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EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
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EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
Contact
Foreword
Where on Earth am I?
The answer to this seemingly simple question can sometimes be a matter of life and death. Consider an aviator trying to find a safe destination to land, or the crew of a ship in distress seeking assistance, or a hiker in the mountains disoriented by poor weather conditions. Your position on Earth is of vital importance and can have an immense varietyofimplicationsandapplications. These neednt be as dramatic as the circumstances above, but they can be situations that also have a significant impact on our daily lives. How do I find that address that Ive been searching for, or when or where should the public transitvehicletriggerthenexttrafficlight? The potential applications and uses of position information are seemingly limitless. Our position on this blue planet has always been vitally important to human beings and today our exact position is something that we can obtain withastonishingease. Amongthemoststunningtechnologicaldevelopmentsinrecentyearshavebeentheimmenseadvancesinthe realm of satellite navigation or Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) technologies. In a matter of a few years,satellitenavigationhasevolvedfromthelevelofsciencefictiontosciencefactwithadynamicandrapidly growing industry providing customers around the world with technology devoted to the rapid, reliable and readilyavailabledeterminationoftheirposition. As global leaders in this fascinating and rapidly changing industry, u-blox AG adds a Swiss accent and our obsession with precision and quality shows through. The men and women of this company are dedicated satellitenavigationenthusiasts,andasourmottosays,yourpositionisourfocus.Aspartofourcommitmentto customerservice,u-bloxAGispleasedtobeabletoprovideyouwiththiscompendiumtohelpleadyouintothe remarkableworldofsatellitenavigation. The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive overview of the way in which satellite navigation systems functionandtheapplicationstowhichtheycanbeused.Thecurrentlevelofdevelopmentaswellaschanges and innovations will be examined. It is written for users who are interested in the technology as well as specialistsinvolvedinsatellitenavigationapplications.Thedocumentisstructuredinsuchawaythatthereader can graduate from simple facts to more complex concepts. The basic theory of satellite navigation will be introducedandsupplementedbyotherimportantfacets.Thiscompendiumisintendedtoadditionallyserveas anaidinunderstandingthetechnologythatgoesspecificallyintocurrentsatellitenavigationreceivers,modules andICs.Importantnewdevelopmentswillbedealtwithinseparatesections.Acquiringanunderstandingofthe various current co-ordinate systems involved in using GNSS equipment can be a difficult task. Therefore, a separatechapterisdevotedtointroducecartography. Wehopethatthisdocumentwillbeofassistancetoyouandthatyouwillbeasenthusiasticasweareaboutthe technology involved in determining position. It is indeed an immensely fascinating world and industry that answersthequestionwhereonearthamI?
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
Foreword
Authors Preface
In1990,IwastravelingbytrainfromChurtoBrigintheSwisscantonofValais.Inordertopassthetimeduring the journey, I had brought along a few trade journals with me. While thumbing through an American publication, I came acrossa technical article that described a newpositioningand navigation system involving satellites.Thenewsystem,knownasGlobalPositioningSystemorGPS,employedanumberofUSsatellitesto determineonespositionanywhereintheworldtowithinanaccuracyofabout100m1. Asanavidsportsmanandmountainhiker,Ihadonmanyoccasionsendedupinprecarioussituationsduetoa lackofknowledgeoftheareaIwasin.Therefore,Iwasfascinatedbytherevolutionaryprospectofbeingableto determinemypositioneveninfogoratnightbyusingaGPSreceiver. IbegantointensivelyoccupymyselfwithGPS,arousingagreatdealofenthusiasmforthistechnologyamong studentsatmyuniversity,whichresultedinseveralresearchsemestersandgraduatethesesonthesubject.With time I felt that I had become a true expert on the subject and wrote technical articles about GPS for various publications.
A heartfelt wish
Iwishyoueverysuccessasyouembarkonyourjourneythroughthewide-rangingworldofsatellitenavigation andtrustthatyouwillsuccessfullynavigateyourwaythroughthisfascinatingtechnicalfield.Enjoyyourread! Jean-MarieZogg October2001 July2006
Thatwasin1990,positionaldataisnowaccuratetowithin5to10m!
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
AuthorsPreface
Contents
Contact................................................................................................................................3 Foreword ............................................................................................................................4 Authors Preface.................................................................................................................5 Contents..............................................................................................................................6 Introduction......................................................................................................................10 1 Satellite Navigation Made Simple.............................................................................12
1.1 Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltransittime ..................................................................................... 12 BasicPrinciplesofSatelliteNavigation ......................................................................................... 13 Signaltraveltime......................................................................................................................... 15 Determiningposition................................................................................................................... 16 Theeffectandcorrectionoftimeerror........................................................................................ 17 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4
Controlsegment ................................................................................................................................ 27 Usersegment ..................................................................................................................................... 27 TheGPSMessage ............................................................................................................................... 31 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 31 Structureofthenavigationmessage ........................................................................................... 31 Informationcontainedinthesubframes ...................................................................................... 32 TLMandHOW ............................................................................................................................ 32 Subdivisionofthe25pages......................................................................................................... 32 Comparisonbetweenephemerisandalmanacdata..................................................................... 32 NewModulationProcedure,BOC................................................................................................ 34 GPSModernization ..................................................................................................................... 36
UpgradingGPS ................................................................................................................................... 34
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
Contents
Calculating Position....................................................................................................48
4.1 4.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 48 Calculatingaposition ......................................................................................................................... 48 Theprincipleofmeasuringsignaltraveltime(evaluationofpseudorange)................................... 48 Linearizationoftheequation....................................................................................................... 50 Solvingtheequation ................................................................................................................... 52 Summary..................................................................................................................................... 52 ErroranalysisandDOP ................................................................................................................ 53
Coordinate systems....................................................................................................57
5.1 5.2 5.3 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 57 Geoids................................................................................................................................................ 57 Ellipsoidanddatum ............................................................................................................................ 58 Ellipsoid....................................................................................................................................... 58 Customizedlocalreferenceellipsoidsanddatum......................................................................... 59 NationalReferenceSystems......................................................................................................... 60 WorldwidereferenceellipsoidWGS-84 ....................................................................................... 60 Transformationfromlocaltoworldwidereferenceellipsoid......................................................... 61 ConvertingCo-ordinateSystems ................................................................................................. 62 Gauss-Krgerprojection(TransversalMercatorProjection) .......................................................... 64 UTMprojection ........................................................................................................................... 64 Swissprojectionsystem(ConformalDoubleProjection) ............................................................... 66 Worldwideconversionofcoordinates.......................................................................................... 67
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4
Planarregionalcoordinates,projection ............................................................................................... 63
6.3.1 6.3.2
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
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DGPSservicesforreal-timecorrection................................................................................................. 77
WideAreaDGPS(WADGPS) ............................................................................................................... 78
AchievableaccuracywithDGPSandSBAS .......................................................................................... 82 Assisted-GPS(A-GPS).......................................................................................................................... 82 TheprincipleofA-GPS ................................................................................................................ 82 A-GPSwithOnlineAidingData(Real-timeA-GPS)....................................................................... 84 A-GPSwithOfflineAidingData(PredictedOrbits) ....................................................................... 84 ReferenceNetwork...................................................................................................................... 84 ImprovedOscillatorStability ........................................................................................................ 85 Antennas..................................................................................................................................... 85 NoiseFigureConsiderations ........................................................................................................ 85 CorrelatorsandCorrelationTime ................................................................................................ 86
6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3 6.7.4 6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 6.8.3 6.8.4 6.9 6.10
HighSensitivityGPS(HSGPS) .............................................................................................................. 85
GNSS RECEIVERS.......................................................................................................115
8.1 BasicsofGNSShandheldreceivers.................................................................................................... 115
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
Contents
8.2.1 8.2.2
GNSS Applications....................................................................................................119
9.1 9.2 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 119 Descriptionofthevariousapplications.............................................................................................. 120 LocationBasedServices(LBS)..................................................................................................... 120 CommerceandIndustry ............................................................................................................ 120 CommunicationsTechnology .................................................................................................... 121 AgricultureandForestry ............................................................................................................ 122 ScienceandResearch ................................................................................................................ 122 Tourism/Sport.......................................................................................................................... 124 Military...................................................................................................................................... 124 TimeMeasurement ................................................................................................................... 124
Index .........................................................................................................................127
B.1 B.2 B.3 ListofFigures ................................................................................................................................... 127 ListofTables..................................................................................................................................... 129 Sources............................................................................................................................................. 131
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
Contents
Introduction
SatelliteNavigationisamethodemployingaGlobalNavigationSatelliteSystem(GNSS)toaccuratelydetermine position and time anywhere on the Earth. Satellite Navigation receivers are currently used by both private individualsandbusinessesforpositioning,locating,navigating,surveying,anddeterminingtheexacttimeinan ever-growinglistofpersonal,leisureandcommercialapplications. UsingaGNSSsystemthefollowingvaluescanaccuratelybedeterminedanywhereontheglobe(Figure1): 1. Exactposition(longitude,latitudeandaltitudeco-ordinates)accuratetowithin20mtoapprox.1mm. 2. Exacttime(UniversalTimeCoordinated,UTC)accuratetowithin60nstoapprox.5ns. Speed and direction of travel (course) can be derived from these values, which are obtained from satellites orbitingtheEarth.
Asof2007,theGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)developedandoperatedbytheUnitedStatesDepartmentof Defense(DoD)wastheonlyfullyoperationalGNSSsystem.TherapidlydevelopingSatelliteNavigationindustry hassprunguparoundtheGPSsystem,andforthisreasonthetermsGPSandSatelliteNavigationaresometimes used interchangeably. This document will place an emphasis on GPS, although other emerging GNSS systems willbeintroducedanddiscussed. GPS(thefullnameofthesystemis:NAVigationSystemwithTimingAndRangingGlobalPositioningSystem, NAVSTAR-GPS)isintendedforbothcivilianandmilitaryuse.TheciviliansignalSPS(Standard PositioningService) canbeusedfreelybythegeneralpublic,whilethemilitarysignalPPS(PrecisePositioningService)isavailableonly toauthorizedgovernmentagencies.ThefirstsatellitewasplacedinorbitonFebruary22,1978,anditisplanned to have up to 32 operational satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 20,180 km on 6 different orbital planes.Theorbitsareinclinedat55totheequator,ensuringthataleast4satellitesareinradiocommunication withanypointontheplanet.EachsatelliteorbitstheEarthinapproximately12hoursandhasfouratomicclocks onboard. DuringthedevelopmentoftheGPSsystem,particularemphasiswasplacedonthefollowingthreeaspects: 1. Ithadtoprovideuserswiththecapabilityofdeterminingposition,speedandtime,whetherinmotionorat rest. 2. Ithadtohaveacontinuous,global,all-weather3-dimensionalpositioningcapabilitywithahighdegreeof accuracy. 3. Ithadtoofferpotentialforcivilianuse.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation-Compendium GPS-X-02007-C
Introduction page10
Amongthesewillbeimportantadvancesforaviation,whereinapproachesandlandingsusingsatellitenavigationshouldbecomepossible.
start tim
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SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page12
TransmittedSignal
ReceivedSignal TravelTime
Figure 4: In the simplest case Distance is determined by measuring the Travel Time
ThedistanceDiscalculatedbymultiplyingthetraveltimebythevelocityoflightc. D=c Becausethetimeoftheclockonboardourcarmaynotbeexactlysynchronizedwiththeclockatthetransmitter, there can be a discrepancy between the calculated and actual distance traveled. In navigation this incorrect distance is referred to as pseudorange. In our example a time error of one microsecond (1s) generates a pseudorangeof300m. Wecouldsolvethisproblembyoutfittingourcarwithanexactatomicclock,butthiswouldprobablyexceedour budget.Anothersolutioninvolvesusingasecondsynchronizedtimesignaltransmitter,forwhichtheseparation (A)tothefirsttransmitterisknown.Bymeasuringbothtraveltimesitispossibletoexactlyestablishthedistance (D)despitehavinganimpreciseonboardclock.
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SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page13
ReceivedSignals 1 TravelTime2
TransmittedSignal2 2
TimeSignal Transmitter2
D=
( 1 2 ) c + A
2
Aswehaveseen,inordertoexactlycalculatethepositionandtimealongaline(bydefinitionalineexpandsin onedimension)werequiretwotimesignaltransmitters.Fromthiswecandrawthefollowingconclusion:When an unsynchronized onboard clock is employed in calculating position, it is necessary that the number of time signaltransmittersexceedthenumberofunknowndimensionsbyavalueofone. ForExample: Onaplane(Expansionintwodimensions)weneedthreetimesignaltransmitters. Inthree-dimensionalspaceweneedfourtimesignaltransmitters.
SatelliteNavigationSystemsusesatellitesastimesignaltransmitters.Contacttoatleastfoursatellites(Figure6) is necessary in order to determine the three desired coordinates (Longitude, Latitude, Altitude) as well as the exacttime.Weexplainthisinmoredetailinfollowingsections.
Sat. 3 Sat. 2 Sat. 4
Sat. 1
SatelliteSignal
TravelTime t
Transmission Reception
Figure 6: Four satellites are needed to determine Longitude, Latitude, Altitude and Time
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page14
Signal
Aswiththeexampleofthecar,thedistanceDtothesatellitecanbedeterminedfromtheknownsignaltravel time:
distance = traveltime speed oflight : D = c
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page15
X - coordinates
Figure 8: The position of the receiver at the intersection of the two circles
In the real world, a position has to be determined in three-dimensional space rather than on a plane. As the differencebetweenaplaneandthree-dimensionalspaceconsistsofanextradimension(heightZ),anadditional thirdsatellitemustbeavailabletodeterminethetrueposition.Ifthedistancetothethreesatellitesisknown,all possiblepositionsarelocatedonthesurfaceofthreesphereswhoseradiicorrespondtothedistancecalculated. Thepositionisthepointwhereallthreeofthespheresintersect(Figure9).
