Inorganic Chemistry 1

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
(3 credit semester hours )
Created by Dra.Hj. Bayharti, MSc Miftahul Khair,S.Si, MSc Dra. Andromeda, MSi
CHEMISTRY DEPT. FACULTY OF MATHEMATIC AND SCIENCES STATE UNIVERSITY OF PADANG
http://kimia.unp.ac.id
Contents
- Introduction to inorganic chemistry. - Atomic structure, development of atomic theory especially in atomic model of wave mechanics, electron configuration. - Periodical Table, Effective atomic Charge and relation of that with periodical properties, periodical properties of the elements. -Ionic compound, formation of ionic compound, lattice energy, Born Haber cycle, ionic radii and properties of ionic compounds
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Chemistry Department
- Covalent compound, properties, octet rule, resonance, formal charge, dipole moment, VBT and MOT Theory. -Molecular structure, VSEPR and hybrid. - Coordination Compound, introduction, nomenclature, coordination number, ligands, theory of coordination ( VBT and CFT )
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References
Miessler, G.L. and Tarr, D.A., (1999), Inorganic Chemistry, Prentice-Hall International, Inc, London Manku, G.S. (1980), Theoretical Principles of Inorganic Chemistry, Tata-McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. Gilreath,E.S., (1963), Fundamental Concepts of Inorganic Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Tokyo. Huheey, J. E., Keiter, E. A. and Keiter, R. L., (1993), Inorganic Chemistry (Principles of Structure and Reactivity), Ed. 4., Harper Collins College Publishers
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Lecture 1 Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry
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What is Inorganic Chemistry ?
1. If organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of hydrocarbon compounds and their) derivatives, inorganic chemistry can be described broadly as the chemistry of "everything else." This includes all the remaining elements in the periodic table, as well as carbon, which plays a major role in many inorganic compounds. (Gary L. Miessler and Donalt A. Tarr in Inorganic Chemistry
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Inorganic Chemistry is any phase of chemistry of interest to inorganic chemist (James E. Huheey in Inorganic Chemistry., principle of structure and reactivity. This mean that matter of inorganic chemistry is broad and overlap with other chemistry discipline Inorganic Chemistry is the experimental investigation and theoretical interpretation of the properties and reactions of all elements and their compounds except the hydrocarbons and most of their derivatives (T. Moeller
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Contras with organic Chemistry
Some comparison between organic and inorganic chemistry are in order 1. Number of bonds 2. Kind of bonds 3. Location of hydrogen and alkyl 4. Geometry of compound 5. Number of elements
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Number of bonds
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Both organic and Inorganic chemistry have a single and triple bond
Kind of bond
Organic chemistry has sigma and phi bond, inorganic chemistry has sigma, phi and delta bonds, because metal atom has d orbital
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Location of hydrogen
In organic compound, hydrogen is nearly bonded to single carbon. In organic compound, especially encountered as a bridging atom between two or more others atoms. Alkyl groups Jurusan Kimia may also act as bridges in inorganic compounds
Coordination number and geometry
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Carbon is usually limited to a maximum coordination number of four (a maximum of four atoms bonded to carbon, as in CH4) and the arrangement geometry is tetrahedral Inorganic compounds have coordination number of two, three, four, five, seven and more are very common. The common coordination geometry is an octahedral arrangement around the central atom as show TiF4-
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Number of element Organic compound has hydrocarbon compound and their derivates; H, N, S, O, P, X and may be Sc and Mg. Inorganic compound is the chemistry of everything else, and the elements and their compounds except hydrocarbon and their derivates
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PROBLEMS 1. Compare the number of element between organic and inorganic compound 2. Compare the number of bond, geometry of compound between organic and inorganic chemistry 3. Is inorganic chemistry contrast with organic chemistry? Explain your reason!
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THE HYSTORY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Even before alchemy became a subject of study, many reactions were used and the product applied in daily life. Example: First metal used were probabli gold, copper that can be found in metallic state In 3000 B.C. silver, tin, antimony, lead were known In 1500 B.C. Iron appear in classical great arround mediteraninan also four colored glass, ceramic glass At the first centuries AP, chemistry were active in chine and egypt. The triad to tranmute nbase metal into gold 1500 AD chemistry reappeared in europe
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1600 AD, chemistry appeared in art Roger Bacon (114-194) recognized as one of the first great experimental scientist By the 17th centuries: found the common strong acid (Chloride acid, Sulfuric acid, and nitric acid) 1869, Becquerel discovered radioactivity 1913 Bohr atomic theory 1926 quantum mechanics of Schrodinger on Heisenberg 1940s, a great expansion of inorganic chemistry 19050s describe the spectra of metal ion, CFT and LFT in coordination compound 1955 discovered organometallic compound
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GENESIS OF THE ELEMENT (THE BIG BANG THEORY) AND FORMATION OF THE EARTH
According to the big bang theory, the universe began about 1.8 X lo1' years ago with an extreme concentration of energy in a very small space. In fact, extrapolation back to the time of origin requires zero volume and infinite temperature. Whether this is true or not is still a source of argument, What is almost universally agreed on is that the universe is expanding rapidly, from an initial event during which neutrons were formed and decayed quickly (half-life = 11.3 min) into protons, electrons, and antineutrinos: n p+e
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Lecture II ATOMIC STRUCTURE
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Development of atomic model John Dalton theory Model atom of Thomson Model atom Rutherford Model atom of Niels Bohr Model of mechanic wave
JOHN DALTON
The ultimate particle of homogeneous bodies are pereftly alite in weight figure etc. In other word every particle of water is like every other paticle of water, every particle of hydrogen is like every other paticle of hydrogen, etc. Atom of differen element has different weight, volume, and propertes
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MODEL ATOM OF THOMSON

