones. The justification for this string is to cover many of the problem zone that are encountered in the top sections of the hole such as lost circulation and water flows. Such zone need to be isolated as the drilling fluid weight may have to be raise in the deeper section of the hole. It will also be use too support the completion and any other string that may be ran later. The casing point also referred to as the casing seat must be tested as the next section of the well may enter the production zone

Often run to depths of 4 or 5000 ft. and would normally cemented back to surface. A shoe, float collar and sometimes a cement diverter will be used. This string will often be the largest cement job and could be done in two stages. "The cement diverter " is a ported tool the same size of the casing that is opened and closed with plugs and darts.

The first section will be cemented. The cement is pumped down the casing and out of the shoe into the annulus. As this is often a two stage job a water spacer will be pumped ahead of the cement and should end up just around the outside of the cement diverter once the tail cement is put in place with the wiper plug.

An opening dart will then be dropped and landed on the sleeve of the cement diverter. Pressure will be applied to push the sleeve into the open position. The well will then be circulated from the ports and the hole conditioned ready for the next stage. The second stage will then be pumped and a closing plug will be pumped and bumped.

Well head
With the intermediate section of the hole drilled the casing is run and cemented back to surface. This casing size would be between 13 3/8 and 9 5/8. Before the casing can be cut the casing slips must be set around the casing and the casing landed in the well head. Once landed the bolts that help to expand the seals are tightened forcing the steel rings to compress the seals and seal off the lower annuals All needed tools and equipment must be on hand and ready as the cement will be setting and if the casing is not centred or to much time is spent it may be impossible to get the slips in The cut point is 4 3/4 inches from the top of the well head flange.
4 3/4

slight bevel

Bolts casing slips

Packing

Fill with light oil when clean and ready

At this point the ring grove in the flange are exposed and must be protected. With the casing cut it must be cleaned of any burs and given a slight bevel to allow the bit smooth access into the wellbore

Cement to surface

Drive Pipe

slips segments

Flange cleaning
When the casing head and equipment first arrive the inner bore is coated with a hard protective coat this must be removed. Before assembling any flanged, clean the ring grooves and inspect them for damage.
Inner P-seal Outer O-Ring

With the well head there should be the P-seal bushing (X-Bushing) this to will have a protective coating that must be removed and the seal elements checked. There will also be a snap ring. After cleaning and inspection the seal assemble can be gently pushed into position and held in place with the snap ring It may be some time before being used so some consideration must be given to protecting it

Ring Gasket testing port

Packing port

Snap ring holding the bushing in place Inner seals between casing and bushing (P-seals)

Casing spool
Before assembling any flanged, clean the ring grooves and inspect them for damage. Using a new ring gasket of the specified size. Install the gasket and lightly coat the casing stump with oil.

Fill the void between the casing slips and the top of the bottom flange with oil but do not over fill so as the oil runs into the ring grove.
Gently lowered the top flange into position making sure not to damage any of the seal in the seal assembly.

Place lubricated bolts into bolt holes and install the nuts.

Drive Pipe

Testing the P-seals

After installing the casing spool the flange connection must be tested. Before the ring casket can be tested the seal on the X-bushing must be energised. The O-rings on the outer side of the bushing make the seal between the flange and bushing. The inner seal make the seal between the bushing and the casing. Therefore when lowering the spool over the stump of the casing it must be level so as not to damage the inner seal.
a) Energising the P-seals

By removing the plug packing is forced through the bushing forcing the P-seal to compress against the casing

BOP

The energising packing is a solid packing and is loaded into the energising gun. Each casing size has a set number of packing sticks

Well

It is important the that correct number of sticks are packed and that the pumping be carried out by hand and not using an air pump

Testing the ring gasket

Having energised the seals we can now test the well head using the side port
After removing the plug and using a hand operated pump filled with hydraulic oil, slowly fill the remaining void. Once full bring the pressure up in increments of 500 psi until that test pressure is reached.

BOP

Well

Observe the pressure for a minimum of 15 minutes

Style R Ring Gasket

The Standard Style R Ring Joint gaskets is manufactured in accordance with both API 6A and ASME B16.20 size and ratings. Available as oval or octagonal, both are interchangeable on the modern octagonal type grooved flanges

oval

Tolerances: (Inches) A (width of ring) H (height if ring) (average pitch diameter of ring) 23 (angle)

0.008B, 0.020P 0.007 1/2

octagonal,

The Ring Joint gaskets was initially developed for high pressure/ temperature applications found in the petroleum industry and is primarily used in the oil field on drilling and completion equipment

Style BX
All BX gaskets incorporate a pressure balance hole to ensure equalization of pressure which may be trapped in the grooves.
When correctly fitted, the style BX gasket allows virtual face to face contact of the flange faces which means that the gasket is fully trapped on both the inner and outer diameters. The BX Ring Joint gaskets, manufactured in accordance with API 6A, are designed for use on pressurised systems up to 20,000 psi.
Tolerances: (Inches) A* (Width of ring) 0.008,-0.000D (hole size) 0.02H* (height of ring) 0.008,-0.000OD (OD of ring) 0.000,-0.00623 (angle) 1/4

One pressure passage hole required per ring on centre line *A plus tolerance of 0.008 inches for width 'A' and height 'H' is permitted, provided the variation in width or height does not exceed 0.004 inches throughout its entire circumference

Style RX
The Style RX is a pressure energized adaptation of the standard Style R Ring Joint gaskets. The RX is designed to fit the same groove design as a standard Style R, making the joints interchangeable. The modified design uses a pressure energized effect which improves the efficiency of the seal as the internal pressure of the system increases. * A plus tolerance of 0.008 inches for width 'A' and height 'H' is permitted, provided in width of height does not exceed 0.004 inches throughout its entire circumference.
Tolerances: (Inches) A* (Width of ring) 0.008,-0.000 H* (height of ring) 0.008,-0.000 OD (OD of ring) 0.020,-0.000 23 (angle) 1/2

NOTE 1: The pressure passage hole illustrated in the RX ring cross section is in rings RX82 though RX91 only. Center line of hole must be located mid point of dimension 'C' (width of flat). hole diameter must be as follows: 0.06 inches for rings RX82 through RX85; 0.09 inches for rings RX86 and RX87; 0.12 inches for rings RX88 through RX91.

