lies. In Experim ent 1, 48 observers judged whether 2 different groups of m en w ere telling lies about a m ock theft (crim e scenario) or about th e ir o p in io n (o p in io n s c e n a rio ). T h e a u th o rs fo u n d th a t o b s e rv e rs ' a c c u ra c y in ju d g in g d e c e p tio n in th e c rim e s c e n a rio w a s p o sitiv e ly c o rre la te d w ith th e ir a c c u ra c y in ju d g in g d e c e p tio n in th e o p in io n sc e n a rio . E x p e rim e n t 2 re p lic a te d th e re su lts o f E x p e rim e n t 1 , a s w e ll a s P . E k m a n a n d M . O 'S u lliv a n 's ( 1 9 9 1 ) fin d in g o f a p o s itiv e c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n th e a b ility to d e te c t d e c e it a n d th e a b ility to id e n tify m icrom om entary facial expressions o f em otion. T hese results

c o n s is te n tly b e tte r ju d g e s o f in te rp e rs o n a l d e c e p tio n th a n o th e rs . F o r e x a m p le , A u s tra lia n c u s to m s a g e n ts h a v e n o te d th a t th e s a m e g ro u p

and his em otion research g r o u p a t S a n F r a n c is c o S ta te U n iv e rs ity f o r th e ir a s s is ta n c e in c o n d u c tin g E x p e rim e n t 1 a n d C o le tte D 'A b r e o R e a d f o r F A C S c o d in g th e stim u lu s sam ple.

o r b e tw e e n a c c u ra c y o f ju d g m e n t a n d c u ltu re o f s tim u lu s in d iv id u a l ( i . e . ,

dem on- s tra te d th a t th e s k ill le v e ls a n d c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e lia rs s e e m e d t o

n o t im - p ro v e th e ir a b ility to d e te c t th e d e c e p tio n s o f d iffe re n t d e c e iv e rs (Z uckerm an,

1 9 9 2 , 1 9 9 4 ). H o w e v e r, th is e v id e n c e fo r g e n e ra lity in d e te c tin g d e c e it w as lim ited in deT urck and M iller (1990), because the deceivers in the study w ere selected on the basis of their self-m onitoring sc o re s, a n d m o re im p o rta n t, th e re w a s n o in d e p e n d e n t e v id e n c e fo r

d iffe re n t a p p ro a c h to th is q u e s tio n o f g e n e ra lity p ro v id e s a n o th e r p ie c e o f e v id e n c e th a t is c o n s is te n t w ith th e s itu a tio n a l s p e c ific ity

s itu a tio n a lly s ta b le . T h e a c tu a l re s u lts o f th e s e s tu d ie s h a v e b e e n c o n tra d ic to ry . S o m e h a v e

re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a c c u ra c y a t d e te c tin g d e c e it a n d s e lf-m o n ito rin g , C P I sc o re s, o r o th e r p e rs o n a lity v a ria b le s (e .g ., K ra u t &

1 9 9 2 ). O v e ra ll, th e s e e q u iv o c a l re s u lts s u g g e s t th a t th e a b ility to d e te c t d e c e it w o u ld n o t g e n e ra liz e a c ro s s s itu a tio n s o r lie s .

g e n e ra lity a n d th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l fin d in g s s u g g e s tin g s p e c ific ity \u2022 m ig h t b e a c c o u n te d fo r b y th e d iffe re n c e s in th e s tru c tu ra l fe a - tu re s o f th e d e c e p tio n s itu a tio n s u s e d to a rriv e a t th e ir re s p e c tiv e c o n c lu s io n s (F ra n k , 1 9 9 2 ). T h e a n e c d o ta l e v id e n c e is d e riv e d fro m