An atom is a uniform sphere of positive electricity with a radius about 10-8 cm with the electrons embedded in this sphere in such way to give the must stable electrostatic arrangement.
MODEL ATOM OF RUTHERFORD

From the experiment of a small fraction of alpha particles where deflected a large angels on passing trough god foil, while most of them passed directly through. It means atom has much empty space and heavy, tiny nucleus carrying a positive charge. Electrons goes around a nucleus in far distance
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As the electrons drop from level nh to nl (h for higher level, 1 for lower
level), energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

Conversely, if radiation of the correct energy is absorbed by an atom, electrons are raised from level nl to level nh. The
inverse-square dependence of energy on nl results

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in energy levels that are far apart in energy at small nl and become much
Parallel discoveries in atomic spectra showed that each element emits light of specific energies when excited by an electric discharge or heat. In 1885, Balmer showed that the energies of visible light emitted by the hydrogen atom are given by the equation E = RH (1/ni 1 Where nh = integer, with nh > 2
RH = Rydberg constant for hydrogen = 1.097 X lo7 m-' = 2.179 X 10-18J and the energy is related to the
wavelength, frequency, and wave number of the light, as given by the equation
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E =hv = hc/ = hcv where h = Planck's constant = 6.626 X J s v = frequency of the light, in s-I c = speed of light = 2.998 X 10' m s-'
h = wavelength of the light, frequently in nm

v = wave number of the light, usually in cm-I The Balmer equation was later made more general, as spectral lines in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum were discovered, by replacing 22 by nf,
with the
condition that nl < nh . These quantities, ni, are called
quantum numbers. numbers.

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MODEL ATOM OF NIELSBOHR

This theory assumed that negative electrons in atoms move in stable circular orbits around the positive nucleus with no absorption or emission of energy. However, electrons may absorb light of certain specific energies and be excited to orbits of higher energy; they may also emit light of specific energies and fall to orbits of lower energy.
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Model atom of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, nielsbohr and mechanic wave
Lecture 3 MODEL ATOM OF MECHANIC WAVE
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When applied to hydrogen, Bohr's theory worked well; when atoms with more electrons were considered, the theory failed. Complications such as elliptical rather than circular orbits were introduced in an attempt to fit the data to Bohr's theory.' The developing experimental science of atomic spectroscopy provided extensive data for testing of the Bohr theory and its modifications and forced the theorists to work hard to explain the spectroscopists' observations. In spite of their efforts, the Bohr theory eventually proved unsatisfactory; the energy levels shown in Figure are valid only for the hydrogen atom. An important characteristic of the electron, its wave nature, still needed to be considered.
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According to the de Broglie equation,12 proposed in the 1920s, all moving particles have wave properties described by the equation = h / mv where
h = wavelength of the particle

h = Planck's constant
m = mass of the particle

v - velocity of thc particle Particles massive enough to be visible have very short avelengths, too small to be measured. Electrons, on the other hand, have wave properties because of their very Jurusan Kimia small mass. Chemistry Department
Electrons moving in circles around the nucleus, as in Bohr's theory, can be thought of as forming standing waves that can be described by the de Broglie equation. However, we no longer believe that it is possible to describe the motion of an electron in an atom so precisely. This is a consequence of another fundamental principle of modern physics, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that there is a relationship between the inherent uncertainties in the location and momentum of an electron moving in the x direction: x px h / 4 where x= uncertainty in the position of the electron p, = uncertainty in the momentum of the electron Jurusan Kimia
The energy of spectra lines can be measured with great precision , in turn allowing precise determination of the energy of electrons in atoms. This precision in energy also implies precision in momentum (Ap, is small); therefore, according to Heisenberg, there is a large uncertainty in the location of the electron ( x is large). These concepts mean that we cannot treat electrons as simple particles with their motion described precisely, but we must instead consider the wave properties of electrons, characterized by a degree of uncertainty in their location. In other words, instead of being able to describe precise orbits of electrons, as in the Bohr theory, we can only describe orbitals, regions that describe the probable location of electrons. The probability of finding the electron at a particular point in space (also called the electron density) can be calculated, at least in principle.
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THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION

The Schrodinger equation describes the wave properties of an electron in terms of its position, mass, total energy, and potential energy. The equation is based on the wavefunction, 9, which
describes an electron wave in space; in other words, it describes anatomic orbital. In its simplest H = E
notation, the equation is Where H = the Hamiltonian operator E = energy of the electron = the wave function
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The Hamiltonian operator (frequently just called the Hamiltonian) includes derivatives that operate on the wave function." When the Hamiltonian is carried out, the result is a constant (the energy) times . The operation can be performed on any wave function describing an atomic orbital. Different orbitals have different functions and different values of E. This is another way of describing quantization in that each orbital, characterized by its own function, has a characteristic energy. Jurusan Kimia
Because every psi matches an atomic orbital, there is no limit to the number of solutions of the Schrodinger equation for an atom. Each psi describes the wave properties of a given electron in a particular orbital. The probability of finding an electron at a given point in space is proportional to psi2. A number of conditions are required for a physically realistic solution for psy .
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The Schrodinger equation A more detailed look at the Schrodinger equation shows the mathematical origin of atomic orbitals. In three dimensions, T may be expressed in terms of Cartesian coordinates
( x , y, z ) or in terms of spherical coordinates (r, 0, +). Spherical coordinates, as shown in , are especially useful in that r represents the distance from the nucleus. The spherical coordinate 0 is the angle from the z axis, varying from 0 to n , and 4 is the angle from the x axis, varying from 0 to 2n. It is possible to convert between
Cartesian and spherical coordinates using the following expressions:
x = r sin 0 cos + y=r Jurusan Kimia sin 0 sin + Chemistry Department z = r cos 0
The angular functions The angular functions and determine how the probability changes from point to point at a given distance from the center of the atom; in other words, they give the shape of the orbitals and their orientation in space. The angular functions and are determined by the quantum numbers 1 and ml. The shapes of s, p, and d
orbitals are given.