Position
Figure 9: The position is determined at the point where all three spheres intersect
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page16
Sat. 1 Sat. 4
Signal
Figure 10: Four satellites are required to determine a position in 3-D space.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
SatelliteNavigationMadeSimple page17
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page18
Space segment
From satellites L1 carrier signals - time pulses - ephemeris - almanac - satellite health - date, time
- established ephemeris - calculated almanacs - satellite health - time corrections From the ground station
User segment
Control segment
As can be seen in Figure 11 there is unidirectional communication between the space segment and the user segment.Thegroundcontrolstationshavebidirectionalcommunicationwiththesatellites.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page19
Satellitesignalscanbereceivedanywherewithinasatelliteseffectiverange.Figure13showstheeffectiverange (shadedarea)ofasatellitelocateddirectlyabovetheequator/zeromeridianintersection.
90
15h 3h
Latitude
0 12h
18h
0h
6h
12h
21h
9h
90 -180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 13: 24 hour tracking of a GPS satellite with its effective range
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page20
90
Latitude
90 -180
-120
-60
60
120
180
Longitude
Figure 14: Position of the GPS satellites at 12:00 hrs UTC on 14th April 2001
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page21
Allofthesatellitesuseonboardatomicclockstomaintainsynchronizedsignals,whicharetransmittedoverthe same frequency (1575.42 MHz). The minimum signal strength received on Earth is approx. -158dBW to -160dBW[i].Accordingtothespecifications,themaximumstrengthisapprox.-153dBW.
2.2.2.2
Satellite antenna gain (due to concentration +13.4dB ofthesignalat14.3) RadiatepowerEIRP (EffectiveIntegratedRadiatePower) Lossduetopolarizationmismatch Signalattenuationinspace Signalattenuationintheatmosphere Gainfromthereceptionantenna Poweratreceiverinput -3.4dB -184.4dB -2.0dB +3.0dB
-160dBW(-130dBm=100.0*10-18W)
Table 1: L1 carrier link budget analysis modulated with the C/A code
Accordingtothespecifications,thepowerofthereceivedGPSsignalinopenskyisatleast-160dBW(-130dBm). The maximum of the spectral power density of the received signal is given as -190 dBm/Hz (Figure 16). The
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page22
-180 16dB Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz) -190 Received Signal -200
-210
-220
-2MHz
2MHz
Figure 16: Spectral Power Density of received signal and thermal noise
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page23
2.2.2.3
Satellite signals
1 ms/1023 1 0 1 ms
ThedatamodulatedbytheC/AcodemodulatestheL1carrierinturnbyusingBinary-Phase-Shift-Keying(BPSK)4. Witheverychangeinthemodulateddatathereisa180changeintheL1carrierphase.
3 4
Alogicaloperationontwooperandsthatresultsinalogicalvalueoftrueifandonlyifexactlyoneoftheoperandshasavalueoftrue. Amethodofmodulatingacarrierwavesothatdataistranslatedinto90phaseshiftsofthecarrier.
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page24
L1 carrier
C/A code
1 0
exclusive-or Data
Data
Figure 18: Simplified satellite block diagram
Data, 50 bit/s C/A code (PRN-18) 1.023 MBit/s Data modulated by C/A code L1 carrier, 1575.42 MHz BPSK modulated L1 carrier
1 0
1 0
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page25
2.2.3.2
Satellite navigation signals are generated using a process known as DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) modulation [iii]. This is a procedure in which a nominal or baseband (not tobeconfused with the baseband chipinthereceiver)frequencyisdeliberatelyspreadoutoverawiderbandwidththroughsuperimposingahigher frequency signal. The principle of spread-spectrum modulation was first devised in the 1940s in the United States,byscreenactressHedyLamarrandpianistGeorgeAnthell[iv].Thisprocessallowsforsecureradiolinks evenindifficultenvironments. GPSsatellitesareeachequippedwithfourextremelystableatomicclocks(possessingastabilityofgreaterthan -12 2010 [v]).Thenominalorbasebandfrequencyof10.23MHzisproducedfromtheresonantfrequencyofone oftheseonboardclocks.Inturn,thecarrierfrequency,datapulsefrequencyandC/A(coarse/acquisition)code areallderivedfromthisfrequency(Figure20).SincealltheGPSsatellitestransmiton1575.42MHz,aprocess knownasaCDMA(CodeDivisionMultipleAccess)Multiplex5isused. TheC/Acodeplaysanimportantroleinthemultiplexingandmodulation.Itisaconstantlyrepeatedsequenceof 1023bitsknownasapseudorandomnoise(PRN)code.Thiscodeisuniquetoeachsatelliteandservesasits identifyingsignature.TheC/Acodeisgeneratedusingafeedbackshiftregister6.Thegeneratorhasafrequency of1.023MHzandaperiodof1023chips7,whichcorrespondsto1ms.TheC/AcodeisaGoldCode8,whichhas advantageous correlation properties. This has important implications later on in the navigation process in the calculationofposition.
x 154
Carrier freq. generator 1575.42MHz 1575.42MHz
L1 carrier
BPSK
: 10
Atomic clock Baseband Frequency 10.23MHz 10.23MHz Time pulse for C/A generator 1.023MHz 1.023MHz C/A code generator 1 period = 1ms = 1023 Chips 1.023MHz
1.023MHz
C/A code
exclusive-or
: 204'600
Data pulse generator 50Hz 50Hz Data processing 1 Bit = 20ms 0/1
50Hz
Data
Data
Aformofmultiplexingthatdividesuparadiochannelbyusingdifferentpseudo-randomcodesequencesforeachuser.CDMAisaformof "spread-spectrum"signalling,sincethemodulatedcodesignalhasamuchhigherbandwidththanthedatabeingcommunicated. 6 Ashiftregisterwhoseinputbitisalinearfunctionofitspreviousstate. 7 Thetransitiontimeforindividualbitsinthepseudo-randomsequence. 8 AGoldcodeisasetofbinarysequences.Picktwom-sequencesofthesamelengthn,suchthattheircross-correlationtakesjustthree values.Thesetofthenexclusive-orsofthetwosequencesintheirvariousphases(i.e.translatedintoallrelativepositions),togetherwiththe twon-sequencesthemselves,isasetofGoldcodes.TheexclusiveoroftwoGoldcodesisanotherGoldcodeinsomephase. EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
5
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page26
The control segment also oversees the artificial distortion of signals (SA, Selective Availability), in order to degrade the systems positional accuracy for civil use. Until May 2000 the U.S.DoD (the GPS operators) intentionally degraded system accuracy for political and strategic reasons. This can be resumed, if deemed necessary,eitheronaglobalorregionalbasis.
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page27
Incoming signal from PRN-18 bit 11 to 40, reference Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 1 to 30, leading Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 11 to 40, in phase Reference signal from PRN-18 bit 21 to 50, trailing Reference signal from PRN-5 Bit 11 to 40, in phase
Figure 22: Demonstration of the correction process across 30 bits
The quality of the correlation is expressed here as a CF (correlation factor). The value range of the CF lies between minus one and plus one and is only plus one when the signals completely match (bit sequence and phase).
1 N CF = [( mB) (uB)] N i =1
mB: uB: N: numberofallmatchedbits numberofallunmatchedbits numberofobservedbits.
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GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page28
Maximum Level
bin
1023 767
Correlation Factor
511
o C
de
h S
if t
FrequencyShift
Figure 23: Search for the maximum correlation in the code and carrier frequency domains
The spectral power density of the received GPS signal lays at approximately 16 dB below the spectral power densityofthethermalorbackgroundnoise(seeFigure16).Thedemodulationanddespreadingofthereceived GPSsignalcausesasystemgainGGof:
GG = Modulationrate of C/A - Code 1023 bps = = 20,500 = 43dB Datarateof informationsignal 50bps
After despreading, the power density of the usable signal is greater than that of the thermal or background signalnoise(Figure24).
-140 Correlated Signal -150 Spectral Power Density (dBm/Hz)
-160
-190
-100Hz
100Hz
Figure 24: Spectral Power Density of the correlated signal and Thermal Signal Noise
The sensitivity of a GPS Receiver can be improved through increasing the correlation time (Dwell Time). The longeracorrelatorremainsataspecificpointintheCodeFrequencyLevel,thelowerwillbetherequiredGPS
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GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page29
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page30
Thenavigationmessageisneededtocalculatethecurrentpositionofthesatellitesandtodeterminesignaltravel times. ThedatastreamismodulatedtotheHFcarrierwaveofeachindividualsatellite.Dataistransmittedinlogically groupedunitsknownasframesorpages.Eachframeis1500bitslongandtakes30secondstotransmit.The framesaredividedinto5subframes.Eachsubframeis300bitslongandtakes6secondstotransmit.Inorderto transmit a complete almanac, 25 different frames are required. Transmission time for the entire almanac is therefore 12.5 minutes. Unless equipped with GPS enhancement (see chapter 6) a GPS receiver must have collectedthecompletealmanacatleastonceinordertocalculateitsinitialposition.
16Bits reserved
6Bits parity
Handover word 17Bits 7Bits 6Bits (HOW) Time of Week div., pa30 bits (TOW) ID rity 0.6s
TLM HOW
1 2 3
Sub-frame 2
TLM HOW
Sub-frame 3
TLM HOW
Sub-frame 5
TLM HOW
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ephemeris
Ephemeris
Almanac
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page31
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page32
Theorbitofasatellitefollowsanellipse.ForanexplanationofthetermsusedinTable2,seeFigure26.
a2 b2 a2
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page33
1 ms/1023
x1
C/A-Code BPSK(1)
1 0
EXOR Data
Figure 27: With BPSK the Navigation Data Signal is first spread by a code
Inthefuture,GPSandtheEuropeanGALILEOsystemswilluseanewmodulationprocesscalledBinaryOffset Code Modulation (BOC). With BOC the BPSK signal undergoes a further modulation [vii]. The Modulation FrequencyisalwaysamultipleoftheBasebandFrequencyof1.023MHz.Thepropertiesofthismodulationare communicatedinaspecificway.ForexampleBOC(10,5)meansthatthemodulationfrequencyisafactorof10 timestheNominalorBasebandFrequency(101.023MHz)andthechiprateoftheC/ACodeis5timesthebase (51,023Mbit/s)(Figure28).
EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
GNSSTechnology:TheGPSexample page34
x 10
1 0
10.23MHz
x5
C/A-Code BOC(10,5)
1 0
EXOR Data
EXOR
Thanks to BOC the signal will be better distributed over the bandwidth and the influence of opposing signal reflection(Multipath)onthereceptionoftheNavigationSignalwillbereducedincomparisontoBPSK.When BPSK(1)undBOC(1,1)aresimultaneouslyusedtheirmutualinfluenceisaminimumbecausethemaximaofthe powerdensitiesareseparated(Figure29).
Figure 29: With BPSK(1) and BOC(1,1) the signal maxima are separated (signal strength normalized at 1 W per signal)
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The U.S.DoD has planned incremental improvements to the GPS signal structure (Figure 30). For civilian applicationstheintroductionofasecondandthirdfrequencyisveryimportant;whenmorefrequenciescanbe used for establishing position, then the influence of the ionosphere on the signal travel time can be compensated or even eliminated. This compensation is possible because the transmission velocity c in the ionosphereisdependantonthefrequency.Inadditiontothetwonewsignals,themodernizationofGPSwill provide an increase in the signal strength for civilian users as well as additional capabilities for military applications. OnSeptember25,2005thefirstofeightnewsatellitesofthetypeIIR-M(Block2,ReplenishmentandMilitary) was sent into orbit. On December 16, 2005 the satellite was ready for transmission. The launches of the remainingsevensatellitesbeganinearly2006.Thesenewsatellitestransmitadditionally: Anewciviliansignalat1227.60MHz,theso-calledL2CFrequency. Supplementarymilitarysignalsat1575.42MHzand1227.60MHz:theMSignals,usingBOC(10,5) modulation. A new generation of satellites is planned towards the end of this decade. This new series will have the designationIIF(Block2,Follow-ON)andIII(Block3).Themostimportantcharacteristicsofthesenewsatellites willbe: Newciviliansignalat1176.45MHz(L5Frequency).Thissignalshouldbemorerobustthanprevious civiliansignalsandcanbeusedinaviationduringcriticalapproaches. IncreaseinthesignalstrengthoftheMSignals(=M+)throughtheuseofconcentratingbeam antennas. ImprovementoftheC/ASignalStructureforthecivilianL1Frequency.(TobedesignatedL1C).
Frequency Band L5 1176.45MHz L2 1227.60MHz L1 1575.42MHz P(Y) M P(Y) L2C M P(Y) C/A Frommid2005 BlockIIR-M
CivilianSignal
MilitarySignal
Figure 30: With Modernization the availability of GPS frequencies will be increased
TheGPSgroundstationswillalsoberenewed.Theentiredevelopmentshouldbecompleteandoperationalby themiddleofthenextdecade.Thenewsignalswillthenbecompletelyavailabletousers.
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3.1 Introduction
On December 28, 2005 the first GALILEO satellite was brought into orbit. The satellite, with the designation GIOVE-Abegananewepoch.ForthefirsttimeEuropeisalsoactivelyinvolvedinsatellitenavigation.GPSshould receive some competition: Probably within the next five to six years there will be three independent GNSS systems available. The USA will continue to provide GPS, and Russia and the European Union (EU) will respectivelyofferfunctionalGLONASSandGALILEOsystems.WiththreefunctioningGNSSsystemswewillnot onlybeabletoachievemoreaccuratepositioningbutwillalsohavedifferentfunctionsavailable. GPSwillalsobemodernizedintheforeseeablefutureandwillthereforebecomemorereliable(see2.6). ThischaptergivesanoverviewofthenotyetcompletelyoperationalGLONASSsystem,andthefutureEuropean GALILEOsystem.
