44 Developing Seating Designs that Support Traditional Japanese Sitting Postures

Kageyu Noro

Seating Comfort in Asian Traditional Ways of Seating

Zen sitting is an Eastern way of sitting. Buddha first introduced this lotus position circa 500 BC. The lotus sitting style differs from traditional Yoga sitting postures and is characterized by symmetrical positioning of the left foot over the right thigh, and the right foot over the left thigh. Zen sitting is only one of many Eastern sitting postures cited by HEWES (1957). As Buddhism spread from India across the East, the influence of sitting style expanded across Asia. The great Master Dogen founded Zazen Buddhism in the 13th century and introduced the Zafu posture to promote postural stability. For this reason, Zen monks in Japan now commonly assume Zafu while meditating (Fig. 44.1) Zafus are now also used in Western countries (s.f. www.dharma.net). The Zafu sitting style is in marked contrast with those in the West. While Zafu sitting promote postural stability, Western chair designs aim to facilitate changes of posture. Placing a Zafu underneath ones buttocks facilitates deep breathing (Deep breathing is characterized by a protruded abdomen, upright spine and expanded diaphragm.) and lengthens the spine by raising the gluteus maximus around the sacrum and thereby inducing forward pelvic rotation. In contrast, Western seats commonly attempt to induce pelvic tilt through lumbar supports. This suggests backrests are not necessary to achieve pelvic tilt in the seated position.

C.M. Schlick (ed.), Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-01293-8_44, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2009

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Fig. 44.1: Zen sitting and Zafu. A: Zen sitting (front); B: Typical zafu dimensions in Japan; C: Zen sitting (rear view)

Figure 44.2 compares pelvic rotation (Pelvic tilt was measured using a patented device (JAPAN PATENT OFFICE CERTIFICATE 2007) invented by the author that detects three-dimensional changes in pelvic position (illustration is from WU et al, 1998, Fig. 44.3.) associated with these postures: standing, Zen sitting, floor sitting, kneeling (seiza) and sitting crossed-legged (agura) and on a chair. Measured angles are referenced to standing positions; positive values represent a forward pelvis rotation while negative values signify backward rotation relative to standing. Findings indicate that the Zen sitting position induced a superior pelvic tilt to all positions other than standing.

Fig. 44.2: Comparison of pelvic rotation

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Most people in the East now find it difficult to assume Zen cross-legged fulllotus positions due to the popularization of seated kneeling, seiza, in the Edo era (16031867 A.D.). By the 1980s, some even began to perform Zen sitting in chairs in place of zafus. Even so, Zen sitting and chair sitting have to some extent co-existed since ancient times. For example, see two sculptures excavated in India in the fifth century and now preserved at the British Museum. These include: (1) Sculpture of Zen sitting: The preaching Buddha, Khera, Central India, Gupta period, 5th century AD (the British Museum) (2) Sculpture of chair sitting: The preaching Buddha, seated in European posture Sarnath, Central India, Gupta period, 5th century AD (the British Museum). Several historical records also demonstrate that chairs were in use in Japan since around the 10th century. There is a description in Taiheiki (Taiheiki is one of the masterpieces in Japanese classical literature, considered a Japanese historical document) referring to Eastern-style round-backed armchairs (Kyokuroku) in the story of March 5, 1366 (YASUDA 2008). Those chairs were most likely introduced from the Yuan Dynasty (12791368 A.D.) of China. Various types of chairs have been used to a limited extent among the royalty and aristocracy in Japan since the 10th century, as cited in Engishiki (Engishiki is an ancient code law compiled in the Heian era, 7941185 A.D.), up to this day (JINGUJI-CHO 1970). NORO (2005) used a participatory approach to develop a chair for Zazen sitting (This SotoZen project was launched in 2003 at Waseda University. A follow-up conference is described at www.humanics-es.com/zenseating.htm) that would accommodate Zen priests, who maintained a desire for specialized Zazen seating that might induce serenity by supporting neutral postures that promote a sense of free-float necessary to attain their desired spiritual state of nothingness. Unfortunately, no such chair is currently available in the market. This paper describes experimental research directed towards developing such a chair.