The radial functions The radial factor R(r) is determined by the quantum numbers n and 1, the principal and angular momentum quantum numbers. This function describes the probability of finding the electron at a given distance from the nucleus, summed over all angles, with the 4r2 factor the result of integrating over all angles. The radial wave functions and radial probability functions are Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department plotted for the n = 1, 2, and 3 orbitals
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S,p,d,orbitals
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LECTURE 4 Electron configuration
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THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE Limitations on the values of the quantum numbers lead to the familiar Aufbau (German, Auflau, building up)
principle, where the buildup of electrons in atoms results from continually increasing the quantum numbers. Any
combination of the quantum numbers presented so far correctly describes electron behavior in a hydrogen atom, where there is only one electron. However, interactions between electrons in polyelectronic atoms require that the order of filling of orbitals be specified when more than one electron is in the same atom. In this process, we start with the lowest n, 1, and ml, values (1, rn, 0, and 1 0, respectively) and either of the rn, values (we will arbitrarily use - 3 first). Three rules will then give us first). the proper order for the remaining electrons as we Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department increase the quantum numbers in the order ml, m,, I , and
n.
1. Electrons are placed in orbitals to give the lowest total energy to the atom. This means that the lowest values of n and I are filled
first. Because the orbitals within each set (p, d, etc.) have the same etc. energy, the orders for values of ml and m, are
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indeterminate.
Energy level fill in electron configuration
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The Pauli exclusion principle requires that each electron in an atom have a unique set of quantum numbers. At least one quantum number must be different from those of every other electron. This principle does not come from the Schrodinger equation, but from experimental determination of electronic structures.
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Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity requires that electrons be placed in orbitals so as to give the maximum total spin possible (or the maximum number of parallel spins). Two electrons in the same orbital have a higher energy than two electrons in different orbitals, caused by electrostatic repulsion (electrons in the same orbital repel each other more than electrons in separate orbitals). Therefore, this rule is a consequence of the lowest possible energy rule (Rule 1). When there are one to six electrons in p orbitals, the required arrangements are those given table below. The multiplicity is the number of unpaired . electrons plus 1, or n + I. This is the number of possible energy levels that depend on the orientation of the net magnetic moment in a magnetic field. Any other arrangement of electrons results in fewer unpaired electrons.
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This rule is a consequence of the energy required for pairing electrons in the same orbital. When two electrons occupy the same part of the space around an atom, they repel each other because of their mutual negative charges with a Coulombic energy of repulsion, II,, per pair of electrons. As a result, this repulsive force favors electrons in different orbitals (different regions of space) over electrons in the same orbitals. In addition, there is an exchange energy, II,, which arises from purely quantum mechanical considerations. This energy depends on the number of possible exchanges between two electrons with the same energy and the same spin. For example, the electron configuration of a carbon atom is 1s2 Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department 2s2 2p2 three arrangement of the 2p electrons can be
In the first two cases there is only one possible way to arrange the electrons to give the same diagram, because there is only a single electron in each having + or spin. However, in the third case there are two possible ways in which the electrons can be arranged:
The exchange energy is IIe, per possible exchange of parallel electrons and is negative. The higher the number of possible exchanges, the lower the energy. Consequently, the third configuration is lower in energy than the second by IIe
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The results may be summarized in an energy diagram:
These two pairing terms add to produce the total pairing energy, II: II= IIc + IIe Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department The Coulombic energy, II,, is positive and is nearly constant for each pair of
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Problems 1. a. Find the possible values for the I and rnl
quantum numbers for a 5d electron, a 4f