The Blowout Preventers (BOP)

Surface BOP (also known as the BOP stack) The BOP consisted of an annular preventer. The rubber insert is designed to close on all pipe Top Pipe Rams (close around a given size drill pipe) Blind/share Ram (used to cut the string) Spacer Spool Lower Pipe Rams (used to hang the string off) The BOP and associated equipment is the secondary well barrier the drilling fluid being the first

Choke and Kill Lines

Choke Manifold Remotely controlled Choke Manually controlled Choke

Upper Choke use to control the well if it kicks Kill Line

Manual operated Valves (Gate valves)

Hydraulic operated Valves (HCR) Lower Choke only use in an emergency

Cameron Gate Valves

CWP = Cold working pressure: As you can see there is very little differences between the two valves in fact many of the parts are interchangeable. However you will notice there is a lower stem on the high pressure valve this help to stop the gate being pushed from centre Both vales are now equipped with Camerons New Body Sealing Packers for longer service life
5000 to 20000 psi CWP 2000 to 5000 psi CWP

High Closing Ratio (HCR)

The High Closing Ratio HCR valve is a hydraulically operated gate valve. This valve is used on diverter systems and choke lines leading from the blow out preventers. The advantage of the valve is that it can be operated remotely. Valve is designed to operate and close effectively against high pressure with a low pressure applied. Hydraulic Gate Valve will be installed as outer valve with inner manual valve always kept open. Should the HCR fail the inner manual valve can isolate the well pressure while HCR valve is repaired Tailrod Hydraulic Gate Valve is part of the remote control that is operated from the control panel along side the driller

Bop Testing
With the BOP and equipment installed on the well head (Known as nipple up) all the equipment will be function tested from both the control system (The accumulator) and the remote controls (on the rig floor and in the toolpusher office)

The BOP will then be tested, as this is the initial installation the test will be to the full cold working pressure of the equipment. The test will include a low pressure test (300 psi) and the maximum test, the tests will also be time in order that they conform to API standards
The full test must be completed before the last casing can be drilled out and any faulty equipment must be replace or repaired. All BOP testing is recorded and logged in the daily drilling report

With all the testing completed a new drilling assembly is picked up and run, any cement left in the casing is cleaned out, the shoe is drilled plus five feet of new hole before circulating the well clean and running a formation pressure test

Leak-off Test
The casing point " where the shoe is to be set" must be in a firm and solid formation as the secondary well control will be installed on top.
A leak off or integrity test will be carried out to test the shoe.

Should there be any leaks around the shoe it must be re-cemented by squeezing it off as the casing must withstand any drilling fluid raise in weight or kick from the formation.
The leak-off test is: applying pressure against a small section of formation just below the shoe to the point of rupture An integrity test is basically the same procedure but the pressure is only taken to a predetermine pressure that will be equal to the maximum allowable drilling fluid weight that will be used in this section

Production Casing
The fourth but not necessarily the final string of pipe run in the hole is the production casing. The production casing is used to control the hydrocarbon bearing zones that will be produced. This string of pipe adds structural integrity to the wellbore in the producing zones. It is necessary to conduct the hydrocarbons to the surface Production casing should be set before completing the well for production. It should be cemented in a manner necessary to cover or isolate all zones which contain hydrocarbons. A calculated volume of cement sufficient to fill the annular space at least five hundred (500) feet above the top of the uppermost hydrocarbon zone should be used.

Production casing must also be of such quality that it can withstand particularly corrosive media in the well (H2S, CO2 etc.), if expected to be exposed to such formations. This string would normally be the longest string run and may often be cemented in stages so as not to brake down the lower formation. It must also be of sufficient strength that should the production string (s) leak it will contain the formation pressure that will migrate to surface and should be design to cover the expected life span of the well. When a liner is used as production casing, the testing of the seal between the liner top and next larger string must be conducted as in the case of intermediate liners

STAGE CEMENTING
Multi stage Cementing

COLLARS AND EQUIPMENT

The deeper the hole the more consideration must be given to the casing program. A string of casing going from the surface to total depth of 15000 feet may have 9000 or more feet of exposed hole. This could present a problem. As we are now aware cement will displace some the drilling fluid in the annuals. and as is so often done the cement will be placed back to the old shoe or up inside it. With a long section of open hole it is very possible that some of the open formation will not be able to contain or hold the weighted cement. or it is possible that some of the casing may later be retrieve. To solve such problems the cement will be pumped in stages.

Multi Stage. Can be two or three stage jobs on the same casing string.

Why Stage ?
The Staging Cementing Collar has multiple applications. It can be used to: Keep the hydrostatic head of second-stage cement off from first-stage cement.

Keep the hydrostatic head of second-stage cement from pressure sensitive zones below it.
Keep cement from falling around pre-drilled or slotted liners. Selectively place cement across widely separated zones of interest. Prevent gas migration that can ruin primary cement jobs and lead to annular gas problems at the surface and expensive squeeze work.

Staging Collars
Running Position Pin and Box threads are identical to the casing threads. Stage collar integral connection is designed for gas tightness. Seals on opening sleeve provide internal and external pressure integrity across the fluid ports.

Running position

Opening Sleeve

Brass Shear Mechanism

Anti Rotation Feature Body Connection with Metalto-Metal Seal and Elastomer

Staging Collars Open

Opened Position Allow the dart about a minute a thousand feet to gravitate before attempting to pump Opening device has landed and, after pressure is applied, the lower set of shear mechanisms is broken and the sleeve shifts downward to uncover the fluid ports. Pumping operations can now be conducted through the stage collar. You will see a pressure drop as the dart opens the sleeve. If you do not, give the plug a Little longer? Closing Sleeve Fluid Ports

Broken Shear Mechanism Free fall opening Dart Badly spotted cement may hinder the opening in that case, switch to the annuals and pump a little. Then switch and open the port. I have yet to see this method fail.

Graphic by: Davis-lynch casing equipment company

Staging Collars Closed Position

Closed Position
After the cement has been pumped the closing plug is released and pumped into position. Once closing plug has landed and, after pressure is applied, the upper set of shear mechanisms is broken and the sleeve shifts downward, shutting off the fluid ports. Double seals above and below the ports provide pressure integrity. Closing Plug

Double Seals

Lock Ring

Cementing Retainers
Running Position
Setting the packer Circulating Position Closed Position

I would like to thank Davis-Lynch for their support and cooperation in allowing me to use there graphic as an demonstration and educational aid

Two Stage Cementing

1. The float shoe and Collar, are installed in the casing string and the casing is run to bottom. 4. The free-fall opening device is dropped and allowed to gravitate to position. Pressure is applied to the casing and the stage collar is opened.
Closing Plug

2. Circulation is established and first-stage cement is mixed and pumped.

5. Circulation is established and second-stage cement is mixed and pumped. 6. The closing plug is launched and cement is displaced. At the end of displacement, the closing plug lands and effects a seal in the stage collar. Pressure is applied to the casing and the stage collar is closed.

3. The first-stage sealing plug is launched and cement is displaced. At the conclusion of displacement, the first-stage sealing plug lands and effects a seal against the float collar. No baffle is required.

Opening Dart

First stage sealing plug

Drilling
As previously stated this section of the well will often drill through production zones therefore any hole problems encounter must be cured before continuing with the drilling

Two such problems that cost the industry dearly are:

Stuck Pipe Lost Circulation

Over an average year the combined cost in none productive time (NPT) will be in the region of $300,000,000 to 400,000,000

Lost Circulation introduction

Losses of whole mud to subsurface formations is called lost circulation or lost returns. Lost circulation has historically been one of the primary contributors to high mud costs. Other hole problems such as wellbore instability, stuck pipe and even blowouts have been the result of lost circulation.