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24plannedsatellites(21standard+3reservesatellites).Thisnumberhasneverbeenachieved.Therelatively shortlifespanoftheindividualsatellitesof3to4yearshamperedthecompletionofthesystem. 3orbitallevelswithanangleof64.8fromtheequator(thisisthehighestangleofalltheGNSSsystems andallowsbetterreceptioninpolarregions) Orbitalaltitudeof19,100km Orbitalperiodof11h15.8min EveryGLONASSsatellitetransmitstwocodes(C/AandP-Code)ontwofrequencies.Everysatellitetransmits the same codes (PRN), but at different frequencies in the vicinity of 1602MHz and 1246 MHz. These assignedfrequenciesshouldbechangedinthecourseofthenextyears
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3.3 GALILEO
3.3.1 Overview
GALILEOistheEuropeanGNSSsystem.TheEuropeanUnion(EU),inclosecooperationwiththeEuropeanSpace Agency(ESA),isdevelopingthis.TheEUandtheESAhavetogetherfoundedanumbrellaorganization:GALILEO Joint Undertaking (GJU, headquartered in Brussels). GJU oversees and coordinates all phases of development, testing and implementation. GJU guarantees that a single body is responsible for the administration of this program. The governments of Germany, Italy, France, the UK,SpainandBelgiumassumeapproximately 85% ofall the costs. GALILEOwillconsistofaconstellationofthesatelliteson3circularorbitalsatanaltitudeof23,616kmabove theEarth.Thesesatellitesaretobesupportedbyaworldwidenetworkofgroundstations. ThekeyargumentsforintroducingGALILEOwere:
To attain independence from the USA. Worldwide there are two satellite navigation systems: The AmericanGPSandtheRussianGLONASS.Bothwereconceivedwithmilitarycriteria.UntilnowtheRussian systemhasnotbroughtanyusablecivilianapplicationssothatGALILEOwouldbetheonlyalternativetothe defactomonopolyofGPSandtheAmericanindustry.GPSiscontrolledbytheAmericangovernmentwhich canintheeventofacrisislocallydowngradeorevendeactivatethesystem.ThissubjectiontotheAmericans doesntsuitetheEuropeans.However,theUSmilitaryhasalreadyannouncedthatintimesofemergencyit ispreparedtodisruptGALILEOifthiswouldserveintheinterestofAmericansecurity. To increase the accuracy of positioning.GALILEOisplannedtobemoreaccuratethanGPS.Itisexpected thattheopenservice,OSwillprovideaprecisionofapproximately4to15m.Criticalsecurityservicesshould haveaprecisionof4to6m.Sensitivitytomultipathreceptionwillalsobereduced.Thisimprovementwillbe achievedthroughtheapplicationofBOCmodulation.GPSwillalsointroduceBOCwhenitismodernized. To have a purely civilian navigation system.GALILEOisbeingconceivedandimplementedaccordingto civiliancriteria;however,italsoprovidesnecessarysecurityfunctions.ContrarytothemilitarilyorientedGPS, GALILEOguaranteesthefunctionofindividualservices. Providing more services. GALILEO will offerfive different functions. In comparison,GPSat themoment offersonlytwo.Inthecourseofmodernization,thenumberofGPSservicesforcivilianapplicationswillalso increase. Offer a Search and Rescue Function. Search and Rescue (SAR) functions are already being offered by otherorganizations.NewwithGALILEOisthatanalarmcanbeacknowledged. Increased Security through Integrity Messages. GALILEO will be more reliable in that it includes an integritymessage.Thiswillimmediatelyinformusersoferrorsthatdevelop.Ontopofthisisaguaranteeof availability.FortheOpenServicetherewillbeneithertheavailabilityguaranteenortheintegritymessages. TheseservicesareonlyavailablethroughEGNOS9. Creation of Employment. Expertsestimatethatbytheyear2020,theEuropeansatellitesystemGALILEO willgeneratebetween130,000-180,000jobs.WithaninitialinvestmentofsixbillionEuros(atthebeginning of the project this was projected at three billion), GALILEO is expected to bring a return of seventy four billionEuros[ix]. Attain GNSS Know-How. Mostmanufacturersofsatellitenavigationsystemsarecurrentlylocatedinthe USA. Satellites and satellite accessories, navigation receivers, measuring devices, etc. are predominantly developed and marketed from outside of Europe. With GALILEO, Europe should acquire expertise and providethedomesticindustrywithasustainablegrowthincompetence. To improve the worldwide coverage of satellite signals.GALILEOwillofferbetterreceptionthanGPS tocitieslocatedinhigherlatitudes.ThisispossiblebecausetheGALILEOsatelliteshaveorbitsatanangleof 56fromtheequatoraswellasanaltitudeof23,616km.Inaddition,modernGNSSreceiversareableto
EuropeanGeostationaryNavigationOverlayService
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GALILEO is a civilian system that will also provide stable and access-protected services for governmental (includingmilitary)purposes.ThePublicRegulatedService(PRS)willbeavailabletosuchclientsaspoliceandfire departmentsandborderpatrols.Accesstothisserviceisrestrictedandcontrolledbyacivilianagency.ThePRS mustbeavailablecontinuallyandunderallconditions,especiallyduringcrisissituationswhereotherservicescan bedisrupted.ThePRSwillbeindependentoftheotherservicesandwillbecharacterizedbyahighlevelofsignal stability.PRSwillalsobeprotectedagainstelectronicinterferenceanddeception.
3.3.2.5 Search and Rescue, SAR
TheSARservicewillbeusedbyhumanitariansearchandrescueservices.Emergencytransmittersandsatellites enablethelocationofindividualpersons,craftsandvehiclesinaviation,landandmaritimeemergencies.Atthe end of the 1970s the USA, Canada, the USSR and France developed a satellite system for the location of activated distress beacons.The system is referred toas SARSAT (Search And Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking). TheRussiannameforthesystemisCOSPAS.TheCOSPAS-SARSATsystememployssixLEO(LowEarthOrbit) andfiveGEO(geostationary)satellites.TheGALILEO-SARserviceisplannedtoexpandandimprovetheexisting COSPAS-SARSATsystem[x]inthefollowingways:
AlmostinstantaneousreceptionofemergencycallsfromanylocationonEarth(currentlythereare delaysofanaverageofonehour).
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ImprovedeffectivenessoftheSpaceSegmentthroughtheavailabilityofmoresatellitestoovercome localizedhindrancesduringsuboptimalconditions(30GALILEOsatellitesinmediumorbitalswill supplementtheexistingLEOandGEOsatellitesoftheCOSPAS-SARSATsystem). GALILEOwillintroduceanewSARfunction;thedistresssignalreply(fromtheSARoperatortotheemergency transmitterradio)willbegin.Thisshouldsimplifyrescuemeasuresandreducethenumberoffalsealarms.The GALILEOSARservicewillbedefinedincooperationwithCOSPAS-SARSAT,withthecharacteristicsandfunctions of the service being governed by the IMO (International Maritime Organization) and ICAO (International Civil AviationOrganization).
Emergency
Figure 33: Unlike SARSAT-COSPAS, GALILEO's Search And Rescue service also provides a reply to the distress signal
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Thegroundsegmentofthesystemwillconsistofaseriesofcontrolcenters,togetherwithaglobalnetworkof stationsforvarioustasks.Thisincludesthemonitoringofsignalintegrityandthecoordinationoftheforeseen extensiveSearchandRescueservices. There are worldwide control centers planned for navigation and satellite control. The core of the ground segmentwillconsistoftwoGALILEOcontrolcentersinGermanyandItaly[xii].Themaincontrolcenterwillbe
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Figure 36: Ariane 5 Rocket delivering 8 GALILEO satellites into space (GALILEO-industries.net)
3.3.4.1
Signal Frequencies
Depending on the services, there will be different frequencies, modulation forms, and data transmission rates used(SeeTable4andFigure37).TheprincipalmodulationformswillbeBPSKandBOC.AsanexceptionE5a andE5bemployaslightlymodifiedversionofBOCmodulationknownasAltBOC.
Band:Frequency (MHz) E5:1191.795 E6:1278.75 L1:1575.42 SignalName E5a E5b E6b E6a L1B E2&E1 FrequencyofMaxima(MHz) 1176.45 1207.14 1278.75 1268.52&1288.98 1574.397&1576.443 1560.075&1590.765 Services OS,CS OS,CS,SoL CS PRS OS,CS,SoL PRS Modulation AltBOC(15,10) AltBOC(15,10) BPSK(5) BOC(10,5) BOC(1,1) BOC(15,2.5) DataRate (Bit/s) 50 250 1000 100 250 100
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E5
E5a E5b
E6
E6a E6b E6a E2 L1B L1B
L1
E1
1176.45MHz
1268.52MHz
1560.075MHz
1576.443MHz
1207.14MHz
1288.98MHz
1574.397MHz 1590.765MHz
Figure 38: The L1 band will be intensively used by GALILEO and GPS (Power Density standardized at 1 W per signal)
3.3.4.2
Time Frame
On June 26, 2004, after many years of difficult negotiations, the USA and the EU were able to sign an agreement in Dublin. The goal of the agreement was to secure the smooth cooperation (interoperability) and compatibilityofGALILEOand its American counterpart GPS. Contentious issuessuchasfrequencyassignment and modulation forms were also regulated. This should make future close coexistence of GALILEO and GPS possible. On December 10, 2004, upon the recommendation of the European Commission, the European Councilconfirmedthetechnicalcharacteristicsofthesystem(withemphasisontheservicestobeoffered[xiii]). TheCounciladdressedthetransitionfromtheimplementationphase(2006-2008)totheoperationalphaseand confirmed the participation of the EU in the financing of these two phases. According to the European CommissionGALILEOshouldbecomeoperationalin2008.Commercialoperationswillprobablynotbeginuntil 2012. ThecorporationoperatingGALILEOwillhaveitsseatinToulouseandLondon[xiv].
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Project definition: The goal of the definition phase was to establish the fundamental parameters and specificationsofthesystem.Thispartoftheoverallprojectwascompletedin2003. Development and tests in orbit:OnDecember28,2005,thefirstexperimentalsatelliteGIOVE-Awas launchedintoorbitfromtheRussianCosmodromeatBaikonurinKasachstan(Figure39).GIOVEisan acronymforGALILEOIn-OrbitValidationElementaswellasbeingtheItaliannamefortheplanetJupiter. OnJanuary12,2006,GIOVE-Atransmitteditsfirstsignals.Thesignalswereregisteredandanalyzedatthe ObservationStationforAtmosphericandRadiowaveResearchinChilboltoninBritainaswellastheESA groundstationatReduinBelgium[xv].ThesecondexperimentalsatelliteGIOVE-Bwillbelaunchedinto orbitbytheendof2007.WithGIOVE-AandBtheEUwillsecurethefrequencybandsforGALILEO operationanddeterminetheorbitalsforthetestphasesatellites.Thesepioneersatelliteswillalsoservein thetestingofimportanttechnology,suchasatomicclocks,inthehardconditionsofspace.GIOVE-Ahas twoRubidiumatomicclocks(withastabilityofapproximately10nanosecondsperday)andGIOVE-Bwill havetwopassiveHydrogen-Maseratomicclocks(withastabilityoflessthan1nanosecondperday) onboard.ShouldtheexperimentalphasewithGIOVE-AandGIOVE-Bbesuccessful,foursatelliteswillbe launchedintoorbitandtested(thesatelliteswereorderedonDecember21,2004).Withthisminimum constellationscientistscantestifthesatellitescandeliverexactpositionandtimedatatotestlocationson theground.Theentiretestphaseinspaceshouldbecompletedby2008,withthetotalcostsoftheproject definitionandtestingphaseamountingto1.1billion($US1.4billion).
Figure 39: GIOVE-A and its launch on December 28, 2005 (PictureESA)
Implementation and start-up of complete system:Iftheresultsofthefirsttwophasesarepositive,the systemwillthenbebuiltupforfulloperation.Theremainingsatellites(fourshouldbythistimealreadybe operational) will be finished and launched into orbit and the necessary ground stations completed. The plannedtimeframeisforcompletionby2011withtotalcostsof2.1billion($US2.75billion).Ofthis1/3is tobepubliclyfinancedand2/3financedbytheprivatesector. Use: As soon as all the satellites are in orbit the system can begin operation. At the end of the build-up phasethereshouldbe27operationsand3reservesatellitesinorbit.Thegroundstationsaswellaslocaland regional service stations will be constructed. The annual operations costs have been estimated at 220 million($US288million)ofwhichthepublicsectorwillovertakeanexceptionalsumof500million($US 655million)duringthestart-upyears.Inthefollowingyearsthesecostsshallbecompletelyassumedbythe privatesector.
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GPS 1973 Feb.22,1978 Minimum:24/Maximum:32 6 55 20,180km 11hours58min WorldGeodeticSystem1984 (WGS84) GPS-Time 11 CDMA rd 2frequencies,withwitha3 frequencyplanned MilitarySignal 2(civilian+military)/4 USDepartmentofDefense Currentlynonebutplanned
Glonass 1972 October12,1982 Planned:24+3passivereserves 3 64.8 19,100km 11hours15.8min ParametryZemli1990(PZ-90) Glonass-Time 12 FDMA 24 MilitarySignal 2(civilian+military) RussianDefenseMinistry none
GALILEO 2001 December28,2005 Planned:27+3activereserves 3 56 23,616km 14hours5min GalileoTerrestrialReferenceFrame (GTRF) GST(GALILEOSystemTime) CDMA rd 2frequencies,withwitha3 frequencyplanned CSandPRSservices 5 CivilianGovernmentsoftheEU Planned
Table 5: Comparison of the most important properties of GPS, GLONASS and GALILEO
10 11
GLONASSandGALILEO page47
4 Calculating Position
4.1 Introduction
GNSS systems combine sophisticated satellite and radio technology to provide navigation receivers with radio signals indicating among other things the time of transmission and the identity of the transmitting satellite. Calculating the position from these signals requires mathematical operations that will be examined in this chapter.