electron, and a 7g electron. b. Find the possible values for all four quantum numbers for a 3d electron. 2. Give explanations of the following phenomena: a. The electron configuration of Cr is [ Ar ] 4 s 1 3 d5 rather than [ Ar ] 4 s 23 d4. b. The electron configuration of Ti is [ Ar ] 4 s 2 3 d2 but that of Cr2 +is [ Ar ] 3d4. 3. Give electron configurations for the following: a. Sc b. Br c. Fe3+ d. Bi e. Sb 4. Which 2+ ion has five 3d electrons? Which one Jurusan Kimia has two 3d electrons?
Lecture 5 The periodic table
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One of the simplest methods that fits most atoms uses the periodic table blocked out as in Figure before. The electron configurations of hydrogen and helium are clearly 1s'and 1s2. After that, the
elements in the first two columns on the left (Groups 1 and 2 or IA and IIA) are filling s orbitals, with 1 = 0; those in the six columns on the right (Groups 13 to 18 or IIIA to VIIIA) are filling p orbitals, with 1 = 1; and the ten in the middle (the transition elements, Groups 3 to 12 or IIIB to IIB) are filling d orbitals, with 1 = 2. The lanthanide and actinide series (numbers 58 to 71 and 90 to 103) are filling f orbitals, with 1 = 3. Either of these two methods is too simple, as shown in the Jurusan Kimia following paragraphs, but they do fit most atoms and
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SHIELDING In atoms with more than one electron, energies of specific levels are difficult to predict quantitatively, but one of the more common approaches is to use the idea of shielding. Each electron acts as a shield for electrons farther out from the nucleus, reducing the attraction between the nucleus and the distant electrons. Although the quantum number n is most important in determining the energy, 1 must also be included in the calculation of the energy in atoms with more than one electron. As the atomic number increases, the electrons are drawn toward the nucleus and the orbital energies become more negative. Although the energies decrease with increasing Z, the changes are irregular because of shielding of outer electrons by inner electrons. The resulting order of orbital filling for the electrons
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As a result of shielding and other more subtle interactions between the electrons, the simple order of orbitals (in order of energy increasing with increasing n) holds only at very low atomic number Z and for the innermost electrons of any atom. For the outer orbitals, the increasing energy difference between levels with the same n but different 1 values forces the overlap of energy levels with n = 3 and n = 4, and 4s fills before 3d. In a similar fashion,
5s fills before 4d, 6s before Sd, 4f before Sd, and 5f before 6d later formulated a set of simple rules that
serve as a rough guide to this effect. He defined the effective nuclear charge Z* as a measure of the nuclear attraction for an electron. Z* Jurusan Kimia can be calculated from Z* = Z - S, where Z is the nuclear charge and S I the shielding constant. The
1. The electronic structure of the atom is written in groupings as follows: (1s) (2s,2 p) (3s,3 p) ( 3 4 ( 4s,4 p) ( 4 4 ( 4 f ) ( 5s,5 ~ 1e,tc .
2. Electrons in higher groups (to the right in the list above) do not shield those in . lower groups.
3. For ns or np valence electrons: a. Electrons in the same ns, np group contribute 0.35, except the Is, where 0.30
works better. b. Electrons in the n - 1 group contribute 0.85. c. Electrons in the n - 2 or lower groups contribute 1.00.
4. For nd and nf valence electrons: a. Electrons in the same nd or nf group contribute 0.35. b. Electrons in groups to the left contribute 1.00.
The shielding constant S obtained from the sum of the contributions above is subtracted from the nuclear charge Z to Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department obtain the effective nuclear charge Z* affecting the selected electron.
Justification for Slater's rules (aside from the fact that they work) comes from the electron probability curves for the orbitals. The s and p orbitals have higher probabilities near the nucleus than do d orbitals of the same n, as shown earlier in
Figure 2-7.
Therefore, the shielding of 3d electrons by (3s, 3p) electrons is calculated
as 100% effective
(a contribution of 1.00). At the same time, shielding of 3s or 3p electrons by (2s, 2p) electrons is only 85% effective (a contribution of0.85), because the 3s and 3p orbitals have regions of significant probability close to the nucleus. Therefore, electrons in these orbitals are not completely shielded by (2s, 2p) electrons. A complication arises at Cr ( 2 = 24) and Cu ( 2 = 29) in the first transition series and in an increasing number of atoms under them in the second and third transition series. This effect places an extra electron in the 3d level and removes Jurusan Kimia oneChemistry Department electron from the 4s level. Cr, for example, has a configuration of [ A r ] 4 s1 3 d 5(rather
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As the nuclear charge increases, the electrons are more strongly attracted and the energy levels decrease in energy, becoming more stable, with the d orbitals changing more rapidly than the s orbitals because the d orbitals are not shielded as well from the nucleus. Electrons fill the lowest available orbitals in order up to their capacity.
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LECTURE 6 PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ATOMS
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IONIZATION ENERGY The ionization energy, also known as the ionization potential, is the energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion: An+ (g) A (n+1)+ (g) + e ionization energy = AU where n = 1 (first ionization energy), 1, 2, (second, third, . ..) As would be expected from the effects of shielding, the ionization energy varies with different nuclei and different numbers of electrons. Trends for the first ionization energies of the early elements in the periodic table are shown in Figure below. The general trend across a period is an increase in ionization energy as the nuclear charge Jurusan Kimia Chemistry Department increases
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ELECTRON AFFINITY Electron affinity can be defined as the energy required to remove an electron from a negative ion: A (g) + e ionization energy = AU (or A- (g) EA) (Historically, the definition is -AU for the reverse reaction, adding an electron to the neutral atom. The definition we use avoids the sign change.) Because of the similarity of this reaction to the ionization for an atom, electron affinity is sometimes described as the zero ionization energy. This reaction is endothermic (positive AU), except for the noble gases and the alkaline earth elements. The pattern of electron affinities with changing Z shown in Figure above is similar to that of the ionization
energies, but for one larger Z value (one more electron for each species) and with much Jurusan Kimia smaller Department Chemistry absolute
numbers. For either of the reactions, removal of the first electron past a
COVALENT AND IONIC RADII Thc sizes of atoms and ions are also related to the ionization energies and electron affinities.As the nuclear charge increases, the electrons are pulled in toward the center of the atom, and the size of any particular orbital decreases. On the other hand, as the nuclear charge increases, more electrons are added to the atom and their mutual repulsion keeps the outer orbitals large. The interaction of these two effects (increasing nuclear charge and increasing number of electrons) results in a gradual decrease in atomic size across each period. Following table gives nonpolar covalent radii, calculated for ideal molecules with no polarity. There are similar problems in determining the size of ions. Because the stable ions of the different elements have different charges and different numbers of electrons, as well as different crystal structures for their compounds, it is difficult to find a suitable set of numbers for comparison. Earlier data were based on Pauling's approach, in which the ratio of the radii of isoelectronic ions was assumed to be equal to the ratio of their effective nuclear charges More recent calculations are based on a number of considerations, including electron density maps from X-ray data that show larger cations and smaller anions than those previously found.
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The values in folowing Table show that anions are generally larger lhan cations with similar numbers of electrons (F -and Na+ differ only in nuclear charge, but the radius of fluoride is 37% larger). The radius decreases as nuclear charge increases for ions with the same electronic structure, such as 02-,F -, N a +and Mg+2, with a much larger change with nuclear charge for the cations. Within a family, the ionic radius increases as Z increases because of the larger number of electrons in the ions and, for the same element, the radius decreases with increasing charge on the cation. Examples of these trends are shown in those following Tables
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problems 1. Using Slater's rules, determine Z* for a. A 3p electron in P, S, C1, and Ar. Is the calculated value of Z* consistent with the relative sizes of these atoms? b. A 2p electron in 0-2 F-1, Na +1 ,and Mg+2. Is the
calculated value of Z* consistent