Besides the obvious benefits of maintaining circulation, preventing or curing mud losses is important to other drilling objectives such as obtaining good quality formation evaluation and achieving an effective primary cement bond on casing. Loss circulation occurs in one of two basic ways: 1.Invasion or mud loss to formations that are cavernous, vugular, fractured or unconsolidated. 2. Fracturing which is mud loss due to hydraulic fracturing from excessive induced pressures

Invasion
In many cases, lost circulation cannot be prevented in formations that are cavernous, vugular, fractured or unconsolidated.
Depleted low-pressure formations (usually sands) are similar relative to lostcirculation potential. Course, unconsolidated formations can have sufficiently high permeability for whole mud to invade the formation matrix, resulting in lost circulation. This high permeability is often present in shallow sands and gravel beds. Formations that were once reefs and oyster beds also have similar tendencies. One important reason for preventing mud loss in shallow intervals is that it may cause these unconsolidated formations to wash out, forming a large cavity that is less stable which could cave in more easily from overburden and rig weight.

Depleted formations
Another potential loss zone is in depleted formations (usually sands). Producing formations in the same field, or general vicinity, may cause subnormal (depleted) formation pressure due to the extraction of the formation fluids. In such a case, mud weights required to control other exposed formation pressures may be too high for the depleted formation, forcing mud to invade the low pressure depleted formation.

If this situation exists, plans should be formulated to prevent lost circulation or stuck pipe from occurring in the depleted zone. Special bridging agents and sealing materials should be used to form a good seal and filter cake on the depleted zone

Cavernous or vulgar zones

Cavernous or vugular zones are usually associated with low-pressure carbonate (limestone and dolomite) or volcanic formations. In limestone, vugs are created by the previous continuous flow of water that dissolved part of the rock matrix (leaching), creating a void space often later filled with oil.

When these vugular formations are drilled, the drillstring may fall freely through the void zone and a rapid loss of mud is usually experienced.
The volume and persistence of this kind of loss depends on the degree to which the vugs are interconnected. Similar vugs and caverns can develop during the cooling of volcanic magma or ash. Cavernous and vugular formations are often easily traceable from offset wells and predictable from mud logs and lithology. Mud loss also occurs to fissures or fractures in wells where no coarsely permeable or cavernous formations exist. These fissures or fractures may occur naturally, or may be initiated or extended by hydraulically imposed pressures. Natural fractures exist in many cases, which may be impermeable under balanced pressure conditions. Losses may also occur at unsealed fault boundaries.

Fissures or Fractures
Cavernous and vugular formations are often easily traceable from offset wells and predictable from mud logs and lithology.
Mud loss also occurs to fissures or fractures in wells where no coarsely permeable or cavernous formations exist. These fissures or fractures may occur naturally, or may be initiated or extended by hydraulically imposed pressures.

Natural fractures exist in many cases, which may be impermeable under balanced pressure conditions. Losses may also occur at unsealed fault boundaries.

Fracturing.
Hydraulic fracturing is initiated and lost circulation occurs when some critical fracture pressure is reached or exceeded.
Once a fracture is created or opened by an imposed pressure, it may be difficult to repair (heal) and it may never regain the original formation strength, Lost circulation may persist even though the pressure is later reduced. This is one reason why it is better to retreat for, and prevent, lost circulation than to permit it to occur. Lost circulation resulting from induced pressure is usually caused by one of two situations:

Setting intermediate casing in the wrong place. If casing is set above the transition zone crossing from normal to abnormal pressures, the pressures exerted by the heavier mud (required to balance the increasing pressures) will often induce fracturing at the weak casing seat. Losses due to fracturing are most commonly near the previous casing seat, not at bit depth, even if casing is properly set. Excessive downhole pressures are the result of many conditions including:

Mechanical forces
During the planning phase of the well, casings and drillstring design should be engineered for proper and safe operation, and also to optimize hydraulics for good hole cleaning and minimum ECD, especially in sensitive areas. Wash and ream cautiously through bridges.

Improper hydraulics. Excessive pump rates and velocities causing high Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) pressures.

Use enough drill collars to keep the neutral point in the Bottom- Hole Assembly (BHA) to minimize drillstring whipping.

Drilling Practices
Increasing pump rates too rapidly after connections and trips. This can be extremely important when dealing with oil-base fluids. Failure to bring the pumps up to speed slowly can put much higher circulating pressures on the formation due to the tendency of oil base muds to thin at higher temperatures generated while circulating and to thicken at lower temperatures during trips. It is common for circulating pressures to decrease 100+ psi as the mud heats to circulating temperature. Raising or lowering the pipe too fast (surge/swab).

Spudding bridges.
Excessive Rate of Penetration (ROP) for a given flow rate will result in high cuttings concentration in the annular fluid causing a high ECD. Pipe whipping.

Hole conditions.
Sloughing shale or increased solids loading in the annulus and high equivalent circulating density.

Accumulation of cuttings in a washed-out portion of the hole or in the mud.

Cuttings beds or barite sag forming on the low side of a directional well, or possible slumping. Bridges. Kicks and well-control procedures.

Mud properties.
Excessive viscosities and gel strengths. Build-up of drilled solids. Thick filter cakes that reduce the hydraulic diameter of the wellbore. Excessive mud density or increasing mud density too fast. Unbalanced mud columns. Barite sag

Bottom hole pressure

In this graft we can see what the combined effects of the different operation while tripping and drilling can have on a normal drilling operation

Fracture Gradient
Breaking circulation

Surge
Reaming

Circulating the hole clean

Mud Weight Formation Pressure

RIH

ECD Drilling Cir POOH

Swabbing Bottom-hole pressure for normal drilling cycle

Lost Circulation
Many wells experience lost circulation while running pipe or casing into the hole. The length of pipe in the hole affects the magnitude of the surge.
Tests show that the flow of mud along the pipe creates most of the pressure surge. The longer the pipe, the greater the surge. Therefore, the deeper the well, the slower the pipe should be run into the hole as the depth of the bit increases.

Smaller annular clearances also increase surge pressures much in the same way annular pressure losses are increased as annular clearances decrease

Lost circulation
Rapid movement of pipe while circulating also causes even greater pressure surges. Rapid spudding of the pipe or fast reaming while circulating can create large surges.

Very high ROP loads the annulus with cuttings, thus increases the ECD, making any further surging on connections more likely to cause fracturing. It is important to control the ROP and circulate prior to making connections when the ECD is near the fracture pressure.

Maintain the cuttings concentration in the annulus below 4% to minimize the effect of cuttings on ECD.

Mud Pump effect

Rapid starting or stopping of the mud pumps can cause pressure surges. Starting the pumps too rapidly will create a pressure that can cause lost circulation, especially when breaking circulation on bottom after a trip.

Part of the surge is caused by pressure required to break the gel structure of the mud.
Rotating the pipe when starting circulation will aid breaking the gel strengths and greatly reduce the surge pressure.

The other part of the surge is the pressure required to accelerate the mud column to the normal circulating rate.
Maintaining low gel structure and gradually increasing the pump rate will reduce this type of surge pressure.

Breaking circulation at several intervals when tripping in hole is another way to minimize these pressures.

Kicks
Avoid kicks if possible. Shut-in pressure at the surface is transmitted down the wellbore, often breaking the formation down at the weakest point.
This not only results in loss of circulation, but losing control of the well. Proper research, well planning and execution will minimize the possibility and severity of a kick. Those responsible for the operation at the wellsite should always be aware of the maximum shut-in casing pressure and volume. The volume of the intruding fluid is directly related to the shut-in pressures and should be minimized. If a well has to be shut-in, proper kill procedures should be used to maintain the right constant bottom-hole pressure required to kill the well.