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Theoretical Aspects and Development of Seating Comfort

In Eastern countries, floor seating has been adopted since ancient times, while in the West, chair sitting has long been central to daily life. Distinctions between Eastern floor seating and Western chair sitting are described below. 2.1 Western Theories

NORO et al. (2006) summarized historical trends in Western perspectives on seating that evolved as an outgrowth of the findings of KEEGAN (1964) and proposed an

alternative Eastern perspective. Keegan (It should be pointed out that Keegans research, though brilliant and historically pivotal, would have been considered quite limited today as it considered of repeated X-rays of a single young male lying on a horizontal surface) focused on discussions about pathological problems caused by flexion of the lumbar spine associated with seated postures. He also proposed design criteria to promote lumbar lordosis. 2.2 Seating Comfort Required for Zen Sitting and a Chair Design Theory: An Eastern Theory

Ergonomists involved in Eastern floor seating (including Zazen), place a greater emphasis on muscle physiology (esp. hips, buttocks and thighs) than did Keegan. This is attributed to the traditional lack of backrests for floor seating, including zabutons (floor cushions) and zafus. Since floor seating requires less area to sustain body weight (smaller footprints) compared with chairs, greater emphasis is placed on the seatpan and its associated seating comfort. Not surprisingly, there is far less research on this topic than on Western sitting. 2.2.1 Three Essential Ideas Underlie Eastern Theory (1) Promote forward pelvic rotation through seatpan design. WU et al. (1998) pointed out the significance of sustaining areas adjacent to the sacrum for upright sitting, rather than lumbar supports, which exert horizontal forces on the lumbar spine from backrest. (2) Maintain appropriate pressures on the buttocks (NORO et al. 2005). Figure 44.3 shows experimental results of the seat pressure distributions on seat pans that provide sacral support (A of Fig. 44.4).

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Fig. 44.3: Mean and peak values of sitting pressure on seatpan over 50 minute trials. Subject: a female weighing 63 kg. Task: reading, Chair: 3D seatpan upholstered with a thin cushion (as shown in A of Fig. 44.4) Measurement conducted at Gifu Pref. Human Life Technology Research Institute

The experiment measured changes in seat pressure distributions with subjects sitting upright over 50-minute seating trials. Peak values obtained are plotted on Fig. 44.3. In this figure, peak values averaged about 100 mmHg, with increased magnitude of fluctuation after 25 minutes. This suggests that increases in sitting pressures causes the sitter to shift positions more frequently as their discomfort increases. This is why reseating leads to a decrease in peak levels of sitting pressures. (3) Distribute seated pressures. The function of chairs is to sustain human body weight while buttock and thigh muscles support sitting. The greater the area of support (and seat pressure distributions), the less the corresponding load is experienced by its users. The primary objective of this study is to further investigate the relationship between sitting comfort and seat pressure distributions (surface contact rather than point-contact). Since buttocks are convex, concave shapes distribute seat pressures more effectively on the seatpan. Yet buttocks and thighs have quite different seat comfort characteristics. KISHI (2005) described the displacement of seated buttocks and thighs as a function of load deformation (push-in-hardness) and other relevant parts of the seated body. To further evaluate the impact of posture on users comfort, we analyzed the correlation between seated displacement of the buttocks and thighs with users subjective ratings of comfort. A negative correlation was found between buttock

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displacement and comfort, with no correlation between thigh displacement and comfort. Using a neuroscientific approach, NORO et al. (2006) indicated that seated pressure distributions that reduce seat pressures on muscles around the buttocks alone promote seat comfort among other body parts. In other words, the only body parts that affected seat comfort were the buttocks. Reducing buttock pressures requires a greater surface contact area around the buttocks on the seat pan. These findings led us to propose a physiological model of seating. That is, seat comfort is associated with the transmission of sensory nerve signals of muscles to the cerebral nerve center in response to buttocks and thighs pressures while sitting. Seating comfort is greatest when pressures on buttock muscles approximate 3050 mmHg. Exceeding that level of seat pressure leads to discomfort and may induce tissue necrosis if pressures exceed 70 mmHg for over 2 hours (LANDIS 1930, MINO 1997). The extent that their finding applies to Fig. 44.3 may be debated. However, the reduction of sitting pressure undeniably promotes sitting comfort. Specific methods for this will be described in the next chapter. Gluteus muscles tissue is strong enough to bear loads of around 60 kg. Increased pressures on thigh muscles, however, increase discomfort as those muscles are unable to bear loads equivalent to those in the buttocks.