with the relative sizes of these ions? c. A 4s and a 3d electron of Cu. Which type of electron is more likely to be lost when copper forms a positive ion? d. A 4 f electron in Ce, Pr, and Nd. There is a decrease in size, commonly known as the lanthanide contraction, with increasing atomic number in the lanthanides. Are your values of Z* consistent with this trend? Jurusan Kimia 2.Select the better choice in each of the following, and Chemistry Department explain your selection briefly.
Lecture 7 The Ionic Compound
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Simple ionic compound form only between very active metallic elements and very active nonmetals. Very active metallic elements form the cation ( positive ion ), that loss electrons, and the active nonmetals gain electron to form anion ( negative ion ). The attraction between posititve and negative ion result in an ionic bond. Two importan requisites are that - the ionization energy to form cation and - electron affinity to form anion
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The requirment for ionic bonding;
1) The atoms of one element must be able to lose one or two ( rarely three) electrons without undue energy input. 2) The atom of other element must be able to accept one or two electrons ( almost never three) without undue energy input. The ristrict ionic bonding to compounds between active metals group IA, IIA, IIIA and some lower state of transition metals (formins cations) and the most active non metals (group VII A and VI A and VA) (forming anions)
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Formation of ionic bonds is illustrated for sodium chloride by : Na (s) Na (g) Na + (g) Cl 2 (g) Cl (g) Cl (g) Na + (g) + Cl (g) NaCl (s) Where Na
+
and Cl
both have filled octets
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The energy of interactions of two charged particles is given by E=q+q 4 r 0 q + and q arethe charges, r is distance of separation is the permittif of the medium
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The formation of sodium chloride not simple since the real sodium chloride in Na+ and CL- in the formation of lattice in the face center cubic structure. The coordination number(C.N) of both ions in the sodium chloride lattice is 6. there are six chloride ions about each sodium ion and six sodium ions about each chloride ion. Interaction between Na+ and CL- in the lattice state is bigger than those in gas state, because the lattice has a lattice energy.
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LATTICE ENERGY
The energy of the crystal lattice of an ionic compound is the energy released when ions (gas state) come together from infinite a crystal M + (g) + X (g) MX (s) It may be treated adequately by a simple electro static model. Although we shall include non electrostatic energies , such as the repulsion of closed cell and more sophisticated treatment include such factors as dispersion forces and zero energy, simple electrostatic accounts for about 90 % of the bonding energy.
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the theoretical treatment of ionic lattice energy was initiated by Born and Landle. They derivates from Coulombs law.
E= Z+Z 4 r 0 Now the crystals lattice there will be more interactions than the simple ne in an ion par. In the sodium chloride lattice, there attraction to the six nearest neighbor of opposite charge and repulsion by the twelve neighbors of live charge, Jurusan Kimia etc . so in the pair of ion equation in lattice become
E = A Z + Z e2 4 r 0 A = Madelung constant A = 6- 12/2 + 83 - . Born suggested repulsion energy Er = B/rn NA = Avogadro number The total lattice energy
U = A NA Z + Z e2 (1- 1/n) 4 r 0
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BORN HABER CYLE
His law state that enthalpy of a reaction is the same whether the reaction take place. In one or several steps. It is necessary consequence of the first law of thermodynamics concerning the conservations energy. This is a Born Haber cycle, that apply the Hass law to the enthalpy of formation of an ionic solid. Hf = S + D + I + A + U S = Enthalpy of atomization or enthalpy of sublimation of the metal D = enthalpy of dissociation of the atomic molecule or Enthalpy of atomization. I = energy of ionization A = electron affinity U = lattice energy
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Lecture 8 Ionic radii and properties of ionic compound
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The distance between two ionic compound (d) the same with the sum of ionic radii of cation (rA+ ) and that of anion ( rB- ) d= rA+ + rBA+ B-
rA+
rB-
If it possible to measure the distance (d) with high degree of accuracy , experimentally d= rA+ + rB- And could not tell where each .
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We know only that Cation ends and the anion begins. X-ray crystallographer determine the structure of compound such as NaCl, usually only the spacing of ions is determined ( d is determined). d= rA+ + rB-
Example: d KF = 2,66 A0 d NaF = 2,31 A0 d KCl = 3,14 A0 d NaCl = 2,81 A0
r= 0,35 d Kf- d NaF = 0,3
rK+ + rNa+ =0,35
d KCl- d NaCl = rK+ + rNa+ = 0,33
Conclusion: r ionic compound is constant.
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Pauling Approach about Ionic Radii