U se r
Calculations are effected in a Cartesian, three-dimensional coordinate system with a geocentric origin (Figure 41).TherangeoftheuserfromeachofthefoursatellitesR1,R2,R3andR4canbedeterminedwiththehelpof
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Ra ng e: R
t2
2
Z
t3
3
Sat 4
t4
Range: R4
X
Figure 41: Three-dimensional coordinate system
Duetotheatomicclocksonboardthesatellites,thetimeatwhichthesatellitesignalistransmittedisknownvery precisely.AllsatelliteclocksareadjustedorsynchronizedwitheachotherandUTC(universaltimecoordinated). In contrast, the receiver clock is not synchronized to UTC and is therefore slow or fast by t0. The sign t0 is positivewhentheuserclockisfast.Theresultanttimeerrort0causesinaccuraciesinthemeasurementofsignal traveltimeandthedistanceR.Asaresult,anincorrectdistanceismeasuredthatisknownaspseudodistanceor pseudorangePSR[xvii].
tmeasured = t + t 0
PSR = tmeasured c = (t + t 0 ) c
PSR = R + t 0 c
R: c:
t: t0:
PSR:
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R=
(4a)
thus(4)into(3)
PSR =
+ c t0
(5a)
In order to determine the four unknown variables (t0 , XUser, YUser and ZUser), four independent equations are necessary. Thefollowingisvalidforthefoursatellites(i=1...4):
PSRi =
+ c t0
(6a)
f(X)
f'(x0)
f(x) f(x0)
function
X x
x0
Figure 42: Conversion of the Taylor series
Generally(with x = x x 0 ): Simplified(1stpartonly):
f (x ) = f (x 0 ) +
f (x ) = f (x 0 ) + f ' (x 0 ) x
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ThedistanceRTotalfromthefoursatellitestotheestimatedpositioncanbecalculatedinasimilarwaytoequation (4a):
RTotal _ i =
(9a)
Equation(9a)combinedwithequations(6a)and(7a)produces:
PSRi = RTotal _ i +
(10a)
Aftercarryingoutpartialdifferentiation,thisgivesthefollowing:
PSRi = RTotal _ i +
(11a)
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XTotal XSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 PSR1 RTotal _ 1 XTotal XSat _ 2 PSR 2 RTotal _ 2 = RTotal _ 2 PSR 3 RTotal _ 3 XTotal XSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 PSR 4 RTotal _ 4 XTotal XSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4 XTotal XSat_1 RTotal_1 XTotal XSat_2 x y = RTotal_2 XTotal XSat_3 z RTotal_3 t0 XTotal XSat_4 RTotal_4
YTotal YSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 YTotal YSat _ 2 RTotal _ 2 YTotal YSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 YTotal YSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4
ZTotal ZSat _ 1 RTotal _ 1 ZTotal ZSat _ 2 RTotal _ 2 ZTotal ZSat _ 3 RTotal _ 3 ZTotal ZSat _ 4 RTotal _ 4 c c c c
1
c c c c
x y z t0
(12a)
YTotal YSat_1 RTotal_1 YTotal YSat_2 RTotal_2 YTotal YSat_3 RTotal_3 YTotal YSat_4 RTotal_4
ZTotal ZSat_1 RTotal_1 ZTotal ZSat_2 RTotal_2 ZTotal ZSat_3 RTotal_3 ZTotal ZSat_4 RTotal_4
(13a)
4.2.4 Summary
Inordertodetermineaposition,theuser(ortheusersreceiversoftware)willeitherusethelastmeasurement value, or estimate a new position and calculate error components (x, y and z) down to zero by repeated iteration.Thisthengives: XUser=XTotal_New YUser=YTotal_New ZUser=ZTotal_New (15a) Thecalculatedvalueoft0correspondstoreceivertimeerrorandcanbeusedtoadjustthereceiverclock.
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Upuntilnow,themagnitudeoferrorhasnotbeentakenintoconsiderationincalculations.InGNSStechnology, differentcausescancontributetothetotalerror:
Satellite clocks: although, for example, every GPS satellite is provided with four highly accurate atomic clocks,atimeerrorofonly10nsisenoughtoproduceapositioningerrorintheorderofmagnitudeof3m. Satelliteorbits:generallyspeaking,theexactnessofthesatellitepositionisonlyknownuptoapproximately 1...5m. Speedoflight:thesignalsfromthesatellitestravelatthespeedoflight.Theseslowdownwhencrossing theionosphereandtroposphereandcannot,therefore,beassumedtobeaconstant.Thisdeviationfrom thenormalspeedoflightcreatesanerrorinthecalculatedposition. Signaltraveltimeerrormeasurement:theGNSSreceiverisonlyabletodeterminethetimeoftheincoming satellitesignalwithlimitedaccuracy. Multipath:Theerrorlevelisfurtherincreasedbythereceptionofreflectedsignals. Satellite geometry: determining of position is more difficult if the four reference satellites being used for measurementaretooclosetogether.Theeffectofsatellitegeometryonmeasurementaccuracyisreferred toasDOP(DilutionOf Precision)(SeeTable6).
There are various causes of measurement error. Table 1 shows the extent of horizontal position errors from differentsource. Byimplementingcorrectivemeasures(DifferentialGPS,DGPS)thenumberoferrorsourcescanbeeliminatedor reduced.
Error cause Error without DGPS Error with DGPS
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4.2.5.2
Positioning accuracy using GNSS in the navigation mode depends, on the one hand on the accuracy of the measurement ofthe individual pseudoranges,and on theother hand onthegeometrical configuration of the satellites used; expressed through a scalar integer which is termed DOP (Dilution of Precision) in navigation literature. VariousDOPdesignationsareinuse:
The DOP value is the reciprocal of the tetrahedron volume that is formed by the satellite and user positions (Figure 44 and Figure 45). The best geometrical situation is produced when the volume is the maximum and therebythePDOPaminimum.
InopenareasthesatellitecoverageissofavorablethatthePDOPandGDOPvaluesrarelyexceed3(Figure46 andFigure47).
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Figure 46: GDOP value and the quantity of visible satellites according to the time
In mountainous areas and in forests the DOP value plays an important role in the planning of measurement campaignsgiventhattherearefrequentlyphaseswithhighlyunfavorablegeometricalconstellations. As such, it is necessary to plan measurements in accordance with DOP values (e.g. HDOP) or to evaluate the targetaccuracyinaccordancewiththis,especiallysincedifferentDOPvaluesappearwithinthespaceofafew minutes. Inallplanningandcalculationprogramsprovidedbyleadingequipmentmanufacturers,theDOPvaluescanbe shown.Figure27showstheexampleoftheHDOPcourse,whenthereisnoshadowing(themaximumHDOP valueisapprox.1.9).Figure48showstheexampleoftheHDOPcourse,whenthereismarkedshadowing(here themaximumHDOPvalueof20isexceededseveraltimes!).Theareabetween180to270isshadowedbya high-risebuildingandintheareabetween270to180themountainsilhouettesareshown.
Shadow
Time Figure 47: HDOP value over a 24h period, without shadowing (max. value is 1.9)
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Shadow Time Figure 48: HDOP value over a 24h period, with shadowing (max. value is greater than 20)
In the case of this massive shadowing only a few time slots (See Figure 48) with a favorable DOP value are possible(Lessthan2).TimeslotswithDOPvaluesover6should,ifatallpossible,beavoided.
4.2.5.3 Total Error
Measurement accuracy is proportionally dependent on the DOP value. This means that when the DOP value doubles,thepositioningerrorisalsotwiceasgreat. Generallyapplicable:Error(1) = 1 TotalRMSValueDOPValue Error(2) = 2 TotalRMSValueDOPValue InTable7the1Sigmavalue(1 =68%)andthe2Sigmavalue(2 =95%)aregiven.Thevaluesarevalidfora mediumsatelliteconstellationofHDOP=1.3.Theimplementationofsuitablecorrectionmethods(suchasusing several linked receivers (Differential GPS, DGPS (see chapter 6)) can eliminate or reduce the number of error sources(typicallyto1...2m,1Sigmavalue).
Type of error
TotalRMSvalue(filtered,i.e.slightlyaveraged) Horizontalerror(1Sigma(68%)HDOP=1.3) Horizontalerror(2Sigma(95%)HDOP=1.3) Table 7: Total error in HDOP = 1.3
Usually the accuracy is better than shown. Long-term measurements available to the US-Federal Aviation Administrationhaveshownthatin95%ofallmeasurementsthehorizontalerrorwaslessthan7.4mandthe verticalerrorwaslessthan9.0m.Thetimeperiodforthemeasurementwasalways24hours. TheU.S.DoDmaintainsthattheirsystemwillprovidestandardcivilianapplicationswithahorizontalaccuracyof 13m, a vertical accuracy of 22 m and a time accuracy of ~40ns. By employing additional measures such as, DGPS,longermeasuringtime,andspecialmeasuringtechniques(phasemeasurement),positionalaccuracycan beincreasedtowithinacentimeter.
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5 Coordinate systems
5.1 Introduction
A significant problem to overcome when using a GNSS system is the fact that there are a great number of differing co-ordinate systems worldwide. As a result, the position measured and calculated does not always correspondwithonessupposedposition. InordertounderstandhowGNSSsystemsfunction,itisnecessarytoexaminesomeofthebasicsofgeodesy: thesciencethatdealswiththesurveyingandmappingoftheEarthssurface.Withoutthisbasicknowledge,itis difficulttounderstandtheapparentlybewilderingnecessityofcombiningtheappropriatemapreferencesystems (datums)andgrids.Ofthesetherearemorethan100differentdatumsandapprox.10differentgridstoselect from.Ifanincorrectcombinationismade,apositioncanbeoutbyseveralhundredmeters.
5.2 Geoids
WehaveknownthattheEarthisroundsinceColumbus.Buthowroundisitreally?Describingtheshapeofour blue planet has always been an imprecise science. Over the centuries several different models have been presentedtorepresentthetrueshapeoftheEarthasfaithfullyaspossible.Ageoidisacloseapproximationof thistrueshape. ThegeometricalsurfaceoftheEarthisanidealizedsmoothandlevelsurfacesetattheaverageheightofsea level.UsingtheGreekwordforEarth,theshapeofthissurfaceisdescribedasageoid(Figure49). Ageoidcanonlybedefinedasamathematicalfigurewithalimiteddegreeofaccuracyandonlywithcertain arbitraryassumptions.This is becausethe distributionofthe mass of theEarth isuneven and,asaresult, the level surface of the oceans and seas do not lie on the surface of a geometrically definable shape; instead approximationshavetobeused. Differing from the actual shape of the Earth, a geoid is a theoretical body whose surface intersects the gravitationalfieldlineseverywhereatrightangles. Ageoidisoftenusedasareferencelevelformeasuringheight.Forexample,thereferencepointinSwitzerland formeasuringheightistheReprePierreduNiton(RPN,373.600m)intheGenevaharborbasin.Thisheight originatesfrompointtopointmeasurementswiththeportofMarseilles(meanheightabovesealevel0.00m).
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Land
Sea
Geoid
Earth
Semimajoraxisa(ontheequatorialplane) Semiminoraxisb(onthenorth-southpoleaxis)
Theamountbywhichtheshapedeviatesfromtheidealsphereisreferredtoasflattening(f).
f=
a b a
(16a)
South pole
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Whendealingwithanellipsoid,caremustbetakentoensurethatthenaturalperpendiculardoesnotintersect verticallyatapointwiththeellipsoid,butratherwiththegeoid.Normalellipsoidalandnaturalperpendicularsdo not therefore coincide, they are distinguished by vertical deflection (Figure 52), i.e. points on the Earths surfaceareincorrectlyprojected.Inordertokeepthisdeviationtoaminimum,eachcountryhasdevelopedits owncustomizednon-geocentricellipsoidasareferencesurfaceforcarryingoutsurveyingoperations(Figure51). Thesemiaxesaandbaswellasthemid-pointareselectedinsuchawaythatthegeoidandellipsoidmatch nationalterritoriesasaccuratelyaspossible.
5.3.2.2 Datum, map reference systems
National or international map reference systems based on certain types of ellipsoids are called datums. Depending on the map used when navigating with GNSS receivers, care should be taken to ensure that the relevantmapreferencesystemhasbeenenteredintothereceiver. There are over 120 map reference systems available, such as: CH-1903 for Switzerland, NAD83 for North America,andWGS-84astheglobalstandard.
ry unt Co
ry unt Co
An ellipsoid is well suited for describing the positional co-ordinates of a point in degrees of longitude and latitude.Informationonheightiseitherbasedonthegeoidorthereferenceellipsoid.Thedifferencebetween themeasuredorthometricheightH,i.e.basedonthegeoid,andtheellipsoidalheighth,basedonthereference ellipsoid,isknownasgeoidondulationN(Figure52).
P Vertical deviation H h N
Earth
Geoid
Ellipsoid
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Z
North Pole Ellipsoid Equatorial plane
b
z Origin y
Y
x
Greenwich Meridian
Equator
ParameterofWGS-84ReferenceEllipsoids
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Semiminoraxisb(m) 6,356,752.31
Flattening(1:....) 298,257223563
Ellipsoidal co-ordinates (, , h), rather than Cartesian co-ordinates (X, Y, Z) are generally used for further processing(Figure54). correspondstolatitude, tolongitudeandhtotheellipsoidalheight,i.e.thelengthof theverticalPlinetotheellipsoid.
Z
North Pole Ellipsoid Equatorial plane h P
Asarule,referencesystemsaregenerallylocalratherthangeocentricellipsoids.Therelationshipbetweenalocal (e.g.CH-1903)andaglobal,geocentricsystem(e.g.WGS-84)isreferredtoasthegeodeticdatum.Intheevent thattheaxesofthelocalandglobalellipsoidareparallel,orcanberegardedasbeingparallelforapplications withinalocalarea,allthatisrequiredfordatumtransitionarethreeshiftparameters,knownasthedatumshift constantsX,Y,Z. Afurtherthreeanglesofrotationx,y,z andascalingfactorm(Figure55)mayhavetobeaddedsothatthe complete transformation formula contains 7 parameters. The geodetic datum specifies the location of a local three-dimensionalCartesianco-ordinatesystemwithregardtotheglobalsystem.
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Z x Y X-CH X-WGS X
Y-WGS
Streching of Factor m
Thefollowingtable(Table10)showsexamplesofthevariousdatumparameters.Additionalvaluescanbefound under[xviii].
Country Name
X (m)
586 -168 -225 565.04
Y (m)
87 -60 -65 49.91
Z (m)
409 320 9 465.84
x ()
-0.52 0 - 0.4094
x ()
-0.15 0 -
-0.3597 1.4742
x ()
2.82 0 - 1.8685 5.2970 0.9542
m (ppm)
0.5789
5.3.5.2
Datum conversion
Converting a datum means by definition converting one three-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate system (e.g. WGS-84)intoanother(e.g.CH-1903)bymeansofthree-dimensionalshift,rotationandextension.Thegeodetic datummustbeknown,inordertoeffecttheconversion.Comprehensiveconversionformulaecanbefoundin specialist literature [xix], or conversion can be carried out directly via the Internet [xx]. Once conversion has takenplace,Cartesianco-ordinatescanbetransformedintoellipsoidalco-ordinates.