Control mud properties

High viscosity and gel strengths increase surge pressures each time circulation is interrupted and restored. They also increase the ECD while drilling. These values should be optimized to ensure good hole cleaning and solids suspension, and minimize ECD, surge and swab pressures. Many times mud properties can not be kept at a level which will provide adequate hole cleaning due to other operational considerations. Higher flow rates and aggressive drill pipe rotation are the best methods to improve hole cleaning. High viscosity sweeps are recommended in such cases where good hole cleaning is questionable. These sweeps are usually made of mud from the active system that has been viscosified by additions of bentonite, polymers or Lost-Circulation

Material (LCM). The use of LCM in these sweeps is preferable in many cases since they are screened out at the surface and have no permanent effect on the viscosity of the mud.

Controlling the ROP

Controlling the ROP may be necessary if efficient hole cleaning can not be achieved. Although this may lengthen the rotating hours, it will generally be less expensive than the costs incurred by losing returns. Control drill solids at the minimum practical level and add proper treatment to minimize filter-cake build-up. Anything that reduces the annular clearance causes a pressure increase. Balling of the bit, collars, stabilizers or tool joints decreases the annular clearance. In the case of extensive bit and/or stabilizer balling, a significant pressure will be exerted on the formation. An increase in drag or swabbing on connections are possible indicators of balling.

Sometimes a ball can be pumped off a bit, but if that fails, the common practice of spudding the bit should be avoided.
The combination of the reduced annular clearance and the pipe surge can cause the pressure to exceed the fracture pressure.

High fluid-loss
High fluid-loss muds deposit a thick filter cake that can reduce the annular clearance. The smaller annular space increases the ECD.
Therefore, fluid loss and filter-cake thickness should always be controlled in the proper range.

Mud that develops a thin, strong filter cake is more effective in preventing lost circulation to small fractures or pores.
Drill with minimum mud density. This not only enhances the ROP but also diminishes other mud-related effects.

A good selection of the proper size of bridging materials helps reduce and eliminate whole mud losses into porous formations.
The choice of such bridging agents will depend on the formation characteristics. Generally, particles that are one-third to one-half the square root of the permeability in millidarcies (md) should be able to bridge such formations.

Differential sticking

Differential sticking or wall sticking as it is some times referred too is a major cause of concern as it is the most common of all the stuck pipe mechanisms . During all Balanced drilling operations the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure is designed and maintained to be at a level which exceeds the formation pore pressure.

Understanding = Prevention

Porosity
1. The percentage that the volume of the pore space bears to the total bulk volume. 2. The pore space determines the amount of space available for storage of fluids. 3. There is not a relationship between porosity and permeability. 4. A highly porous sand is usually highly pore space

matrix

permeable.

Permeability
1. Is the ability of a fluid to flow within the interconnected pore network of a porous medium 2. A rock may be highly porous and yet impermeable if there is no communication between pores. 3. It is the measure of the ease with which a fluid flows through the connecting pore spaces of rock or cement. 4. The unit of measurement is the millidarcy.

matrix

pore space

Slugs

Indications of a heavy slug will be seen while circulating bottoms up. Know when bottoms up is due. ? Have the mud cleaning equipment running as bottoms up comes over. Fluid weight must be monitored going in and coming out. Keep a record of the information and form a trend

Filter Cake
When a filter cake builds
on the formation, any contact area between the wellbore and the drill string increases.

The cause of filter cake build up is often the fault of excessive drill solids
and a high fluid loss.

This is quite common while drilling sandstone and top hole Under such condition, should the string be allowed to sit any length of
time, it will increase the possibility of becoming differentially stuck.

Control and maintain the fluid loss

Differential Sticking
Impermeable Zone

In a permeable formation, the pressure differential (overbalance) results in a flow of drilling fluid filtrates from the well to the formation.

Porous and permeable zone

Phyd

Pf

Impermeable Zone

Differential Sticking
Impermeable Zone

As a filtrate enters the formation the solids are screened and a filter cake is developed.

A pressure differential therefore exists across the filter cake which is equal to the overbalance

Porous and permeable zone

Phyd

Pf

Impermeable Zone

Differential Sticking
Impermeable Zone
If the overbalance, and therefore the side loading of the pipe, is high enough and acts over a sufficiently large area, the pipe will become

STUCK.

Porous and permeable zone

Impermeable Zone

Mud = Pm

Formation pressure = Pf

Differential force = P x contact area = ( Pm Pf) x Ac x friction factor Pipe

Mud cake

Contact area =Ac

Contact Area
Contact area = part of the perimeter of the pipe which contact the hole Perimeter of drillpipe = Pi x 5 = 3.14 x 5 = 15.75 inch Not all the drillpipe will contact the wall of the hole

Usually 20 -30% of perimeter contacts the wall of the hole

ie 20% x 15.75 = 3 inch ie 30% x 15.75 = 4.7 inch

Example Pore pressure = 4000 psi Mud pressure = 5000 psi

Overpull
4 inc h

25 ft sand 4000 psi

25 ft (= 300 inch)

Contact area= 4 inch of pipe x 300 inch of sand

Differential force= (5000-4000) psi x 4x300 = 1,200,000 lb

Differential sticking : summary

1. The combined Conditions that can cause differential sticking to occur are. 2. The hydrostatic pressure of the mud column at a given point must exceed the pressure of the formation at the same point. 3. The adjacent formation must be permeable and porous, 4. The string will need to be left stationary or slow moving?

Differential sticking

Other influences
Other Conditions that have an influence would include:
High fluid loss to the formation. Thick filter cakes. High-solids mud's. High-density mud's. Pipe sitting still (no movement).

Potential Problems

Prevention is better than cure

1. With a better understanding we can eliminate differential sticking. 2. Yes that right We can Eliminate

3. Prevention is better than cure.

4. Prevention means team work. 5. Prevention means communication. 6. Prevention is training Teamwork means pulling in the same direction

Time Limits
1. There is no time limit on the string remaining stationary, 2. A drill string may become stuck the moment the pipe stops moving. 3. The longer the pipe is stuck, the harder it is to free. 4. Your must reactions immediately. 5. More about that later

Control of Differential Sticking Factors

It would be impossible to drill a well/hole with drilling fluid and eliminated all of the conditions that are associated with differential sticking. What we must do is reduce and control the factors that have an influence over the three major issues.

1.Permeability : CAN NOT Change nature,

2.Overbalance: yes controllable, 3.Human: Educate

Overbalance:
1. Fast drilling the more solids will gather in the drilling fluid. 2. The higher the solids the higher the fluid weight 3. Solids build thicker the wall cake. 4. The thicker the wall cake the higher the risk: remember thick filter cake more contact area and more friction 5. The solid content needs to be controlled. 6. One way of doing this is to slow down the penetration rate.