The ratio of the radii of isoelectronic ions was assumed reverse to the ratio of their effective nuclear charge. Na+ = 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p6 F= 1s2 , 2s2 ,2p6 Z* = Z S Z* Na+ = 11-4,5= 6,85 Z* F= 9- 4,5 = 4,85 r Na+ / r F- = Z* F- / Z* Na+ r Na+ / r F- = 4,85/6,85 , r Na+ / r F- = 0,71 r Na+ = 0,71 r F- (1)
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r Na+ + r F- = 2,31..(2) r Na+ = 0,96 r F= 1,35 Problem Calculate the r K+ and rCl - if the d KCl= 3,14!
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Properties of Ionic Compound

1) 2) 3) 4) Streochemistry Melting and boiling point Hardness Solubility
5) Conductivity 6) Brittleness
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1) Streochemistry Ionic bond are quite strong and are omnidirectional. Ionic forces extend throughout the space and equally strong in all direction. 2) Melting and boiling point Melting point and boiling point of ionic compound is high, doe to strong electronic union and cation interactions, extending through crystal lattice. The closer the ion the stronger will be the attraction forces and the higher will be the melting point.
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3) Hardness The multivalent electrostatic attraction forces of ionic crystal make the crystal hard. Hardness increase with the decriasing interionic distance, and increase the ionic charge. 4)Solubility Ionic compound dissolve in polar solvent having high dielectric constant, doe to : Dicteace in the interaction force among ion the a electric medium. Ion solvent dipole interaction.
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5) Conductivity In the solid state, ionic compound have extremely low conductance as the ion are the held tightly. In molten and solution stall, ionic compounds conduct electricity, because the formation of free mobile ion.. 6) Brittleness If safficient energy is supplied to the crystal layer of a unit cell, the attraction force become repulsive do to the anion-anion and cationcation repulsion and the crystal crumbles. The ionic crystal hard but brittle, can be powdered.
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Covalent Bonding
Week 1
Read in the name your God who created
)I(
Inorganic Chemistry 3
)I(
Miftahul Khair, M.Sc (miftah@fmipa.unp.ac.id) 95
Intro
Miftahul Khair Room : CF 099 Chem Dept UNP miftah@fmipa.unp.ac.id Check regularly your portal for taking the ppt slides, course materials, pre exam problems, etc (if any)
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Models of Covalent Bonding

The properties of atoms atomic orbitals, so the properties of covalent compounds molecular orbitals. An electron in a molecular orbital is the property of the whole molecule, not of an individual atom. Molecular orbital energy levels : - aspects of chemical bonding that are difficult to comprehend in terms of the simple Lewis electron-dot representations.
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O2 molecule
Michael Faraday: oxygen gas is attracted into a magnetic
field
paramagnetic
unpaired electrons
Later, bond strength studies showed that the O2 molecule has a double bond bond.
electron-dot diagrams
the ground-state molecular orbital diagram
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Introduction to Molecular Orbitals

When two atoms approach each other, their atomic orbitals overlap. The electrons no longer belong to one atom but to the molecule as a whole.
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Statements about molecular orbitals:
1. For orbitals to overlap, the signs on the overlapping lobes must be the same. 2. Whenever two atomic orbitals mix, two molecular orbitals are formed, : bonding and antibonding. 3. For significant mixing to occur, the atomic orbitals must be of similar energy. 4. Each molecular orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, one with spin +1/2 , the other -1/2 5. The electron configuration of a molecule can be constructed by using the Aufbau principle by filling the lowest energy molecular orbitals in sequence. 6. When electrons are placed in different molecular orbitals of equal energy, the parallel arrangement (Hunds rule) will have the lowest energy. 7. The bond order in a diatomic molecule is defined as the number of bonding electron pairs minus the number of antibonding pairs.
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Molecular Orbitals for Period 1 Diatomic Molecules

Start with the simplest diatomic species H2+
H + H+
H2+ molecular ion.
electron configuration: (1s)1

Total e1 Bond order 1/2 bond bond strength length (pm) (kJ/mol) 106 255
Simultaneous attraction of the electron to two H nuclei Energy of the electron 1s < 1s net reduction in total electron energy is the driving force in covalent bond formation.
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Hydrogen molecule, H2
H+H H2
The greater the bond order, the greater the strength of the bond and the shorter the bond length
Total e2 Bond order 1 bond bond strength length (pm) (kJ/mol) 74 436 Match!
electron configuration: (1s)2
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He2+ molecular ion.
He + He+
He2+ molecular ion.
Total e3
Bond bond bond strength order length (pm) (kJ/mol) 1-1/2= 108 251 1/2
electron configuration: (1s)2 (*1s)1
Weaker bond is confirmed by the bond length and bond energy, the same as those of the dihydrogen ion.
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He2 molecule
He + He
He2 molecule.
2 e- decrease in energy while, 2eincrease in energy by the same quantity. no net decrease in energy
Total e4
Bond bond bond strength order length (pm) (kJ/mol) 1-1= 0
or net bond order = 0 So, no covalent bonding !