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a2 b2 x2 + y2 a2
a cos
tan 1
z a x2 + y2
(17a)
y = tan 1 x
h= cos ( ) x2 + y2
(18a)
a a b 1 a2
2 2
[sin ( )]2
(19a)
5.3.6.2
Ellipsoidalco-ordinatescanbeconvertedintoCartesianco-ordinates.
a x = 2 2 1 a b a2
a y = 2 2 1 a b a2
[sin ( )]2
+ h cos ( ) cos ( )
+ h cos ( ) sin ( )
(20a)
(21a)
[sin ( )]2
a z= 2 2 1 a b a2
[sin ( )]2
a 2 b 2 1 a 2 + h sin ( )
(22a)
Coordinatesystems page63
Greenwich meridian
N
Cylinder
Equator
Gauss-Krger(Centralmeridian:9):
N-S:5191454 W-E:3539097
Thepositionisatadistanceof5191454mfromtheequatorand399097mfromthecentralmeridian(9).
Coordinatesystems page64
Figure 58: Designation of the zones using UTM, with examples EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
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5189816(N-S) 0539006(W-E)
Theregionalcoordinatesprojectedintheplane(XandYinkilometers)withtheaccompanyinggridand Thegeographicalcoordinates(Longitudeandlatitudeindegreesandseconds)relatedtotheBesselellipsoid
200'000
BERN
600'000 Local reference ellipsoid (Bessel ellipsoid) 1st step: projection onto sphere 2nd step: projection onto sphere Processing the cylinder: map with country co-ordinates
Thesignaltransittimefrom4satellitesmustbeknownbythetimethepositionalco-ordinatesareissued.Only then, after considerable calculation and conversion, is the position issued in Swiss land survey co-ordinates (Figure60).
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(Fromreferencesystemsinpractice,UrsMarti,DieterEgger,SwissFederalOfficeofTopography)
Note:accuracyiswithin1meter!
B 169028.66 10000
= 0.326979 = 0.464729
L 26782.5 10000
Example:
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6.1 Introduction
The forerunnerofallGNSS systems isGPS. Infactthis is so much the case thatGPS is often usedtoreferto satellite navigation in general. In its development GPS has shown some limitations, which have required refinements and improvements in the technology. This chapter examines some of these technological enhancementstoGPS,whichhavebecomestandardstoGNSS. Althoughoriginallyintendedformilitarypurposes,theGPSsystemisusedtodayprimarilyforcivilapplications, such as surveying, navigation, positioning, measuring velocity, determining time, monitoring etc, etc, etc.GPS wasnotinitiallyconceivedforapplicationsdemandinghighprecision,securitymeasures,orutilizationinclosed rooms.Forthisreasonimprovementshavebeenimplemented.
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Theerrorcausesarestudiedinmoredetailbelow:
Ephemeris data:thesatellitepositionatthetimeofthesignalemissionis,asageneralrule,onlyknownto beaccurateuptoapprox.1...5m. Satellite clocks:althougheachsatelliteincludesfouratomicclocks,thetimebasecontainsdefects.Atime errorof10nsisreachedatanoscillatorstabilityofapprox.10-13perday.Atimeerrorof10nsimmediately resultsinadistanceerrorofabout3m. Effect of the ionosphere:theionosphereisanatmosphericlayersituatedbetween60to1000kmabove theEarthssurface.Thegasmoleculesintheionosphereareheavilyionized.Theionizationismainlycaused bysolarradiation(onlyduringtheday!).Signalsfromthesatellitestravelthroughavacuumatthespeedof light.Intheionospherethevelocityofthesesignalsslowsdownandthereforecannolongerbeviewedas constant.Thelevelofionizationvariesdependingontimeandlocation,andisstrongestduringthedayand attheequator.Iftheionizationstrengthisknownthiseffectcan,toacertainextent,becompensatedwith geophysical correction models. Furthermore, given that the change in the signal velocity is frequency dependent,thiscanadditionallybecorrectedbytheuseofdualfrequencyGPSreceivers. Effect of the troposphere: thetroposphereistheatmosphericlayerlocatedbetween0...15kmabovethe Earthssurface.Thecauseoftheerrorhereisthevaryingdensityofthegasmoleculesandtheairhumidity. Thedensitydecreasesastheheightincreases.Theincreaseindensityorhumidityretardsthespeedofthe satellite signals. In order to correct this effect, a simple model is used which is based on the standard atmosphere(P)andtemperature(T): o o o
Multipath: GPS signals can be reflected from buildings, trees, mountains etc. and make a detour before arrivingatthereceiver.Thesignalisdistortedduetointerference.Theeffectofmultipathcanbepartially compensated by the selection of the measuring location (free of reflections), a good antenna and the measuringtime(Figure41)).
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effective reflection
ineffective reflection
Effect of the receiver:furthererrorsareproducedduetoGPSreceivermeasurementnoiseandtimedelays inthereceiver.Advancedtechnologiescanbeusedtoreducethiseffect. Effect of the satellite constellation, including shadowing (DOP):thiseffectwasdiscussedindetailin chapter4.2.5.2.
Dual frequency measurement: L1/L2 signals are used to compensate for the effect of the ionosphere. Such receivers measure the GPS L1 and L2 frequency signals. If a radio signal is transmitted through the ionosphere,itisdeceleratedreverselyproportionaltoitsfrequency.Bycomparingthearrivaltimesofboth signals,thedelaycanbedeterminedandthustheeffectoftheionization. Geophysical correction models. This is used primarily for the compensation of the effect of the ionosphereandtroposphere.Correctionfactorsareonlyuseful,ifappliedtoaspecifiedandlimitedarea. Differential GPS (DGPS):bycomparingwithoneorseveralbasestations,variouserrorscanbecorrected. The evaluation of the correction data available from these stations can take place either during post processing or in Real Time (RT). Real Time solutions (RT DGPS) require data communication between the basestationandthemobilereceiver.DGPSemploysavarietyofdifferentprocesses: o
RTDGPS,normallybasedontheRTCMSC104standard DGPS derived from signal travel time delay measurement (Pseudorange corrections, achievableaccuracyapprox.1m) DGPS derived from the phase measurement of the carrier signal (achievable accuracy approx.1cm)
Post-processing(subsequentcorrectionandprocessingofthedata).
Choice of location and of the measurement time for improving the visibility or line of sight contacttothesatellites(SeeexplanationonDOP4.2.5).
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Basel
Zurich
Berne
Chur
GPS receiver
Geneva
6.3.1.1
A reference station with exactly known position measures the L1 signal travel time to all visible GPS satellites (Figure 63) and uses these values to calculate its position relative to the satellites. These measured values will typically include errors. Since the real position of the reference station is known, the actual distance (nominal value)toeachGPSsatellitecanbecalculated.Thedifferencebetweenthenominalandthemeasureddistances
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GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmit antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
6.3.1.3
Given that the correction values can be used by other GPS users within a large area to compensate for the measured pseudoranges, they are immediately transmitted by using a suitable medium (telephone, radio, etc) (Figure64).
GPS satellite
GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmitting antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
6.3.1.4
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GPS satellite
GPS user
924'26" 4648'41"
RF transmitting antenna
RF
RF
RTCM SC-104
D = (N . ) + ( . )
Wave length
Phase t
User
SinceNisunknownthephasemeasurementisambiguous.Byobservingseveralsatellitesatdifferenttimesand continuallycomparingresultsfromuserandreferencestationreceivers(duringorafterthemeasurement),the position can be calculated using an extensive series of mathematical equations to an accuracy of a few millimeters.
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100-600KHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km) Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km) Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates transmission (1000km)
RTCMSC104
283-315KHz
RTCMSC104
Aviationradiobeacon
255-415KHz
RTCMSC104
330MHz
Extensiverangeof Lowbitrates,quality RTCMSC104 transmission dependsonthetimeand frequency Highbitrates,joint Rangeoftransmission useoftheexisting limitedbythequasiopticalconditions infrastructure Limitedrangeof transmission, synchronizationproblem Highinvestmentcost RTCMSC104
30-300MHz
450,900,1800 Jointuseof Mobile existingnetworks communication/telephone MHz networks(GSM,GPRS) GEOsatellitesystem 1.21.5GHz Extensivearea coverage
RTCMSC104
RTCMSC104 (forMSAT, Omnistar, Landstar, Starfire) RTCADO-229C (forSBAS systemssuchas WAAS,EGNOS, MSAS)
Table 12: Transmission process of the differential signal (for code and phase measurement)
Manycountriesprovidetheirownsystemsfortransmittingcorrectiondata.Acomprehensivedescriptionofall thesesystemsisbeyondthescopeofthiscompendium.Someindividualsystemswillbedescribedbelow.
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Local DGPS: Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). These are sometimes called Ground Based AugmentationSystems(GBAS). RegionalDGPS Wide Area DGPS (WADGPS) or Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS): Employ satellites to transmitDGPScorrectiondata.Inthesecasesnotjustsinglereferencestations,butwholenetworksof referencestationsareused.
RTCMSC104:
RadioTechnicalCommissionforMaritime Services,SpecialCommittee104
RTCA:
RadioTechnicalCommissionfor Aeronautics
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RTCM Decoder
Figure 67: Comparison of DGPS systems based on RTCM and RTCA standards
GPS
Uncorrected
Corrected (DGPS)
PostProcessing (Code+Phase)
TwoFrequency
(L1/L2)
RTCMSC-104 (Code+Phase)
Phase Measurement
EGNOS MSAS
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SAPOS:(GermanSurveyingandMappingAdministrationSatellitePositioningService)isaDGPSservice inpermanentoperation.ThisserviceisavailableinallofGermany.Thebasisofthesystemisanetwork of GPS reference stations. For real-time correction values the data is transmitted using UKW radio, longwave,GSMandtheirown2-meterband(VHF)frequencies.UKWradiotransmittersbroadcastthe correction data signals in RASANT (Radio Aided Satellite Navigation Technique) format. This is a conversionofRTCM2.0fordatatransmissionintotheRadioDataSystem(RDS)formatusedbyUKW soundbroadcasting.SAPOSincludesfourserviceswithdifferentfeaturesandaccuracies: o o o o
ALF:(AccuratePositioningbyLowFrequency)broadcaststhecorrectionvalueswithanoutputof50kW from Mainflingen, Germany (near Frankfurt). The longwave broadcaster DCF42 (LW, 123.7 kHz) transmits the correction values over an area of 6001000 km. This upper sideband (USB) is phasemodulated (Bi-Phase-Shift-Keying BPSK). The German Federal Office for Cartography and Geodesy, in cooperationwiththeGermanTelecomservice(DTAG),providestheservice.Whenbuyingtherequired decoder,theuserpaysaone-timefee.Duetolongwavepropagationpatternsthecorrectiondatacan bereceiveddespiteshadowing. AMDS:(AmplitudeModulatedDataSystem)isusedfordigitaltransmissionovermediumandlongwave frequenciesusingexistingradiobroadcasters.Thedataisphase-modulatedandtransmittedoveranarea of6001000km. Swipos-NAV: (Swiss PositioningService)distributes correction datausing FM-RDS orGSM. The Radio DataSystemRDSisaEuropeanstandardforthedistributionofdigitaldataviatheUKWbroadcasting network (FM, 87-108 MHz). RDS was developed in order to provide travelers with traffic information overUKW.TheRDSdataismodulatedatafrequencyof57kHzontheFMcarrier.Theuserrequiresan RDSdecoderinordertoextracttheDGPScorrectionvalues.Toguaranteegoodreception,thereshould generallybeline-of-sightcontactwithaUKWbroadcaster.Usersofthisservicecaneitherpayanannual subscriptionoraone-timefee. Radio Beacons: radio beacons are navigation installations distributed worldwide primarily along the coasts.DGPScorrectionsignalsareusuallytransmittedalongafrequencyofapproximately300kHz.The signalbitratevariesdependingonthebroadcasterbetween100and200bitpersecond.
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SatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems(SBAS)areusedtoenhancetheGPS,GLONASSandGALILEO(onceitis operational) functions. Correction and integrity data for GPS or GLONASS is broadcast from geostationary satellitesovertheGNSSfrequency.
6.5.1.2 The most important SBAS functions
Increased positioning accuracy using correction data: SBAS provides differential correction data with whichtheGNSSpositioningaccuracyisimproved.Firstofalltheionosphericerror,whicharisesduetothe signaldelaysintheionosphere,hastobecorrected.Theionosphericerrorvarieswiththetimeofdayandis different from region to region. To ensure that the data is continentally valid, it is necessary to operate a complicatednetworkofearthstationsinordertobeabletocalculatetheionosphericerror.Inadditionto the ionospheric values, SBAS passes on correction information concerning the satellite position location (Ephemeris)andtimemeasurement. Increased integrity and security: SBAS monitors each GNSS satellite and notifies the user of a satellite errororbreakdowninaquickadvancewarningtimeof6s.Thisyes/noinformationisonlytransmittedifthe qualityofthereceivedsignalsremainsbelowspecificlimits. Increased availability through the broadcasting of navigation information: SBAS geostationary satellites emit signals, which are similar to the GNSS signals although missing the accurate time data. A GNSSreceivercaninterpretpositionfromthesesignalsusingaprocedureknownaspseudoranging. Overview of existing and planned systems
6.5.1.3
AlthoughallSatelliteBasedAugmentationSystems(SBAS)includelargerregions(e.g.Europe)itmustbeensured that they are compatible with each other (interoperability) and that the SBAS providers cooperate with each otherandagreeontheirapproach.CompatibilityisguaranteedbyusingtheRTCADO-229Cstandard.Atthe currenttime,theSBASsystemsidentifiedfortheareasbelowarecurrentlyinoperationordevelopmentandare (orwillbe)compatible(Figure68):
North America (WAAS, Wide Area Augmentation System):theUSFederalAviationAdministration (FAA)isleadingthedevelopmentoftheWideAreaAugmentationSystem(WAAS),whichcoversmost of the continental United States and large parts of Alaska and Canada. WAAS operates over the satellitesPORandAOR-W.Thesesatellitesshouldbecomeactiveduring2007/2008.Theuninterrupted continuationofthisservicewillbeachievedthroughtwonewsatellitessituatedat133Wand107W.It is planned to extend the service into Canada through the augmentation of WAAS with a Canadian CWAASsystem. Europe (EGNOS, European Geostationary Overlay Service): the European group of three comprising ESA, the European Union and EUROCONTROL, is developing EGNOS, the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service. EGNOS is intended for the region of the European Civil AviationConference(ECAC).AsofJune2006EGNOSwasnotyetfullyapprovedforoperationforhigh securityapplications(e.g.aviation).Thedefinitivereleaseofthesystemisscheduledfor2007/2008.The currenttransmissionstatusoftheEGNOSsatellitescanbeviewedunder[xxiii]. Japan (MSAS, Multifunctional Satellite Based Augmentation System): the Japanese Office for Civil Aviation is developing the MTSAT based Augmentation System (MSAS) that is intended to cover theAirTrafficControlAirspaceassociatedwithJapan.