A Trial Product and its Evaluation An Experimental Manufacture of a Seat that Realizes Seating Comfort Derived from Zen Sitting
A Trial Product A Concave Chair with a Seatpan Emulating the 3-D Curved Shape of the Buttocks

3.1

The design requirements from seating comfort defined by Zazen sitting and the related chair design theory described in the previous section are defined by three criteria: efficient body pressure distributions, reduced peak values of body pressures and postural stability. (1) Improve seat pressure distributions Securing the largest possible contact area of the sitting surface will broaden the area of body pressure distribution and minimize associated pressures/load per unit area. (2) Reduce peak values of body pressures The pressure distribution described earlier reduces mean values of seat pressures. The following pages describe the implications of reducing pressures on several body parts, including the buttocks. Adjustment of sitting-pressure

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peak values is performed largely on three body parts; i.e., gluteus maximus muscles, ischial tuberosities, and femoral region. (3) Stabilize posture Postural stability is among important elements not only for Zazen but also for almost all Eastern ways of seating. In the Zazen position, the projected area of a triangle formed by both knees and a zafu is larger than the area formed by chair sitting, while also configuring the three-point-support on both knees and zafu. This configuration enhances postural stability (see Fig. 44.1) in ways that differ from chairs. Posture may be stabilized by expanding seatpan contact area. It would be desirable for pelvic support (also known as sacral support, suggested by WU et al. (1998), promote comfort over a wide range of body parts including the apex of gluteus maximus muscles. 3.2 Experiments and Evaluation

Chairs mounted with the prototype seatpan that emulates a 3-D shape of the buttocks (the 3D seatpan) are shown in Fig. 44.4. This chair was compared with a chair commonly available in the market mounted with a flat seatpan (the flat seatpan). Figure 44.5 compares sitting pressures when sitting on a flat seatpan and a plywood 3D seatpan chair. In both distribution charts, the highest sitting pressures center around the ischial tuberosities. The 3D seatpan as a trial product is seen to have greater area of sitting pressure distribution, which means superior body pressure distribution as mentioned previously.

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Fig. 44.4: A. 3D-seatpan chair upholstered with a thin cushion B. A plywood 3D-seatpan chair

Fig. 44.5: Comparison of seat pressure distributions between a flat seatpan and a plywood 3D seatpan emulating a 3-D shape of the buttocks Subject: A male in his 30s, 174 cm tall, weighing 64 kg Flat seatpan: 105 backrest recline and 2.5 backward seatpan tilt Upper limit of measuring range: 220 mmHg for both seatpans Map: Black zone represent low pressures; white or gray zones higher pressures. Measurement conducted at Gifu Pref. Human Life Technology Research Institute

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Figure 44.5 demonstrates that the 3D seatpan has a greater area of contact surface (i.e., a greater number of active cells of the sensory device), while the average pressure for the 3D seatpan is 60% of that of the flat seat. To investigate postural stability, the pelvis-position detecting device was used in the same manner as shown in Fig. 44.2, with pelvic tilt angles zeroed out at the standing position; positive and negative values signify forward and backward pelvic rotation, respectively. Findings from the 50-minute experiment are shown in Fig. 44.6.