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electron configuration: (1s)2 (*1s)2
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Molecular Orbitals for Period 2 Diatomic Molecules

At a new period, the inner (core) e- become irrelevant to the bonding process. Li (2s1) and Be (2s2) only construct a molecular orbital energy diagram corresponding to the 2s atomic orbitals.
The outermost occupied orbitals /the frontier orbitals

orbitals for bonding.
crucial
HOMO/highest occupied molecular orbitals crucial for bonding LUMO/ lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals crucial for reaction.
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Li2 (g) molecule
Li + Li
Li2 molecule.
Total e2
Bond order 1
bond bond strength length (pm) (kJ/mol)

OK OK
Occupancy of frontier(valence) molecular orbital : (2s)2

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Try Be2 molecule ! Possible ?
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Heavier Period 2 elements
Formation of molecular orbitals from 2p atomic orbitals. Mix in two ways: 1.end a pair of bonding and antibonding orbitals is formed and 1.end to end resembles those of the 1s orbitals. 2p and *2p
bond = bond formed by atomic orbital overlap along the axis joining the two nuclear centers.
As orbitals can only overlap if the signs of the lobes are the samein this case, we show positive to positive.
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The bonding and side 2. Side to side. antibonding molecular orbitals , for both px and py
every atom has 3 2p atomic orbitals, molecular orbitals.
3 bonding and 3 antibonding
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Bonding models
explain experimental observations.
the shorter the bond length and the higher the bond energy, the stronger the bond
Bond energy (kJ/mol) 200300 500600 9001000 Bond order single bonds, double bonds triple bonds
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Diatomic molecules, N2, O2, and F2, the bonding and antibonding orbitals formed from both 1s and 2s atomic orbitals are filled
No net bonding contribution from these orbitals.
Only consider the filling of the molecular orbitals derived from the 2p atomic orbitals.
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the Period 2 elements beyond N2
Hunds rule must works,

two unpaired ebond order
bond order
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N2
At the beginning of the period, the levels differ in energy by only about 0.2 MJ/mol. In these circumstances, the wave functions for the 2s and 2p orbitals become mixed. increase in energy of the 2p molecular orbital to the point where it has greater energy than the 2p orbital. This ordering of orbitals applies to dinitrogen and the preceding elements in Period 2, the - crossover occurring between N2 and O2
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electron configuration:
(2p)4 (2p)2
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Molecular Orbitals for Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules

the same period : Z >, Zeff > the molecular orbitals derived primarily from the 2s atomic orbitals of one element overlap significantly in energy with those derived from the 2p atomic orbital energies <
orbitals of the other element.

two molecular orbitals whose energies are between those of the contributing atomic orbitals. These orbitals, NB, are defi ned as
nonbonding molecular orbitals; that is, they do not contribute significantly to the
bonding
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Molecular orbital diagrams can also be constructed to develop bonding schemes for molecules containing more than two atoms.
But, its better to predict of the shapes of molecules than orbital energy levels.
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A Brief Review of Lewis Structures

Lewis; atoms combine by sharing electron pairs
Molecular orbital Lewis
bond length and bond energy in covalent molecules. molecular shape of complex molecules.
Lewis (electron-dot) : the driving force of bond formation as being the attainment by each atom in the molecule of an octet of electrons in its outer (valence) energy level (except hydrogen) , completion of the octet is accomplished by a sharing of electron pairs between bonded atoms.
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ElectronConstructing Electron-Dot Diagrams

electronegativity) 1. Identify the central atom, (lower electronegativity). Write the symbol of the central atom and place the symbols of the other atoms around the central atom. 2. Count the total number of valence electrons. 3. Place an electron pair (single covalent bond) between the central atom and each of the surrounding atoms. Add lone pairs to the surrounding atoms. Then any excess electrons are added to the central atom. 4. If the number of electrons on the central atom is less than eight and there are leftover electrons, add lone pairs to the central atom. If the number of electrons on the central atom is less than eight and there are no more electrons, construct double and triple bonds using lone pairs from surrounding atoms.
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Exceeding the Octet < 8 e- or > 8 e- in central atom
the use of d orbitals was invoked to make
possible a theoretical maximum of 18 bonding e-
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Partial Bond Order

In some cases, the only structure that can be drawn does not correlate with our measured bond information Ex: NO3N-O = 122 pm. N-Otheoritical = 144 pm.
resonance.
average bond order =1 1/3 .
fractional bond order

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Formal Charge
In some cases, we can draw more than one feasible electron-dot diagram, one such example being dinitrogen oxide. Try ! Ex: N2O asymmetric linear with a central N atom. which possibilities are unrealistic
formal charge :
divide the bonding e- equally among the constituent atoms and Compare number of assigned electrons for each atom with its original number of valence e-. Any difference charge sign
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formal charge
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the lowest energy structure will be the one with the smallest formal charges on the atoms
(c) is eliminated
optimum representation= resonance mixture of a and b.
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Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Rules

also called the electron domain (ED) model.
repulsions between electron pairs in the outermost occupied energy levels on a central atom cause those electron pairs to be located as far from each other as is geometrically possible
Electron-dot diagrams can be used to derive the probable molecular shape. use a very simplistic set of rules that tells us nothing about the bonding : ignore the differences between the energies of the s, p, and d orbitals and simply regard them as degenerate effective at predicting molecular shapes
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Vocabulary:
domain = any electron pair, or any double or triple bond is considered one domain. lone pair = non-bonding pair = unshared pair non= any electron pair that is not involved in bonding bonding pair = shared pair = any electron pair that is involved in bonding
Steps for using VSEPR:
1. 2. 3.
Draw a Lewis Dot Structure. Predict the geometry around the central atom. Predict the molecular shape.
also, we can try and predict the angles between atoms.
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All e- pairs push each other as far apart as possible.