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India (GAGAN, GPS and GEO Augmented Navigation): the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)istryingtodevelopasystem,whichiscompatiblewiththeotherSBASsystems.Thisistobegin with the launch oftheGSAT-4 satellite, planned for2007.This isplannedtobeapreparationforan independent GNSS system for India to be known as the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS). China (Beidou): Beidouinvolvesthreegeostationarysatellites(140E,110.5Eand80E)belongingto the Chinese government and is foreseen as a regional expansion system for the proposed Chinese satellitenavigationsystemCOMPASS.Thedefinitivetimeframefortheactivationofthissystemremains unclear.
Figure 68: Position and provision of WAAS, EGNOS, GAGAN and MSAS
Thegeostationarysatellites(Table14)broadcasttheirsignalsfromanaltitudeofapprox.36,000kmabovethe equator in the direction of the area of use. The Pseudo Random Number (PRN) for each satellite has been allocated.ThebroadcastingfrequencyofthesignalsisthesameasGPS(L1,1575.42MHz).
Service Satellite description Position PRN
Inmarsat3F3POR(PacificOceanRegion)
178E
107.3W 138 15.5W 21.5E 25E 111.5E 140E 145E 120 124 126 127 129 137
Table 14: The GEO satellites used (or to be used) with WAAS, EGNOS and MSAS EssentialsofSatelliteNavigation GPS-X-02007-C
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Thecomplexgroundsegmentiscomposedofseveralreferencebase-stations,groundcontrolcentersand2to3 satellite earth stations (Figure 69). Each system uses its own designation for its stations. Table 15 below comparesthedesignations.
General description EGNOS designation WAAS designation MSAS designation
ReferenceBaseStation
WRS:WideAreaBase GMS:GroundMonitor station Station WMS:WAASMaster Station MCS:MasterControl Station NES/GES:Navigation EarthStation/Ground EarthStation
ControlCenter SatelliteGroundStation
Reference Station:intheSBASareathereareseveralreferencebasestations,whicharenetworkedto eachother.ThebasestationsreceivetheGNSSsignals.Theyareexactlysurveyedwithregardtotheir position.Eachbasestationdeterminesthedeviationbetweentheactualandcalculatedpositionsrelative tothesatellites(thepseudorange).Thisdataisthentransmittedtoacontrolcenter. Control Center:thecontrolcenterscarryouttheevaluationofthecorrectiondatafromthereference base stations, determine the accuracy of all GNSS signals received by each base station, detect inaccuracies, possibly caused by turbulence in the ionosphere, and monitor the integrity of the GNSS system.Dataconcerningthevariationsarethenintegratedintoasignalandtransmittedviadistributed satelliteearthstations. Satellite Ground Station:thesestationsbroadcastsignalstothedifferentgeostationarysatellites.
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GEO satellites: the SBAS GEO (geostationary) satellites receive the signals from the satellite ground stationsandbroadcastthemtotheGNSSusers.UnliketheGNSSsatellites,theseGEOsatellitesdonot have onboard signal generators but rather are equipped with transponders, which relay the signals processedonthegroundandtransmittedtothem.ThesignalsaretransmittedtoearthontheGNSS-L1frequency (1575.42MHz). The SBAS signals are received and processed by suitably equipped GNSS receivers.
MSAT: developedbytheNationalResearchCouncilofCanada,thisservicebroadcaststheCanada-Wide DGPS(CDGPS)signalsusingtwogeostationarysatellites. Omnistar (Fugro Group) and LandStar-DGPS, (Thales Company), independently broadcast correction datavia6GEOsatellites(Figure70).Theservicesmustbepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoa specialreceiver/decoderforusingtheservice.OmnistarandLandstarbroadcasttheirinformationinLband(1-2GHz)toearth.Basestationsaredistributedworldwide.Thegeostationarysatellitesarelocated inthecentrallatitudedeepoverthehorizon(10...30).Line-of-sightcontactisrequiredinorderto establishradiocontact.
StarfirePropertyofNavComTechnology,Inc.,broadcastscorrectiondatavia3InmarsatGEOsatellites. Theservicehastobepaidforandtheusermusthaveaccesstoaspecialreceiver/decoderinorderto use the service. Starfire broadcasts its information in L-band (1-2 GHz) to earth. The respective base stationsaredistributedthroughoutthewholeworld.Theserviceisavailableworldwideovertherange of76latitude.
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Locationof Maximum
1023 767
Correlation Factor
511
S de Co
t hif
FrequencyShift
Figure 71: Acceleration of the search procedure with A-GPS by reducing the search area
TwodifferenttechniquesareemployedtousetheHelpInformation:
WiththeOnline PrincipletheAiding-Dataaredirectlydownloadedfromaserverasneededinreal- time.Thisinformationisonlyvalidforalimitedtime.(e.g.AssistNow Onlinebyu-bloxAG) WiththeOffline PrincipletheAiding-Data(generallypredeterminedEphemerisorAlmanac information)isdownloadedfromaserverandstoredintheGNSSdevicepriortotheapplication.The datacanremainvalidforuptoseveraldays.Asneededthestoreddatacanbeutilizedinorderto acceleratethestart-up.(e.g.AssistNow Offlinebyu-bloxAG)
The help information is collected from a network of GNSS-Reference Stations (GNSS Reference Network) distributedworldwide. A typical A-GPS system, as illustrated in the below block diagram (Figure 72), consists of a global reference networkofGNSSreceivers,acentralserverthatdistributes Aiding-Data,andA-GPScapablereceivers(theGNSS enddevices).TheGNSSreceiversoftheglobalreferencenetworkreceivetherelevantsatelliteinformationand forwardittotheserver.TheservercalculatestheAiding-Dataandtransmitsit(overamobilecommunications networkorovertheInternet)uponrequesttotheGNSSenddevices,whichinturncanmorequicklycalculate theirfirstposition.
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Central Server
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Figure 73: IGS reference stations (as of October 2006) with approx. 340 active stations
6.8.2 Antennas
Antennas can be made to be less sensitive to disturbances and to selectively receive GNSS frequencies. The disadvantageofthisperformanceimprovementisanincreaseinsize.Thiscontradictsthegeneraltrendtowards miniaturizationofmobilestations.
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NFTotal = NFLNA +
NFSS GLNA
NF:NoiseFigure(dB)oftheStage G:GainoftheStage
Received GPS-Signal OutputSignal forfurther processing
SS
NFSS(dB)
With typical noise figures for the first and subsequent amplification stages- of 20 dB and 1.6 dB respectively, onlymarginalimprovementsarepossiblewithnewLNAdevelopments[xxvi].Furtheradvancementinthisarea appearstobeunlikely.
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Figure 75: GNSS Repeater (external antenna, electrical adapter and power cord, amplifier and internal antenna)
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7.1 Introduction
GNSS receivers require different signals in order to function (Figure 76). These variables are broadcast after positionandtimehavebeensuccessfullycalculated.Toensurethatthedifferenttypesofappliancesareportable there are either international standards for data exchange (NMEA and RTCM), or the manufacturer provides defined(proprietary)formatsandprotocols.
Data interface (NMEA-Format) Data interface (Proprietary format) Timing mark (1PPS)
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7.2.1.1
TTLLevel
Start Bit D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Stop Bit
Data Bits
RS-232Level
0 ( U>0V) 1 ( U<0V)
Start Bit D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Stop Bit
Data Bits
Figure 77: NMEA format (TTL and RS-232 level)
ThedifferentlevelsmustbetakenintoconsiderationdependingonwhethertheGNSSreceiverusedhasaTTLor RS-232interface(Figure77):
If a GNSS module with a TTL level interface is connected to an appliance with an RS-232 interface, a level conversionmustbeeffected(see7.3.4). MostGNSSreceiversallowthebaudratetobeincreased(upto115200bitspersecond). EachGNSSdatasetisformattedinthesamewayandhasthefollowingstructure: $GPDTS,Inf_1,Inf_2,Inf_3,Inf_4,Inf_5,Inf_6,Inf_n*CS<CR><LF> Table17explainsthefunctionsofindividualcharactersandcharactergroups.
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$GPRMC,130303.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.03,043.4,200601,01.3,W*7D<CR><LF> $GPZDA,130304.2,20,06,2001,,*56<CR><LF> $GPGGA,130304.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*59<CR><LF> $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130304.0,A*33<CR><LF> $GPVTG,205.5,T,206.8,M,000.04,N,000.08,K*4C<CR><LF> $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF> $GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF> $GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF> $GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF> $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF> $GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF> $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,1,8,13,15,208,36,20,80,358,39,11,52,139,43,29,13,044,36*42<CR><LF> $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF>
Table 18: Recording of an NMEA protocol
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TheGGAdataset(GPSFixData)containsinformationontime,longitudeandlatitude,thequalityofthesystem, thenumberofsatellitesusedandtheheight. AnexampleofaGGAdataset: $GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,*58<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable19. Field $ GP GGA 130305.0 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 1 08 0.94 00499 M 047 M ,, 0000 * 58 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Latitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) GPSqualitydetails(0=noGPS,1=GPS,2=DGPS) Numberofsatellitesusedinthecalculation HorizontalDilutionofPrecision(HDOP) Antennaheightdata(geoidheight) Unitofheight(M=meter) Heightdifferentialbetweenanellipsoidandgeoid Unitofdifferentialheight(M=meter) AgeoftheDGPSdata(inthiscasenoDGPSisused) IdentificationoftheDGPSreferencestation Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.3
TheGLLdataset(geographicpositionlatitude/longitude)containsinformationonlatitudeandlongitude,time andhealth. ExampleofaGLLdataset: $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable20. Field $ GP GLL 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 130305.0 A * 32 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Longitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) UTCpositionaltime:13h03min05.0sec Datasetquality:Ameansvalid(V=invalid) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.4
TheGSAdataset(GNSSDOPandActiveSatellites)containsinformationonthemeasuringmode(2Dor3D),the number of satellites used to determine the position and the accuracy of the measurements (DOP: Dilution of Precision). ExampleofaGSAdataset: $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorsetsofcharactersisdescribedinTable21. Field $ GP GSA A 3 13 20 11 29 01 25 07 04 ,,,,, 1.63 0.94 1.33 * 04 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Calculatingmode(A=automaticselectionbetween2D/3Dmode,M=manualselection between2D/3Dmode) Calculatingmode(1=none,2=2D,3=3D) IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition IDnumberofthesatellitesusedtocalculateposition DummyforadditionalIDnumbers(currentlynotused) PDOP(PositionDilutionofPrecision) HDOP(HorizontalDilutionofPrecision) VDOP(VerticalDilutionofPrecision) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.5
The GSV data set (GNSS Satellites in View) contains information on the number of satellites in view, their identification,theirelevationandazimuth,andthesignal-to-noiseratio. AnexampleofaGSVdataset: $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable22. Field $ GP GSV 2 2 09 01 52 187 43 25 25 074 39 07 37 286 40 04 09 306 33 * 44 <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier TotalnumberofGVSdatasetstransmitted(upto1...9) CurrentnumberofthisGVSdataset(1...9) Totalnumberofsatellitesinview Identificationnumberofthefirstsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthesecondsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindB-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthethirdsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Identificationnumberofthefourthsatellite Elevation(0....90) Azimuth(0...360) Signal-to-noiseratioindb-Hz(1...99,nullwhennottracking) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.6
The RMC data set (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS) contains information on time, latitude, longitude andheight,systemstatus,speed,courseanddate.AllGNSSreceiversrelaythisdataset. AnexampleofanRMCdataset: $GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable23. Field $ GP RMC 130304.0 A 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 000.04 205.5 200601 01.3 W * 7C <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Timeofreception(worldtimeUTC):13h03min04.0sec Datasetquality:Asignifiesvalid(V=invalid) Latitude:4717.115min Northerlylatitude(N=north,S=south) Longitude:833.912min Easterlylongitude(E=east,W=west) Speed:0.04knots Course:205.5 Date:20thJune2001 Adjusteddeclination:1.3 Westerlydirectionofdeclination(E=east) Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.7
TheVGTdataset(CourseoverGroundandGroundSpeed)containsinformationoncourseandspeed. AnexampleofaVTGdataset: $GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF> ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable24. Field $ GP VTG 014.2 T 015.4 M 000.03 N 000.05 K * 4F <CR><LF> Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier Course14.2(T)withregardtothehorizontalplane Angularcoursedatarelativetothemap Course15.4(M)withregardtothehorizontalplane Angularcoursedatarelativetomagneticnorth Horizontalspeed(N) Speedinknots Horizontalspeed(Km/h) Speedinkm/h Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
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7.2.1.8
TheZDAdataset(timeanddate)containsinformationonUTCtime,thedateandlocaltime. AnexampleofaZDAdataset:
$GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF>
ThefunctionoftheindividualcharactersorcharactersetsisexplainedinTable25. Field $ GP ZDA Description Startofthedataset InformationoriginatingfromaGNSSappliance Datasetidentifier UTCtime:13h03min05.2sec Day(0031) Month(112) Year Reservedfordataonlocaltime(h),notspecifiedhere Reservedfordataonlocaltime(min),notspecifiedhere Separatorforthechecksum Checksumforverifyingtheentiredataset Endofthedataset
130305.2
20 06 2001 * 57 <CR><LF>
7.2.1.9
Thechecksumisdeterminedbyanexclusive-oroperationinvolvingall8databits(excludingstartandstopbits) fromalltransmittedcharacters,includingseparators.Theexclusive-oroperationcommencesafterthestartofthe dataset($sign)andendsbeforethechecksumseparator(asterisk:*). The 8-bit result is divided into 2 sets of 4 bits (nibbles) and each nibble is converted into the appropriate hexadecimalvalue(0...9,A...F).ThechecksumconsistsofthetwohexadecimalvaluesconvertedintoASCII characters. Theprincipleofchecksumcalculationcanbeexplainedwiththehelpofabriefexample: ThefollowingNMEAdatasethasbeenreceivedandthechecksum(CS)mustbeverifiedforitscorrectness. $GPRTE,1,1,c,0*07 Procedure: 1. Onlythecharactersbetween$and*areincludedintheanalysis:GPRTE,1,1,c,0 2. These13ASCIIcharactersareconvertedinto8bitvalues(seeTable26) 3. Eachindividualbitofthe13ASCIIcharactersislinkedtoanexclusive-oroperation(N.B.Ifthenumberof onesisuneven,theexclusive-orvalueisone) 4. Theresultisdividedintotwonibbles 5. Thehexadecimalvalueofeachnibbleisdetermined 6. BothhexadecimalcharactersaretransmittedasASCIIcharacterstoformthechecksum
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G P R T E , 1 , 1 , C , 0
Exclusive-or value
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0111 7
7
1 0 0 0 Directionto 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 proceed
0000 0
0
Table 26: Determining the checksum in the case of NMEA data sets
Version2.0(issuedinJanuary1990) Version2.1(issuedinJanuary1994)
Version2.1isareworkedversionof2.0andisdistinguished,inparticular,bythefactthatitprovidesadditional informationforrealtimenavigation(RealTimeKinematic,RTK). Both versions are divided into 63 message types, numbers 1, 2, 3 and 9 being used primarily for corrections basedoncodemeasurements.