Solids in mud : Shale Shakers

1. When the penetration rate is high the shakers will not take the flow rate.
2. Slow down the penetration rate. 3. Use the proper mash screens 4. Check Shaker Screens for holes and rips. Change damage screens

immediately

5. Use all the shakers all the time on surface hole

6. Do not bypass the shakers.??

Mud Cleaning Equipment

Shakers are your first line of defence dont by pass it.

Different equipment is designed to take out different sizes solid.

Mud cleaning equipment must be in good working order. The right equipment
should be run as and when needed.

Understanding the equipment and it functions Keep the sand traps clean
by dumping regular

By passing the shakers

Not only dose by passing the shaker influence the drilling

fluid weight, it is the major cause of rig down time.

High solid concentrations mean Wash-outs in:

Pumps. High pressure lines. Drill String. And suction plugging, Together they extend the time to drill the well, exposing the
formation longer than necessary. Dont Do It

Slugs

Slugging the pipe (pumping heavy fluid on trips) is the most common cause of differential sticking in production formations. Keep slugs to a minimum. Only pump when needed, Slugs increase the drilling fluid weight. Be aware that depleted formation are potential danger areas. Pipe lost in such formation often mean a re-drill

Slugs

o
o o o

Experience has shown that good mud rheology is very important to hole cleaning and well stability.
A well balanced fluid weight, the smaller the slug volume and lower the weight may be. One pound per gallon over balance in a 10 barrel slug will unbalance the fluid. Never pump a slug until the bit is in safe hole, this may mean pulling wet for a given amount of pipe. Pull Wet

Slugs

Indications of a heavy slug will be seen while circulating bottoms up. Know when bottoms up is due. ? Have the mud cleaning equipment running as bottoms up comes over. Fluid weight must be monitored going in and coming out. Keep a record of the information and form a trend

Stuck Pipe
There are many other ways the pipe can become stuck however differential sticking is common to all wells where as other are more common in deviated well some will be discussed in the directional class

All thought stuck pipe and associated problems are the root to many of the wells problems surprisingly few companies are prepared to send the drilling crews to school on a regular base.

A good stuck pipe class would last a week and would involve all the aspects and basic fundamentals involved with the actual drilling of the well.

Cores
While downhole logs are complementary to core measurements, they also offer certain advantages.

In a hole where there is only limited core recovery, the depth location of the incomplete cores can be uncertain; (Cores are taken while drilling the well) logs provide a continuous depth record of formation properties.

Where there is preferential recovery of a certain rock type -- for example, basalt pillows can be more easily recovered than breccia -- the logs can reveal a more realistic stratigraphy.

The in-situ nature of the downhole measurements is in contrast to measurements on recovered core: when material is no longer under the high-pressure conditions that exist at depth, it can physically expand and gas hydrates can dissociate.

Logging
Often after penetrating a potential productive zone, the formations will be tested.

This will determine if expensive completion procedures will be used. The first evaluation is normally made by logging.

Downhole logging is the process of measuring physical, chemical, and structural properties of penetrated geological formations using logging tools that are either lowered into the borehole on a wireline cable (wireline logging) or placed just behind the drill bit as part of the drill string itself (logging-while-drilling). The tools employ various acoustic, nuclear, and electrical measurement techniques to acquire downhole logs of properties such as sonic velocity, density, and electrical resistivity.

The wireline cable provides real-time communication between the tools and the surface;

Previously run logging-while-drilling tools typically record the logs in downhole memory devices, which were subsequently downloaded when the tool returns to surface,
Advancements over the past years have improved to the point that we can now have continuous real time readouts at surface and can monitor and store data .

The downhole logs are rapidly collected, are continuous with depth, and measure in situ properties.

They can be interpreted in terms of the formations stratigraphy, lithology, and mineralogy. The sampling interval is typically 15 cm, with a vertical resolution of about 35 cm. Logging tools are generally designed to measure formation properties some distance into the formation, in order to minimize the effects of variable borehole diameter and roughness. Logs also provide the major link between borehole and seismic section: sonic velocity logs and checkshots improve depth to travel-time conversion, and synthetic seismograms may be compared directly to the seismic section.

The tools relay signals back to the surface for observation and recording. Analysts use these recorded signals to determine potential producing formations and their exact depth. Such tools make use of the difference in electrical conductivities of rock, water, and petroleum. Other tools use differences in radioactivity, neutron absorption, and acoustic wave absorption. to detect possible oil or gas accumulations. Reservoir modelling teams can get information about permeability from cores and logs, however this date is often incomplete, or may not be representative of properties within the reservoir.

Well testing
Faults can be mapped from well-log data and seismic, but this data is a little thin and it is difficult to make out or recognise from seismic data such information to whether or not a fault is sealing. Parameters such as the average pressure is very important to reservoir surveillance and management. One of the few ways to get any of this data is by pressure transient analysis. (Well Testing)

Basically well testing can be described as a set period of time during which the production rate and/or pressure of a well is recorded and is used to obtain an estimate of the well or reservoir properties,

There are several methods used and the condition under which the tests are performed may vary a little

Drill Stem Testing (DST)

DSTs are often run after intervals that look promising based on log evaluation. Formations of interest can then be evaluated under production conditions.

Testing provides information that is used to determine the economic viability of a well prior to completion.

Individual zones are temporarily isolated to evaluate important reservoir characteristics such as permeability, skin damage, pressures, fluid properties and boundaries.

Open hole single packer testing assembly

Test string (Tubing or Drill Pipe)

By isolating the production formation from the hydrostatic head of the fluid column

Impact Reversing sub Tubing Dual closed in pressure Valve Reverse Circulation ports Choke or handling sub Hydro-spring Tester By pass port Pressure recorder Jars Safety Joint By pass port Formation to be tested Temperature Recorder Pressure Recorder
Blanked off

Packer (expandable)

Anchor & safety Joint Flush Joint

Isolating plug

Open hole straddle packer

New tool have been developed that will transmit bottom hole pressure and temperature data to the surface in real-time through electromagnetic waves. This enables potential problems down hole to be identified immediately, and optimizes time management by allowing decisions to be made while the tools are still in place down hole. Such tests incorporate the use of packers, down hole choke and pressure gauges safety valves and so on. The DST is considered to be one of the more hazardous operation within the drilling industry.

Open hole straddle packer test tools Test string (Tubing or Drill Pipe)

Upper body pressure equalise & pressure equalising port

Packer (expandable) Impact Reversing sub Tubing Dual closed in pressure Valve Reverse Circulation ports Choke or handling sub Hydro-spring Tester By pass port Pressure recorder Flush Joint Anchor Jars Safety Joint By pass port Pressure Recorder
Blanked off

Anchor & safety Joint Flush Joint Equalising tube Formation to be tested Temperature Recorder Pressure Recorder
Blanked off

Packer (expandable)

Hookwall packer test

Test string (Tubing or Drill Pipe) The RTTS Packer is a fullopening, hookwall packer used in testing, treating, and squeeze cementing operations In most cases, the tool runs with a circulating valve assembly The packer can be set and relocated as many times as necessary by simple manipulation of the testing string. Tubing-type guns and other wireline tools can be run through the packer. Impact Reversing sub Tubing Dual closed in pressure Valve Reverse Circulation ports Choke or handling sub Hydro-spring Tester By pass port Pressure recorder Jars Safety Joint By pass port

RTTS Testing packer and tool

Collar

Tail Pipe (perforated)

Pressure Recorder
Blanked off

Temperature Recorder

Test Tree
To control the formation flow rate a test tree is installed that incorporated a swivel Basically all it is, is a combination of valves That are made up on top of the test string and will divert the formation fluid to the choke and on to the separators. The surface test tree must be equipped with swab, master, kill and flow valves. A swivel, positioned above the master valve, must also be incorporated to allow rotation of the string.