Fig. 44.6: Transition of pitch angles of pelvis tilt of a subject sitting on a 3D-seatpan chair upholstered with a thin cushion

Figure 44.6 demonstrates that: (1) All mean pitch angles from three phases are seen to be better in comparison to those from chair sitting as shown in Fig. 44.2. The first phase (0 sec to 25 min), in particular, presents a very stable posture with a mean pitch angle of 17.8. The range of fluctuation also stands at minimum among three phases as shown in the figure. (2) Growing fluctuations are seen in both second and third phases This represents gradual instability of sitting postures with physiologically requested position shifts presumably included.
Duration: 50 minutes, Subject: a female weighing 63 kg, Task: reading

(3) Despite larger fluctuations, mean pitch angles remain between 18.7 and 15.2 all through three phases, indicating an excellent result. (4) Zen monks, specialists in Zazen, are required to continue that posture for 90 minutes. They grasp the special technique to adapt themselves for the practice after experiencing ascetic training. They expressed their full satisfaction with this seat. One of

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the reasons is linked with the fact mentioned in the item c, and the other reason will be described in the next section. 3.3 Linguistic Expression of Seating Comfort

Linguistic expression of seating comfort also is of significance. Whoever takes a seat on the 3D-seatpan chair expresses own feelings as if wrapped, experiencing a sense of feeling being wrapped in a seat that fully disperses body pressures. An American expert used a word cradle (verb), which Merriam-Webster defines as to support protectively or intimately. The phrase feelings as if cradled as an expression of seating comfort can be said to have implications that seating comfort is essentially linked to human ways of living (NORO 2008). Compared with a sense of fitness appeared in a survey report (FUJINAMI & NORO 1990) as a superordinate concept, the feelings as if cradled would be considered to represent a sensuous experience of a higher order. The evaluation result mentioned above would imply that the trial seatpan could satisfy requirements from Buddhist monks nearly perfectly.

Conclusion

What is the difference between East and West in terms of chair design? The HFES 2006 panel session aimed to review and rethink the implications of regional and cultural differences on common assumptions and perspectives about seating comfort and seating design. This paper is based on the discussions from the past session, and focused on a trial manufacture of an Eastern chair. Western chair features are designed to encourage sitters to move, thereby reportedly promoting more effective sitting work (e.g., armrests and seat swivel). In Eastern countries, it is more common to sit closer to the ground compared with Western chairs. There are a variety of seating postures in sitting close to the ground or floor. There also are quite a few cases where different sitting styles are considered dependant on gender. Among those sitting styles, Zen Buddhists attach more importance to spiritual effects brought by sitting, and consequently would never consider promoting sitting movements or work efficiency. It would be incorrect, however, to make a snap conclusion that the difference of this kind stems simply from difference between chair sitting and floor sitting. There are two reasons for that. One is that seating tools used in the Eastern countries have a huge variety, with some resembling chair postures and seating design. The other is the fact that these days many Westerners sit on the floor in their way of life, while a growing number of Asian people also spend much time sitting on chairs. As such, the difference between East and West in terms of chairs lies in difference in their historical cultures.

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The Eastern way of seating currently has a grave problem. That is to say, a growing number of young people have become familiar only with chair sitting since their childhood, while there are many elderly people who have come to feel pain in floor sitting with their legs crossed in a restricting manner. In the second half of the 20th century, when higher efficiency was singlemindedly sought, Western-style chairs predominated. We cannot forget about having enjoyed comfortable and highly productive work by using efficient office chairs after 1980. Now, nearly ten years have passed into the 21st century. A great change is occurring in social, economic, and political environments. In the Western countries and Japan, it would be self-evident viewed from even a single problem with struggles over energy resources that we cannot promote social and economic developments with such paramount priority to efficiency as before. Only a slightly smaller number of papers have been reported on ergonomic research on floor sitting than on chair sitting. The reason could be attributable to the longstanding trend of ergonomic research in Japan focusing their interest solely on technologies developed by Western countries. How should ergonomic research on chairs be like in the years to come? NORO et al. (2006) pointed out, by introducing specific examples, impasses seen in a Western-style approach in research and development of chairs. This research might be considered a breakthrough.

Acknowledgements The author thanks Shunji Yamada, Rani Lueder, and Rev. Gengo Akiba at Soto Zen Administrative Office for their suggestions. He is grateful to the staff of the Gifu Pref. Human Life Technology Research Institute and colleagues from ErgoSeating Co. for their participation in the experimental research. Finally, the author gives special thanks for the insight of his close personal friend and esteemed colleague Professor Holger Luczak over the years.

References

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