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Each message type is divided into words of 30 bits and, in each instance, begins with a uniform header comprising two words (WORD 1 and WORD 2). From the information contained in the header it is apparent which message type follows [xxix] and which reference station has determined the correction data (Figure 78from[xxx]).
Description Preamble Messagetypeidentifier Referencestationidentification Parity Modified Z-Count, incremental timecounter Sequentialnumber Lengthofframe Technicalstatusofthereference station
Thespecificdatacontentforthemessagetype(WORD3...WORDn)followstheheader,ineachcase.
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7.2.2.2
Message type 1 transmits pseudorange correction data (PSR correction data, range correction) for all GNSS satellites visible to the reference station, based on the most up-to-date orbital data (ephemeris). Type 1 additionallycontainstherate-of-changecorrectionvalue(Figure79,extractfrom[xxxi],onlyWORD3toWORD 6areshown).
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7.2.2.3
Messagetypes2to9aredistinguishedprimarilybytheirdatacontent:
Message type 2 transmits delta PSR correction data, based on previous orbital data. This information is required whenever the GNSS user has been unable to update his satellite orbital information. In message type 2, the difference between correction values based on the previous and updated ephemeris is transmitted. Message type 3 transmitsthethreedimensionalco-ordinatesofthereferencestation. Message type 9relaysthesameinformationasmessagetype1,butonlyforalimitednumberofsatellites (max.3).Dataisonlytransmittedfromthosesatelliteswhosecorrectionvalueschangerapidly.
Emissionofanaugmenteddatascope;e.g.informationwhichisnotsupportedbytheNMEAProtocol. Higherdatadensity:mostproprietaryprotocolsusebinarydataformatswithwhichnumericalandBoolean information can be transmitted in a more consolidated way. Data intensive notifications e.g. satellite ephemeris, can be contained in a notification. With higher data density, a higher emission interval witha constantdatatransmissionspeedcanbecarriedout. ExtensiveconfigurationpossibilitiesfortheGNSSreceiver. Optimal linking to manufacturer-specific evaluation and visualization tools enables precise analysis of the receptionbehavior. Possibility of downloads from the current versions of the manufacturer-specific GNSS firmware. This functionisonlysupportedinGNSSreceiverswiththesuitableFlashmemory.
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From the GNSS manufacturers point of view, an improved distribution of GNSS information to different datasetswiththeobjectiveofavoidingredundancyandthetransmissionofdatawhicharenotrequiredfor theapplication. Verygoodintegritysecurityprovidedbychecksums. Minimum work for the host computer in reading and accepting the received data. The conversion of numericaldataintoASCIIformatinaninternalbinaryformatisnotrequired.
Threedifferenttypesofproprietarydatainterfacesaretypicallyused:
AdditionalNMEAdatasets:theinformationiscodedintousualNMEAdataformat(textbased,separationof the data with commas etc.). However, immediately after the initial symbol (Dollar sign) a manufacturerspecificaddressdatafollows.ManyGNSSmanufacturersusetheadditionalnotificationstoconveyfurther frequently used information. The NMEA format is, however, not suitable for efficiently sending large amountsofinformationduetoinadequatedatadensityandtheintensiveconversionofbinarydataintotext format. Binaryformat(e.g.u-bloxUBX). Textbasedformat.
7.2.3.1
Apart from NMEA and RTCM, the ANTARIS and u-blox 5 GNSS receivers by u-blox support the binary UBX protocol.AswiththeNMEAformat,aframeworkformatisgivenasfollows:
Symbol Explanation SYNC CHAR1,2 Synchronization character 2 CLASS Message class 1 ID Message identification 1 LENGTH Length of the datablock PAYLOAD Structureddata content LENGTH CHECKSUM Checksum
Length(Bytes)
2 Checksumcoveragearea
Eachdatasetbeginswithtwoconstantsynchronizationcharacters(Hexadecimalvalues:alwaysB5,62).These charactersareusedforrecognizingthestartofanewdataset.Thefollowingtwofields,CLASSandID,identify thedatasettype.Thistwo-tieridentificationallowsacleanstructuringofthedifferentdatasetsaccordingto classes. The overview is obtained also after adding new data sets. Symbolic concepts, which are easy to understand such as NAV-POSLLH (CLASS 01, ID 02), are used for the documentation. Following this, the length information and the actual data content are given. u-blox stipulates specific data types for the data content.Finally,eachdatasetendswitha2-bytechecksum.Adatasetisonlyvalidifthecorrectsynchronization charactersareavailableandthecalculatedandpredeterminedchecksumcoincide.
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Feedingofauxiliaryinformationto acceleratethestartup.
With the aid of customer specific software additional data sets can be integrated to existing protocols or additionaluser-specificprotocols.Furthermore,ANTARISand u-blox-5supportsseveralprotocolsonthesame interface,e.g.nestedNMEAandUBXdatasetsinbothdirectionssothattheadvantagesofseveralprotocolscan bemadeuseof.
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7.3.1.2
Helix Antenna
AnothertypeofantennausedinGNSSapplicationsisthehelixantenna. Helixantennasarecylindricalinshapeandaretypicallyusedwheremultipleantennaorientationsarepossible. Theyarerobustandshowgoodnavigationperformance. Theactualgeometricsizedependsonthedielectricthatisusedtofillthespacebetweentheactivepartsofthe antenna. If the antenna is only filled with air it needs to be comparatively large (60mm length x 45mm diameter).Usingmaterialswithahighdielectricconstantresultsinamuchsmallerformfactor.Sizesintheorder of18mmlengthx10mmdiameterareavailableonthemarket.Thesmallerthedimensionsoftheantenna,the greatertheinfluencetightmanufacturingtoleranceshaveonperformance.
Figure 82: Helix Antennas
7.3.1.3
Chip Antenna
Chipantennasaresmallerthanpatchorhelicalantennas.Theyofferawiderangeofsizesdownto(11.0x1.6x 1.6mm).Sincecurrenttrendsareforincreasingminiaturization,theyarebecomingmorepopular.Theavailable ground plane has a significant impact on their performance. Chip antennas are not recommended for applicationswherenavigationprecisionisacorefeature.
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7.3.1.4
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Loop antennas are typically printed on a sticker, which can for example be attached to a windshield. When mountedthiswayloopantennasdemonstrategoodnavigationperformance.Sincethefieldisnotdependanton agroundplane,theimpedanceandcenterfrequencyarenotverysensitivetoobjectsnearthefield.
Figure 86: Loop Antenna, Laser Antenna 775
7.3.1.7
ThePIFAantennaliterallylooksliketheletter'F'lyingonitssidewiththetwoshortersectionsprovidingfeed and ground points and the 'tail' (or top patch) providing the radiating surface. PIFAs make good embedded antennasinthattheyexhibitasomewhatomnidirectionalpatternandcanbemadetoradiateinmorethanone frequencyband.Theyarelinearpolarizedwithonlymoderateefficiency.PIFAareusedincellularphones(E-911) butitisnotrecommendedtousetheminapplicationswherenavigationprecisionisacorefeature.
Figure 88: Ceramic Planar inverted-f-antenna (PIFA) and PIFA for a cellular phone
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7.3.1.8
For applications requiring high accuracysuch as surveying or timing, some very preciseantenna systemsexist. Commontothesedesignsarelargesize,highpowerconsumptionandhighprice.Highprecisionantennasare notgenerallyusedformass-marketGNSSapplications. These antnenna designs are highly optimized to suppress multi-path signals reflected from the ground (choke ringantennas,multi-pathlimitingantennas,MLA).Anotherareaofoptimizationisaccuratedeterminationofthe phasecenteroftheantenna.ForprecisionGNSSapplicationswithpositionresolutioninthemillimeterrangeitis importantthatsignalsfromsatellitesatallelevationsvirtuallymeetatexactlythesamepointinsidetheantenna. Forthistypeofapplicationreceiverswithmultipleantennainputsareoftenrequired.
7.3.1.8.1 Choke Ring and PinwheelTM technology (Novatel) antennas
Choke Ring antennas are high performance GPS antennas. The co-central rings around are suppressing the reflectedsignalsfromthegroundandthereforeitsmulti-pathsensitivity. PinwheelTechnologyoffersexcellentmultipathsuppression,withthesuppressionringsbeingprintedonPCB.
Figure 89: Leica Choke Antenna AT504 and Pinwheel
TM
Antenna (Novatel)
7.3.2 Supply
GNSSmodulesmustbepoweredfromanexternalvoltagesourceof3.3Vto6Volts.Ineachcase,thepower drawisverydifferent.
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1s40ns
ca. 200ms
Thetimepulsecanbeusedtosynchroniescommunicationnetworks(PrecisionTiming). As time can play a fundamental part when GNSS is used to determine a position, a distinction is drawn here betweenfiveimportantGNSStimesystems:
7.3.3.1 Atomic time (TAI)
The International Atomic Time Scale (Temps Atomique International) was introduced in order to provide a universal 'absolute' time scale that would meet various practical demands and at the same time also be of significanceforGNSSpositioning.Since1967,thesecondhasbeendefinedbyanatomicconstantinphysics, thenon-radioactiveelementCaesium 133Csbeingselectedasareference.Theresonantfrequencybetweenthe selected energy states of this atom has been determined at 9 192 631 770 Hz. Time defined in this way is therefore part of the SI system (Systme International). The start of atomic time took place on 01.01.1958 at 00.00hours.
7.3.3.2 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
UTC (Universal Time Coordinated) was introduced, in order to have a practical time scale that was oriented towardsuniversalatomictimeand,atthesametime,adjustedtouniversalcoordinatedtime.Itisdistinguished from TAI in the way the seconds are counted, i.e. UTC = TAI - n, where n = complete seconds that can be alteredon1stJanuaryor1stJuneofanygivenyear(leapseconds).
7.3.3.3 GPS time
Because of constant, irregular frequency errors in the atomic clocks onboard the GNSS satellites, individual satellitetimeisatvariancewithGPSsystemtime.Controlstationsmonitorsatelliteclocksandanyapparenttime disparity is relayed to Earth. Any time differences must be taken into account when conducting local GNSS measurements.
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7.3.3.5
Local time
Local time is the time referred to within a certain area. The relationship between local time and UTC time is determinedbythetimezoneandregulationsgoverningthechangeoverfromnormaltimetosummertime. Exampleofatimeframe(Table30)onJune21st,2001(Zurich) Timebasis Localtime UTC GPS TAI Timedisplayed(hh:min:sec) 08:31:26 06:31:26 06:31:39 06:31:58 DifferencentoUTC(sec) 7200(=2h) 0 +13 +32
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ThepurposeoftheRS-232interfaceismainly
The serial ports in PCs are designed for asynchronous transfer. Persons engaged in transmitting and receiving operationsmustadheretoacompatibletransferprotocol,i.e.anagreementonhowdataistobetransferred. Bothpartnersmustworkwiththesameinterfaceconfiguration,andthiswillaffecttherateoftransfermeasured inbaud.Thebaudrateisthenumberofbitspersecondtobetransferred.Typicalbaudratesare4800,9600, 19200, 38400, 57600and 115200baud, i.e. bits per second.These parameters are laiddown inthe transfer protocol. In addition, agreement must be reached by both sides on what checks should be implemented regardingthereadytotransmitandreceivestatus. During transmission, 7 to 8 data bits are condensed into a data word in order to relay the ASCII codes. The lengthofadatawordislaiddowninthetransferprotocol. Astartbitidentifiesthebeginningofadataword,andattheendofeveryword1or2stopbitsareappended. Acheckcanbecarriedoutusingaparitybit.Inthecaseofevenparity,theparitybitisselectedinsuchaway thatthetotalnumberoftransferreddataword1bitsiseven(inthecaseofunevenparitythereisanuneven number).Checkingparityisimportant,becauseinterferenceinthelinkcancausetransmissionerrors.Evenifone bitofadatawordisaltered,theerrorcanbeidentifiedusingtheparitybit.