Kill

Flow

Been choke (fixed size) To separators Flow from formation Adjustable choke

The test choke

The test choke is design with two chokes " that's the gray bits." The top choke is a manual adjustable, that can be regulated as the well is flowing.
Leading into the choke from the test tree are chick-sans. and a manifold that must have sufficient points for analogue pressure and temperature monitoring, electronic data acquisition sensors, dead weight tester, sand erosion probe, sampling and injection, each equipped with double block and bleed valves. The choke manifold must have two flow paths, one with facilities to install and change fixed chokes and one with an adjustable choke. Each flow path shall have minimum two closing valves with bleed off facilities between the valves and ports for pressure measurements both up and down stream of chokes. All valves in the choke manifold must have the same pressure rating. Provision for installation of fixed chokes in both flow paths should be available.

The typical drill stem test

The typical drill stem test will be split into four period, Pre flow. initial shut in period, a main flow period and a final shut in period.

Times of for each test are dependent on conditions at the well site drill stem tests may be run at any time during the drilling operation at the current depth or may be used to test any interval in the hole after TD has been reached. Using these data and based on the evaluation of engineers and geologists, management can base a decision to complete the hole for potential production of oil or gas or proceed with abandonment.

Pre flow Pre flow is a production period to clean up the well and is used to remove any supercharge given to the formation due to mud infiltrating into the prospective formation during the drilling operation. T o understand the clean up you will need to understand what happens to the formation while it is being drilled. Drilling fluids are designed to build a wall cake "filter cake" to stop fluid penetration and damaging the formation. This cake will take time to build. In the mean time chemical from the fluid along with fine materials will be force into the formation plugging the pores. Such damage can go back into the formation as much as 6 ft. Therefore as a rule, the larger the formation being tested the longer the clean up. Fortunately on an open hole DST this would be the first flow test from the formation and there for the formation pressure would be at it highest.

Initial shut in Initial shut in This period is to allow the formation to recover from pressure surges caused during the pre flow. This will often be referred to as "closed in for the pressure build up" this period will be longer. The wellbore will return to its initial level giving the formation pressure minus the hydrostatic head of the formation fluid

Main flow Main flow is a more lengthy production period designed to test the formations flow characteristics more rigorously.

Samples of any fluids will be checked for water content. Gas bubble bust pressure temperature and many other nice surprises. This will be done using set choke or variable chokes. Sample reaching surface will be measured as to volume and gathered for analysis in a laboratory. Samples of any fluids in the drill string at the conclusion of the test will be measured as to volume and gathered for analysis. Flowing pressures and temperatures will be recorded.

Final shut in Final shut in - formation pressure is recorded over this period.

The shape of the pressure build up curve will tell us the permeability of the formation, the degree of formation damage (likely caused during the drilling operation),

It will also tell us if we have found a small reservoir but there is no telling if it a big one. only more drilling can really determine the size of a reservoir.

Such drilling is known as appraisal or step out drilling and uses much of the data collected from the initial well,

Production Casing
If the operating company decides to set casing, the production casing will be brought to the rig along with the casing and cementing crew. Usually, the production casing is set and cemented through the pay zone; that is, the hole is drilled to a depth beyond the producing formation, and the casing is set to a point near the bottom of the hole. As a result, the casing and cement actually seal off the producing zone-but only temporarily. After the production string is cemented, the drilling has almost finished and the completion begins .

Perforating
Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string and cement, perforations must be made in order for the oil or gas to flow into the wellbore. Perforations are simply holes that are made through the casing and cement and extend some distance into the formation. The most common method of perforating incorporates shapedcharge explosives (similar to those used in armor-piercing shells).

Shaped charges accomplish penetration by creating a jet of high-pressure, highvelocity gas. The charges are arranged in a tool called a gun that is lowered into the well opposite the producing zone.

Usually the gun is lowered in on wireline. When the gun is in position, the charges are fired by electronic means from the surface. After the perforations are made, the tool is retrieved. Perforating is usually performed by a service company that specializes in this technique and maybe done before the completion are after.

Well head configuration

Building the wellhead: As each section of the well is drilled so the wellhead configuration will change Here we see the configuration up to the tubing spool

Annular gate valve, to be the same pressure rating as the tubing spool

Casing string is cut 4 3/4 above the top of the last well head and fits up inside the next flange

Annular gate valve, to be the same pressure rating as the wellhead Production/Protective casing X Bushing, installed in the flange before installing over casing stump Casing slips

Intermediate Casing

Before the casing string is cut casing slips are installed to support the string weight and seal of the annuals Wellhead, Welded or screwed on and is the first flange to be associated with the well control equipment

Surface Casing Conductor/Drive Pipe

Tubing Head/Spool
Polish Nipple tubing hanger lock down dogs

Tubing hangers
The completion (tubing) is not cemented in but hung off in the last casing head. This is done be means of a tubing hanger, that also act to seal that annuals between the production casing and the tubing. There are as many type of tubing hangers as there are different types of completion. How ever most have two things in common a) they are screwed onto the last join of tubing, b) they have a polish nipple of some sort that insert up into the production tree. They come as one piece for single completion or split for dual completions. The hanger often serves as the adapter to the control line that is run into the well to operate the Sub Surface Safety Valve that many companies install between 200 and 300 m below the well head to close in the flow should there be a problem on surface such as a blowout on a near by well

Tubing Head/Spool
The well will be completed with the BOPs still in place. When the completion if finished the BOP will be remover and the production tree will be installed here

With the tubing run a tubing hanger will be installed and then completion string is lowered into the tubing head and landed, the locking dogs will then be screwed in. Once done the annular between the tubing and production casing can be tested. Once tested the landing joints will be backed out and back pressure valves will be installed in the top of the tubing hanger. The BOP will then be removed Production Casing

Seals

At this point the well may or may not have been perforated

Completion String

1/4 Monel for SSSV

Single string completion

Production Tubing spaced out Hydraulic Sub Surface Safety Valve (SSSV) The basic single completion can produce from more than one production zone providing the formation pressure are the same. However the completion can be as many as three or four string of tubing in the same well producing from different zones with different pressures and in some cases different fluid

Completion tubing complete with gas lift mandrels for enhanced recover at a later stage

Production Packer Seal assembly and ported valve Ported Valve and hanging Nipples Re-entry sub

Completion Equipment
The completion provides:

Seals, And a means to control the production There are many type of completion that varies according to the type of operation that is expected from the well. Not all wells are drill to produce from the formations however all will have some form of production tree installed on the casing.