I n c o n tra s t, th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l fin d in g s a re d e riv e d fro m m o s tly lo w -sta k e , re a l-w o rld d e c e p tio n situations--w hite lies, day-to-day polite lies (D ePanlo et al., t9 8 0 )--w h e re

p o lite so c ie ty . A c c o rd in g to E k m a n ( 1 9 8 5 ) , th is d is tin c tio n b e - tw een high and low stakes for successful or unsuccessfuldecep- tio n is c ritic a l, b e c a u s e th e p re s e n c e o f h ig h sta k e s is c e n tra l to a lia r fe e lin g s tro n g e m o tio n s w h e n ly in g . It is th e p re s e n c e o f th e s e e m o tio n s , s u c h a s g u ilt, fe a r o f b e in g c a u g h t, a n d d is g u s t, th a t c a n b e tra y th e lia r 's d e c e p tio n w h e n th e y a re le a k e d th ro u g h nonverbal behaviors

w h ic h th e sta k e s e lic it e m o tio n s th a t p ro v id e c lu e s to d e c e it in th e e x p re s - s iv e

T o d a te , n o e x p e rim e n t h a s te s te d th is id e a d ire c tly b y s h o w in g th e s a m e g ro u p o f o b s e rv e rs tw o d iffe re n t s a m p le s o f lia rs c u lle d fro m

s itu a tio n s .1 H o w e v e r, tw o s tu d ie s h a v e p ro v id e d in d ire c t e v id e n c e c o n s is te n t w ith E k - m a n 's

study, under- g ra d u a te ju d g e s w e re s h o w n v id e o ta p e s o f b o th h ig h - a n d lo w - m o tiv a te d , a n d h e n c e h ig h - a n d lo w -a ro u s e d , s tim u lu s p a rtic i- p a n ts w h o lie d a n d to ld th e tru th a b o u t th e ir o p in io n s , a ttitu d e s , a n d fe e lin g s o n a v a rie ty o f to p ic s (D e P a u lo , L a n ie r, &

in d e c e iv in g w a s re la te d to c a re e r s u c c e s s a n d th a t th e ir b e h a v io r w o u ld b e c a re - fu lly s c ru tin iz e d (h ig h m o tiv a tio n ) o r ( b ) th a t th e ir d e c e p tio n s w e re s im p ly a little g a m e a n d th a t th e ir b e h a v io r w o u ld n o t b e s c ru tin iz e d (lo w

th a t th e h ig h - a n d lo w -m o tiv a tio n p a rtic ip a n ts d id n o t d iffe r o n th e ir s e lf-re p o rts o f te n s io n w h ile re s p o n d in g .

In the second study, professional lie catchers such as agents of the Secret Service, federal polygraphers, judges, and psychia- trists, as

o f h ig h ly m o tiv a te d n u rs in g s tu d e n ts w h o w e re a tte m p tin g to c o n v in c e a n in te rv ie w e r th a t th e film s th e y

p le a s a n t, w h e n o n e o f th e film s w a s p le a s a n t a n d th e o th e r o n e featured gory scenes of an am putation and scenes of burn vic- tim s ( E k m a n & O 'S u lliv a n , 1 9 9 1 ). T h e e x p e rim e n te rs m o tiv a te d the nurses by

that their success in convincing an in te rv ie w e r th a t th e g o ry film s th e y w e re w a tc h in g w e re a c tu a lly p le a s a n t w o u ld b e re la te d to th e ir s u c c e s s in th e ir n u rs in g c a re e rs ( s e e

Friesen, 1974, for m ore details). In this high- sta k e , e m o tio n a lly a ro u s in g d e c e p tio n s itu a tio n , n o t o n ly c o u ld m any

u s in g a d e c e p tio n d e te c tio n s tra te g y th a t w a s b a s e d o n e x a m in - in g th e n o n v e rb a l b e h a v io r o f th e s tim u lu s p a rtic ip a n ts , w h e re a s those observers w ho w ere least accurate reported using a decep- tio n d e te c tio n

e x a m in in g o n ly th e v e rb a l b e h a v io r o f th e s tim u lu s p a rtic ip a n ts . T h e h ig h ly a c c u ra te observers' strategy