7.3.4.2 Determining the level and its logical allocation
DataistransmittedininvertedlogicontheTxDandRxDlines.TstandsfortransmitterandRforreceiver. Inaccordancewithstandards,thelevelsare:
Logical0=positivevoltage,transmitmode:+5..+15V,receivemode:+3..+15V Logical1=negativevoltage,transmitmode:-5..-15V,receivemode-3..-15V
The difference between the minimum permissible voltage during transmission and reception means that line interferencedoesnotaffectthefunctionoftheinterface,providedthenoiseamplitudeisbelow2V. Converting the TTL level of the interface controller (UART, universal asynchronous receiver/ transmitter) to the requiredRS-232levelandviceversaiscarriedoutbyalevelconverter(e.g.MAX3221andmanymorebesides). The following figure (Figure 91) illustrates the difference between TTL and RS-232 levels. Level inversion can clearlybeseen.
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TTLLevel
1: ( ca. Vcc)
RS-232Level
0: ( U>0V) 1: ( U<0V)
Start Bit D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Stop Bit
Data-Bits
Figure 91: Difference between TTL and RS-232 levels
7.3.4.3
ManyGNSSreceiversandGNSSmodulesonlymakeserialNMEAandproprietarydataavailableusingTTLlevels (approx.0Vorapprox.Vcc=+3.3Vor+5V).ItisnotalwayspossibletoevaluatethisdatadirectlythroughaPC, asaPCinputrequiresRS232levelvalues. Asacircuitisneededtocarryoutthenecessaryleveladjustment,theindustryhasdevelopedintegratedcircuits specificallydesignedtodealwithconversionbetweenthetwolevelranges,toundertakesignalinversion,andto accommodate the necessary equipment to generate negative supply voltage (by means of built-in charge pumps). Acompletebidirectionallevelconverterthatusesa"MaximMAX3221"[xxxiv]isillustratedonthefollowing circuitdiagram(Figure92).Thecircuithasanoperationalvoltageof3V...5Vandisprotectedagainstvoltage peaks(ESD)of15kV.ThefunctionoftheC1...C4capacitorsistoincreaseorinvertthevoltage.
TTL- Level
RS-232 Level
Figure 92: Block diagram pin assignment of the MAX32121 level converter
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TTL- Level
RS-232 Level
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8 GNSS RECEIVERS
If you would like to . . . o o o o o o
LN A1
RF filter IF filter
LN A
M ixe r
AG C
ADC
Co ntrol
Crysta l
Crysta l
Display
La t.: 1214 '15 '' Lo ng .: 0732 '28 ''
Controller
Micro controller
DG PS (RT C M )
Pow er Supply
Altitu de : 6 55 ,00 m
M em ory (RAM /R OM )
Keyboard
Figure 94: Simplified block diagram of a GNSS receiver
1 5 9 -
2 6 0
3 7 . * #
4 8 + =
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LNA
Signal Supply
Reference Oscillator
Processor
ROM
NMEA Interface
Figure 95: Typical block diagram of a GNSS module
Proprietary
Theon-chipPowerManagementUnit(PMU)enablesasinglesupplyvoltagesourceandfeaturesaswitch-mode DC/DCconverterthatoptimizespowerefficiencyandextendsthesupplyvoltagerange.AllrequiredcoreandI/O voltagesaregeneratedinternallybymeansofLDOs(Low-Drop-Out). WhenGALILEO-L1signalsbecomeavailable, u-blox 5receiverswillbecapableofreceivingandprocessingthem via a simple upgrade. The ability to receive and track GALILEO satellite signals will result in higher coverage, improved reliability and better accuracy. The chips advanced jamming suppression mechanism automatically filterssignalsfrominterferingsources,thusmaintaininghighGNSSperformance. Theu-blox5singlechipconsistsoftwoICsassembledintoasinglepackage,oftenreferredtoas'SiP'orSystem in Package. This enables the independent selection of the optimal technology for the RF-IC and for the baseband-IC. The RF-IC is diffused on 0.18 m RF-CMOS technology while the baseband-IC is on 0.13 m CMOS.Alternatively,thetwoICscanbeassembledintotwoseparatepackages.Thischipsetsolutionprovides anexternalbusinterfacetoconnectanexternalmemory.ForasimplifiedblockdiagramseeFigure96.
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SAWFilter
UBX-G5010
Clock IF
Baseband Processor
PowerControl
Crystalor TCXO
RTC
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9 GNSS Applications
9.1 Introduction
UsingGNSSthefollowingtwovaluescanbedeterminedanywhereonEarth:
InAddition,othervaluescanalsobedetermined,suchas:
The established fields for GNSS usage are surveying, shipping and aviation. However, satellite navigation is currentlyenjoyingasurgeindemandforLocationBasedServices(LBS)andsystemsfortheautomobileindustry. Applications,suchasAutomaticVehicleLocation(AVL)andthemanagementofvehiclefleetsalsoappeartobe on the rise. In addition, GNSS is increasingly being utilized in communications technology. For example, the preciseGNSStimesignalisusedtosynchronizetelecommunicationsnetworksaroundtheworld.Since2001,the US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has required that, when Americans call 911 in an emergency, theirpositionbeautomaticallydeterminedtowithinapprox.125m.Thislaw,knownasE-911(Enhanced911), necessitatesthatmobiletelephonesbeupgradedwiththisnewtechnology. In the leisure industry, GNSS is becoming increasingly widespread and important. Whether hiking, hunting, mountain biking, or windsurfing across Lake Constance in Southern Germany, a GNSS receiver provides invaluableinformationforagreatvarietyofsituations. GNSScanessentiallybeusedanywhereonEarthwheresatellitesignalreceptionispossibleandknowledgeof positionisofbenefit.
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Navigationsystems Fleetmanagement Geographicaltachographs Railways Transportcompanies,logisticsingeneral(aircraft,water-bornecraftandroadvehicles) Automaticcontainermovements Extensivestoragesites Layingpipelines(geodesyingeneral) Positioningofdrillplatforms Developmentofopen-pitmining Reclamationoflandfillsites Explorationofgeologicaldeposits
Synchronizationofsystemtime-staggeredmessagetransfer Synchronizationincommonfrequencyradionetworks
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For the forest industry as well, there are many conceivable GNSS applications. The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Forest Service GPS Steering Committee 1992, has identified over 130 possible applicationsinthisfield. Examplesofsometheseapplicationsarebrieflydetailedbelow:
Optimizinglogtransportation:ByequippingcommercialvehiclefleetswithonboardcomputersandGNSS, andusingremotedatatransferfacilities,transportvehiclescanbeefficientlydirectedfromcentraloperations units. Inventory Management: Manual identification prior to timber harvesting is made redundant by satellite navigation.Fortheworkersonsite,GNSScanbeusedasatoolforcarryingoutspecificinstructions. SoilConservation:ByusingGNSS,remoteroadsandtracksusedinharvestingwoodcanbeidentifiedand theirfrequencyofuseestablished. Managementofprivatewoodlots:Inwoodedareasdividedupintosmallparcels,cost-effectiveandhighly mechanized harvesting processes can be employed using GNSS, allowing the transport of increased quantitiesoftimber.
Surveyorsuse(D)GPS,inordertocarryoutsurveys(satellitegeodesy)quicklyandefficientlytowithinanaccuracy ofamillimeter.Forsurveyors,theintroductionofsatellite-basedsurveyingrepresentsaprogresscomparableto that between the abacus and the computer. The applications areendless. Theserangefrom land registry and
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Archaeology Seismology(geophysics) Glaciology(geophysics) Geology(mapping) Surveyingdeposits(mineralogy,geology) Physics(flowmeasurements,timestandardizationmeasurement) Scientificexpeditions Engineeringsciences(e.g.shipbuilding,generalconstructionindustry) Cartography Geography Geo-informationtechnology Forestryandagriculturalsciences Landscapeecology Geodesy Aerospacesciences
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Route planning and selecting points of particular significance (natural and culturally/historically significant monuments) Orienteering(trainingroutes) Outdooractivitiesandtrekking Sportingactivities
9.2.7 Military
GNSS is used anywhere where combatants, vehicles, aircraft and guided missiles are deployed in unfamiliar terrain. GNSS is also suitable for marking the position of minefields and underground depots, as it enables a locationtobedeterminedandfoundagainwithoutanygreatdifficulty.Asarule,themoreaccurate,encrypted GNSSsignal(PPS)isusedformilitaryapplications,andcanonlybeusedbyauthorizedagencies.
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B Index
B.1 List of Figures
Figure1:Thebasicfunctionofsatellitenavigation........................................................................................................................................ 10 Figure2:LaunchofGPSSatellite ................................................................................................................................................................. 11 Figure3:Determiningthedistanceofalightningflash ................................................................................................................................. 12 Figure4:InthesimplestcaseDistanceisdeterminedbymeasuringtheTravelTime...................................................................................... 13 Figure5:WithtwotransmittersitispossibletocalculatetheexactpositiondespiteTimeErrors. ................................................................. 14 Figure6:FoursatellitesareneededtodetermineLongitude,Latitude,AltitudeandTime ............................................................................. 14 Figure7:Determiningthesignaltraveltime.................................................................................................................................................. 15 Figure8:Thepositionofthereceiverattheintersectionofthetwocircles ................................................................................................... 16 Figure9:Thepositionisdeterminedatthepointwhereallthreespheresintersect ....................................................................................... 16 Figure10:Foursatellitesarerequiredtodetermineapositionin3-Dspace. ................................................................................................. 17 Figure11:ThethreeGNSSsegments............................................................................................................................................................ 19 Figure12:GPSsatellitesorbittheEarthon6orbitalplanes .......................................................................................................................... 20 Figure13:24hourtrackingofaGPSsatellitewithitseffectiverange ........................................................................................................... 20 Figure14:PositionoftheGPSsatellitesat12:00hrsUTCon14thApril2001 ............................................................................................. 21 Figure15:AGPSsatellite ............................................................................................................................................................................. 22 Figure16:SpectralPowerDensityofreceivedsignalandthermalnoise ........................................................................................................ 23 Figure17:PseudoRandomNoise ................................................................................................................................................................. 24 Figure18:Simplifiedsatelliteblockdiagram ................................................................................................................................................. 25 Figure19:DatastructureofaGPSsatellite ................................................................................................................................................... 25 Figure20:DetailedblockdiagramofaGPSsatellite ..................................................................................................................................... 26 Figure21:Measuringsignaltraveltime ........................................................................................................................................................ 27 Figure22:Demonstrationofthecorrectionprocessacross30bits ................................................................................................................ 28 Figure23:SearchforthemaximumcorrelationintheCodefrequencylevel ................................................................................................. 29 Figure24:SpectralPowerDensityofthecorrelatedsignalandThermalSignalNoise .................................................................................... 29 Figure25:Structureoftheentirenavigationmessage .................................................................................................................................. 31 Figure26:Ephemeristerms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Figure27:WithBPSKtheNavigationDataSignalisfirstspreadbyacode .................................................................................................... 34 Figure28:ModulationfortheFuture:BOC(10,5) ......................................................................................................................................... 35 Figure29:WithBPSK(1)andBOC(1,1)thesignalmaximaareseparated(signalstrengthnormalizedat1Wpersignal) ............................... 35 Figure30:WithModernizationtheavailabilityofGPSfrequencieswillbeincreased ..................................................................................... 36 Figure31:GLONASS-MSatellite(SourceESA).............................................................................................................................................. 38 Figure33:UnlikeSARSAT-COSPAS,GALILEO'sSearchAndRescueservicealsoprovidesareplytothedistresssignal ................................... 41 Figure34:ConstellationoftheGALILEOsatellites(picture:ESA-J.Huart) ....................................................................................................... 43 Figure35:GALILEOsatellite(Picture:ESA-J.Huart) ........................................................................................................................................ 43 Figure36:Ariane5Rocketdelivering8GALILEOsatellitesintospace(GALILEO-industries.net) ..................................................................... 44 Figure37:FrequencyPlanforGALILEO......................................................................................................................................................... 45 Figure38:TheL1bandwillbeintensivelyusedbyGALILEOandGPS(PowerDensitystandardizedat1Wpersignal)................................... 45 Figure39:GIOVE-AanditslaunchonDecember28,2005(PictureESA) ....................................................................................................... 46
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B.3 Sources
[i] GlobalPositioningSystem,StandardPositioningSystemService, SignalSpecification,2ndEdition,1995,page18, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf NAVCEN:GPSSPSSignalSpecifications,2ndEdition,1995, http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/gpssps1.pdf LemmeH.:SchnellesSpread-Spectrum-ModemaufeinemChip,Elektronik1996, H.15p.38top.45 http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/1890 ParkinsonB.,SpilkerJ.:GlobalPositioningSystem,Volume1,AIAA-Inc. GPSStandardPositioningServiceSignalSpecification,2ndEdition,June2,1995 JournaloftheInstituteofNavigation,2002,Vol.48,No.4,pp227-246,Author:JohnW.Betz http://www.glonass-center.ru/nagu.txt http://www.dlr.de/dlr/News/pi_191004.htm http://www.cospas-sarsat.org/Status/spaceSegmentStatus.htm http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/documents/brochure_en.htm http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMT498A9HE_Austria_0.html http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/de/lvb/l24004.htm http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltraum/0,1518,392467,00.html http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMQ36MZCIE_Improving_0.html http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM0198A9HE_Germany_0.html ManfredBauer:VermessungundOrtungmitSatelliten,Wichman-Verlag,Heidelberg,1997, ISBN3-87907-309-0 http://www.geocities.com/mapref/mapref.html B.Hofmann-Wellenhof:GPSinderPraxis,Springer-Verlag,Wien1994,ISBN3-211-82609-2 BundesamtfrLandestopographie:http://www.swisstopo.ch ElliottD.Kaplan:UnderstandingGPS,ArtechHouse,Boston1996, ISBN0-89006-793-7 http://www.tandt.be/wis
[ii] [iii] [iv] [v] [vi] [vii] [viii] [ix] [x] [xi] [xii] [xiii] [xiv] [xv] [xvi] [xvii] [xviii] [xix] [xx] [xxi] [xxii]
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[xxxii] swipos,PositionierungsdiensteaufderBasisvonDGPS,page6,BundesamtfrLandestopographie [xxxiii] http://www.potsdam.ifag.de/potsdam/dgps/dgps_2.html [xxxiv] http://www.maxim-ic.com [xxxv] SatellitenortungundNavigation,WernerMansfield,page157,ViewegVerlag [xxxvi] http://www.alliedworld.com
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