Standard production tree

Manual Valves
The valve body ,bonnet are made of low alloy steel or stainless steel. Seal surfaces of gate and seat are made of tungsten carbide . The casting body gate valve available in working pressure from 2000 to 5,000psi and forging body gate valve available in working pressure from 10000 to 15000psi,

Feature and Benefits: metal to metal seat /gate seal, metal to metal stem backseat, metal to metal body/bonnet assembly

Non-rising Stem Gate Valve

The balanced stem valve is for high pressure service . The use of second stem balances out the body pressure acting against a single stem. this eliminates the thrust load carried by the bearing. Pressure rating for both types of valve are from 2000 psi to 20000 psi. Main nominal size from 1-13/16" to 4-1/16". Manual valve are use as the inside isolation valve on high pressure lines such as choke and kill lines on the BOP or production tree The Balanced stem also known as the rising stem

Hydraulic Gate Valve & Expanding Gate Valve

Hydraulic Gate valve can be operated remotely Series hydraulic gate valve is available in working pressure from 5,000 to 20,000psi and main nominal size from 1-13/16" to 4-1/16". Providing you keep with the same companies the feature of hydraulic gate valve is as same as gate valve . Hydraulic Gate Valve Surface safety valve that is often used in Christmas tree as a master, wing valve ,shutdown valves, and pipeline control valves. Hydraulic safe valve is a terminal performance mechanism in well safety system . The valve is held open under pressure and closes automatically when danger signal is sent to safe system.
Hydraulic Safe Valve

Chokes
Positive Chokes Positive or fixed choke valves are available in working pressure from 2,000 to 20,000psi and flange size from 1-13/16" to 4-1/16" and maximum orifice size from 1" to 3"
Bean of choke and seat are made of tungsten carbide or ceramics, so it has feature of abrasion resistance ,wash resistance and reliable serviceability.

Positive Chokes

Adjustable Choke valves is available in working pressure from 2,000 to 20,000psi and flange size from 1-13/16" to 4-1/16" and orifice size from 1" to 3 Choke valve with conical needle are used for Christmas Tree. Conical choke needle and seat are made of tungsten carbide, so it has feature of abrasion resistance ,wash resistance and reliable serviceability Adjustable Choke Both types are used on well control and test manifolds for controlling the fluid flow rate.

Bonnet Assembly Duel completion

The major difference between a single and duel completion spool is the tubing hanger.
His has to be split as both completion strings will be run independently and will be hung off while test are made on each The guide allows the tubing to be landed correctly the tree the bonnet polish nipples tubing hanger locking dogs

guide

tubing head spool

Duel Completion.

A more complicated completion will be that of a multy production completion. Here we see a tree that has been designed to produce from more than one Production or protective casing formation

Intermediate casing Surface casing

Completions

A completion of this type may very well be designed as part of a drill stem testing (DST) procedure. Each formation may be tested thought perforations made in the casing and dependent on the outcome, packers or screens may be set and made ready for the completion string to be run at a later date, should the formation be non productive the perforations will be squeezed off with cement.

Safety valve
As a rule of thumb the well will only be drilled once, however during its production life it could have as many as 5 workover operation to keep it producing.
Not all operations will involve the use of a rig, It may only need a wire line unit or coil tubing unit to put things back in order. But should a rig be needed the of this work will be done using a small rig a double or single pulling rig. This course is far to short to go into all the aspect of completion and the equipment used

The long string will produce from the lower production zones and the short string from to upper zones

Sum up
Unlike the rig The tree will stay on the well for as long as the well flows. The production tree may look complicated however it is just a collection of valves that are designed to direct and control the flow. In this case there are two strings of tubing in the hole producing from three zones. The reason for this is the zone at the bottom has a much higher pressure and should it flow up the same line as the other two producing formation it would stop them flowing.

It is very easy to make the mistake that the higher the pressure the more production. This is totally wrong. Over the years I have drilled wells that have produce 100,000 bbls a day from one formation with a surface flowing pressure of no more than 700 psi.
Other wells have had surface pressure that once opened up to flow would flow at 5000 bbls a day, From the previous page you can see that if all the formation were producing up one string the production from the lower formation would be going into the upper formation and you would only get 5000 bbls a day.

In the completion we have just looked at we see just the basic. Most are basic some just think a little ahead of time.

Gravel packing, fracturing, acidizing are ways of opening up tight formation and allowing the formation fluid freer movement
Other methods of helping the well to flow will include the use of down hole pumps and nodding beams Here will take a look at some of the more common method of well inducement and at some of the procedures used on workover.

CO2-sand fracturing
CO2-sand fracturing stimulates the flow of hydrocarbons without the risk of formation damage and without producing wastes for disposal. Fracturing is widely used to stimulate production in declining wells and to initiate production in certain unconventional settings.

Fracturing has been widely used since the 1970s to increase production from formations with low permeability or wellbore damage. Unlike conventional hydraulic and acid fracturing techniques, fracturing an existing oil or gas well to stimulate production that has declined over time is significantly less costly than drilling a new well.

First used in the mid-1930S, fracturing treatments inject fluids under high pressure into the formation, creating new fractures and enlarging existing ones. Proppants (usually large grained sand or glass pellets) are added to the fluid to support the open fractures, enabling hydrocarbons to flow more freely to the wellbore.

A mixture of sand proppants and liquid CO2 is forced downhole, where it creates and enlarges fractures. Then the CO2 vaporizes, leaving only the sand to hold the fracture openno liquids, gels, or chemicals are used that could create waste or damage the reservoir.
Any reservoir that is water sensitive or susceptible to damage from invading fluids, gels, or surfactants is a candidate The process has had widespread success in Canada, and in the United States and more than two million fracturing treatments were performed by 2001, about 35 to 40 percent of existing wells are hydraulically fractured at least once in their lifetime. More than eight billion barrels of additional oil reserves have been recovered through this process in North America alone. CO2-sand fracturing treatments average from $30,000 to $50,000, depending on well depth and rock stresses. While often higher-cost than conventional methods, these costs are offset by savings realized through eliminating both swabbing rigs and the hauling, disposal, and maintenance costs associated with water-based systems. As in conventional fracturing, CO2-sand treatments can significantly increase a formations production and profitability.

Gas Lift
When a well has been drilled and tested. Depending on it ability to produce will be the completion design. Not all wells will flow under there own formation pressure. Heavy thick oil, height water content, tight formations and so on could stem the flow or kill the well. When one talks about well enhancement the first thing that normally comes to mind is fracturing the formation and acidizing. But even after this if the fluid is to heavy in so much as the hydrostatic head of the producing formation fluid is greater than that of the formation pressure the well will not flow under it own pressure.

Then we have to look at it from a different angle. If the conditions are right the best method would be to Gas lift.

Gas Lift
In a typical gas lift system, compressed gas, is pumped down the annuals between the tubing string and the production casing. Installed in the tubing when the well was completed are gas lift mandrill they are normally run with a dummy valve installed.

Once the completion is finished and tested the dummy is pull using wireline and a second valve is installed into the side pocket. this valve has been set to a given opening pressure.

There could be as many as seven or eight mandrills in the completion. all will have a valve installed in the side pocket and all at different pressure rating.