A lth o u g h o n e c o u ld a rg u e th a t th e fa k in g p o s itiv e a n d fa k in g n e g a tiv e lie s u s e d b y D e P a u lo a n d R o s e n th a l(1 9 7 9 b ) a re d iffe re n t ty p e s o f lie s , th e y a re b o th d e riv e d f r o m th e s a m e d e c e p tio n s itu a tio n : d e s c rib in g p e o p le . O u r s tu d y fe a tu re d tw o d iffe re n t s itu a tio n s : a lie a b o u t a n a c tio n o n e ju s t to o k a n d a lie a b o u t o p in io n s . H o w e v e r, w e a c k n o w le d g e th a t th is c a n b e a s lip p e ry d e fin itio n a l is s u e .

lik e ly th a n v e rb a l b e h a v io r to c o n ta in in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e e m o tio n a l s ta te

d iffe re n t k in d s o f lie s is n o t c o n tin g e n t o n k n o w le d g e o f th e d e ta ils o f a s itu a tio n if the stakes

lie . T h u s , w e p ro p o s e to m a k e a p a rs im o n io u s te s t o f lie c a tc h e rs ' a b ilitie s to ju d g e d e c e p tio n a c ro s s d iffe re n t ty p e s o f lie s b y c o m p a rin g th e ir a b ilitie s to ju d g e

o f lia rs in o n e h ig h -s ta k e d e c e p tio n s itu a tio n w ith th e ir a b ility to ju d g e a c c u ra te ly a d iffe r- e n t s a m p le o f lia rs in a d iffe re n t h ig h -s ta k e d e c e p tio n

s itu a - tio n s th a t m u s t b e re c re a te d in th e la b o ra to ry to g e n e ra liz e la b o - ra to ry

the structural features o f a c rim in a l in v e s tig a tio n in th e la b o ra to ry , o n e m u s t h a v e h ig h s t a k e s - - t h a t

o th e r y e t s till c o n ta in m a n y o f th e s tru c tu ra l fe a tu re s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e . T h e first d e c e p tio n

th e ft o f m o n e y , a n d th e s e c o n d in v o lv e d fa ls ify in g o n e 's o p in io n a b o u t a c u rre n t event issue. W e

s e c - o n d w o u ld h a v e to ta k e th e m o n e y if it w a s th e re a n d , o f c o u rs e , c o u ld

p r o c e d u r e for tw o reasons. First, w e w anted to m irror w hat usually happens in an

a l r e a d y h a s b e e n c o m m itte d b e fo re a n in v e s tig a tio n is b e g u n . W e w a n te d th e p a rtic ip a n t to k n o w

co m m itted a n d th a t it w a s e ith e r th a t p a rtic ip a n t o r th e o th e r in d iv id u a l w h o h a d

in d u c e a b o u t h a lf th e p a rtic ip a n ts to c h o o s e to lie a n d s u ffic ie n t to m o tiv a te th e lia r to w a n t to s u c c e e d . T h e s e re w a rd s re p re s e n t th o s e

co m m it- te d , th e y w o u ld b e in te rro g a te d c o n c e rn in g th e th e ft. A ll p a rtic i- p a n ts

did not affect any of the analyses reported in this article; for exam ple, observers w ere no m ore accurate atjudging th e p a rtic ip a n ts

n a rio s m ig h t h e d u e to o b s e rv e rs ' b e in g a b le to ju d g e w h ic h p a rtic ip a n ts w o u ld c h o o s e to lie ra th e r th a n d u e to o b s e rv e rs ' b e in g a b le to ju d g e deception from behavioral clues. W e w ere able to rule out this explana- tion by finding a nonsignificant correlation betw een observers' accuracy (in E x p e rim e n ts 1 a n d 2 c o m b in e d ) fo r ju d g in g th o s e w h o c o u ld c h o o s e in the crim e scenario and for judging those

7 8 ) . Iro n ic a lly , th a t w a s th e only nonsignificant correlation for accuracy across choice and deception scenario. Therefore, the choice m anipulation

negative em otion. W e take the advice of Levenson (1988), w ho argued that the criterion for study o f em otional phenom ena should be the inde- p e n d e n tly