I would like to thank Weatherford for their support and permission in using the equipment as a teaching aid

Gas Lift Systems have proven successful in providing solutions with exceptional economic value and operating efficiencies. When natural gas is produced with oil or is available from nearby wells, gas lift is often the most preferred form of artificial lift. Gas lift is an artificial lift process that mostly resembles the natural flow process The primary requirement for gas lift applications is an available and economical supply of pressurized gas. Compressed gas is injected through gas lift mandrels and valves into the production string.

The gas being pumped down the annulus will be pumped so as the pressure of the gas being pumped plus the hydrostatic of the gas will open the one of the preset valves. The gas is then injected through the gas lift mandrels side port and down so as it come from the bottom of the valve installed in the side pocket and mixes with the fluid in the completion string.

Gas lift

The injected gas lowers the hydrostatic pressure in the production string enabling formation fluids to flow to the surface. Gas lift systems can be both continuous and intermittent flow. Because of its cyclic nature, intermittent lift is best suited to wells that produce at relatively low rates. Continuous lift will usually be more efficient and less expensive for wells that produce at higher rates where it can be maintained without excess use of injection gas

Gas Lift Advantages

High degree of flexibility and design rates Wireline retrievable Excellent handling of sandy conditions Allows for full bore tubing drift Minimal surface wellhead requirements Surface control of production rates Multi-well production from single compressor Multiple or slimhole completion applications

Minimal moving parts

Motor Valves
These diaphragm-actuated valves are used in cycle-type intermittent gas lift control, plunger lift, plunger lift, dump valve applications, differential control and other types of pneumatic wellhead controls for fluid or gas passage. Several material and trim sizes are available for both standard or H2S service.
Adjustable Chokes The in-line variable choke is a calibrated adjustable choke used for regulating injection. This lightweight choke easily adjusts to changing well conditions. The process of changing out the choke trim and replacing internal parts is extremely simplified with the design of this valve.

Controllers
Weatherford Controllers control pneumatic-actuated valves for time-cycle intermittent gas lift, plunger lift, or a combination of both. Several models are offered with features to match the type of control needed for specific applications. Among these are low-cost timers with optional solar panels and rechargeable batteries, high-end controllers that feature input for variable flow time, and selfadjusting automatic time-cycle controllers.

Motor Valves

There are a wide range of Latches for installing wireline-retrievable gas lift and chemical injection equipment in side pocket mandrels. These latches are specifically designed to lock in either a 180 or a 360 latch-pocket profile. To retrieve a latch and attached valve, upward jarring of the tool string shears the release shear pin, permitting the locking mechanism to disengage from the latch pocket profile.
Latches for a 180 latch pocket profile have a spring-loaded, ring-style locking mechanism. Latches for a 360 latch pocket profile have either a collet-type locking mechanism or a spring-loaded rotating cam lock with debris barrier.

Pump Jacks
The pumpjack unit nodding up and down by the road side is a familiar site to many in oil producing areas. Almost everyone knows what they are and how they work and they are part of many a petroleum related companys logo. The jack has become an enduring symbol of our industry despite continued competition from other forms of artificial lift such as the screw pump, strap jack, hydraulic jack, and jet pumps, the pumpjack is the most familiar. They also tend to be the most enduring. It is not uncommon to have a jack built in the 50s pumping away today. The secret is few moving parts and slow operation speed. Key also is the proper sizing and design of a beam installation. The tried and true method for doing this thus far has been the API Recommended Practice 11L method.

The pumpjack unit

The pumpjack unit is attached to rods, known as sucker rods, which are run on the inside of the tubing and are connected to a pump at the bottom of the tubing. The up and down motion of the pumpjack provides the stroking action necessary to operate the bottomhole pump.

Progressing Cavity Pumping

Progressing Cavity Pumping (PCP) Systems typically consist of a surface drive, drive string and downhole PC pump. The PC pump is comprised of a single helical-shaped rotor that turns inside a double helical elastomer-lined stator. The stator is attached to the production tubing string and remains stationary during pumping. In most cases the rotor is attached to a sucker rod string which is suspended and rotated by the surface drive. As the rotor turns eccentrically in the stator, a series of sealed cavities form and progress from the inlet to the discharge end of the pump. The result is a non-pulsating positive displacement flow with a discharge rate proportional to the size of the cavity, rotational speed of the rotor and the differential pressure across the pump.

Pump elements
There are two basic elements that make up the downhole Progressing Cavity (PC) Pump a single helical alloy-steel rotor connected to a rod string and a double helical elastomer-lined stator attached to the tubing string. Rotors are kept to tight tolerances and treated with chemical and abrasion-resistance coating, typically hard chrome.

The heart of the PC Pump is the stator elastomer itself. Stators comprise of a steel tube with an elastomer moulded inside to provide the internal geometry.
Each combination of rotor/stator is matched to downhole conditions to provide highly efficient operation and optimum production enhancement. These Pump tend to have an advantage over most lifting systems when it involves sand-laden heavy crude oil, and work just as well in any type of well, horizontal, slanted, directional or vertical.

Hydraulic Jet Lifting

When operation of a hydraulic lift system, crude oil or water is taken from the storage tank and fed to the surface pump. The power fluid, now under pressure built up by the surface pump, is controlled by valves at a control station and distributed to one or more wellheads. The power fluid passes through the wellhead valve and is directed to the downhole pump. In a piston pump installation, power fluid actuates the engine, which in turn drives the pump, and power fluid returns to the surface with the produced oil and is piped to the storage tank. A jet pump has no moving parts and employs the Ventura principle to use fluid under pressure to bring oil to the surface.

Power Fluid System

Hydraulic Lift Systems consist of a surface power fluid system, a prime mover, a surface pump, and a downhole jet or reciprocating/piston pump. These systems are renowned for their versatility and ability to operate in high volume, high depth environments. One major advantage to either system is the ability to hydraulically circulate the pumps to the surface for maintenance, dramatically reducing well downtime and eliminating pulling unit expenses. Their ability and versatility to operate in high-volume, high-depth environments, provide the flexibility in installation and operation to meet a broad range of artificial lift requirements. Offering both jet and piston hydraulic lift systems that range from depths Between 5,000 17,000 feet with volumes from 50 15,000 BPD,

Electric Submersible Pumps

Electric Submersible Pumping (ESP) Systems incorporate an electric motor and centrifugal pump unit run on a production string and connected back to the surface control mechanism and transformer via an electric power cable.
The downhole components are suspended from the production tubing above the wells' perforations. In most cases the motor is located on the bottom of the work string. Above the motor is the seal section, the intake or gas separator, and the pump. The power cable is banded to the tubing and plugs into the top of the motor.

Operating Depths
As the fluid comes into the well it must pass by the motor and into the pump. This fluid flow past the motor aids in the cooling of the motor. The fluid then enters the intake and is taken into the pump. Each stage (impeller/diffuser combination) adds pressure or head to the fluid at a given rate. The fluid will build up enough pressure as it reaches the top of the pump to lift it to the surface and into the separator or flowline. Operating depths up to 15,000 TVD and operating volumes to 30,000 BFPD, Electric Submersible Pumping (ESP) systems are often considered the high volume and depth champion among lift systems.

This system requires very little surface space, works well in highly deviated wells and is ideally suited for offshore applications and vertical wells.