Shared (bonding) pairs are stretched between two atoms that want them. Longer & Thinner Unshared (non-bonding) pairs are not stretched. Shorter & Thicker
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2 domains on central atom
LINEAR
2 domains both are bonding pairs They push each other to opposite sides of center (180 apart).
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BeCl2
TRIGONAL PLANAR
3 domains all are bonding pairs They push each other apart equally at 120 degrees.
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GaF3
BENT
3 domains:
2 are bonding pairs 1 is a lone pair
The 2 bonding pairs are pushed apart by 3rd pair (not seen)
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SnF2
NOTE:
The geometry around the central atom is trigonal planar. The molecular shape is bent. SnF2
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TETRAHEDRAL
4 domains Each repels the other equally - 109.5 - not the expected 90. Think in 3D.
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CH4
4 e- pairs on central atom

TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL
4 domains
3 bonding pairs 1 lone pair
The thicker, lone pair forces the others a little bit closer together (~107.3)
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NH3
Tetrahedral vs. Trigonal pyramidal
Tetrahedral geometry
around the central atom

Tetrahedral Molecular Shape Jurusan Kimia
Tetrahedral geometry
around the central atom

Trigonal Pyramidal Molecular Shape
Tetrahedral vs. Trigonal pyramidal
On the right, the 4th lone pair, is not seen as part of the actual molecule, yet affects shape. If another one of the bonding pairs on trigonal pyramidal were a lone pair, what is the result? Jurusan Kimia
4 domains on central atom, cont
BENT
4 domains
2 bonding pairs 2 lone pairs
The bonds are forced together still closer (104.5) by the 2 thick unshared pairs.
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H2O
Comparing the 2 bents
Both bent molecules are affected by unshared pairs 1 pair on the left, 2 on the right. Jurusan Kimia
Other Molecular Geometry
Just for fun, lets look at some others that we will not study in detail in this course
Note that if there are more than five domains around the central atom, it must be an exception to the octet rule!

TRIGONAL BIPYRAMIDAL
5 shared pairs Three pairs are found in one plane (equator) 120 apart; the other two pairs are at the poles, 180 apart, 90 from the equator.
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PCl5

SEE-SAW
4 shared pairs & unshared pair
One of the equator pairs is unshared & pushes the other 2 together. The 2 poles are pushed slightly together.
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SF4
T-SHAPED
3 shared & 2 unshared pairs 2 of the 3 equator pairs are unshared. All 3 remaining pairs are pushed together.
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ClF3
LINEAR
2 shared & 3 unshared pairs All 3 equator pairs are unshared. The 2 remaining pairs are forced to the poles.
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XeF2
5 shared, 0 unshared
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OCTAHEDRAL
6 shared pairs Each pair repels the others equally. All angles = 90
Now, if one of these pairs was unshared

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SF6

SQUARE PYRAMIDAL
5 shared pairs & unshared pair
4 shared pairs in one plane; the 5th pair at the pyramids top.
If the pair at the top was unshared Jurusan Kimia

IF5
SQUARE PLANAR
4 shared & 2 unshared pairs The 4 shared pairs are in the same plane; the 2 unshared pairs are 90 from them.
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XeF4
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The Valence-Bond Concept

builds on the Lewis proposal that bonding results from electron pairing between neighboring atoms put into a quantum mechanical context the results (the valence-bond concept) were refined by Linus Pauling. - used much less now, only organic chemistry and transition metal compounds
The principles
1. A covalent bond results from the pairing of unpaired electrons in neighboring atoms. 2. The spins of the paired electrons must be antiparallel (one up and one down). 3. To provide enough unpaired electrons in each atom for the maximum bond formation, electrons can be excited to fill empty orbitals during bond formation. 4. The shape of the molecule results from the directions in which the orbitals of the central atom point.
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Orbital Hybridization
Solving the Schrodinger wave equation using the valencebond method requires that the original atomic orbitals be combined into hybrid orbitals that better fit the known geometries.
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orbital hybridization.
The orbital hybridization concept asserts that the wave functions of electrons in atomic orbitals of an atom (usually the central atom of a molecule) can mix together during bond formation to occupy hybrid atomic orbitals. electrons in these hybrid orbitals are still the property of the donor atom. The number of hybrid orbitals formed will equal the sum of the number of atomic orbitals that are involved in the mixing of wave functions
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Exp 1: BF3 B=
matches our experimental findings : 120 angles ; trigonal planar geometry
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Exp 2: CO2 C=
can be used to explain the linear nature of the CO2 molecule and the presence of two carbon-oxygen double bonds.
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Limitation of the Hybridization Concept

-hybridization is simply a mathematical manipulation of wave functions, and we have no evidence that it actually happens. the hybridization concept is not a predictive tool: The construction of a set of molecular orbitals, in which the electrons are considered the property of the molecule as a whole, is predictive. complexity of the calculations that are needed to deduce molecular shape.
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Network Covalent Substances

All the atoms are held together by covalent bonds throughout a substance
The whole crystal is one giant molecule.

Network covalent substances are rare.
Ex 1: diamond,
sublimes at 4000C,
each and every C is bonded in a tetrahedral arrangement to all its neighbors

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Ex 2: Quartz
melts at 2000C.
each silicon atom is surrounded by a tetrahedron of oxygen atoms, and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms. Due to this network covalent bond : 1. m.P >>> 2. extremely hard: 3. insoluble in all solvents.
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Amorphous Silicon
Amorphous solids = materials in which the atoms are not arranged in a systematic repeating manner. Efficiency a-Si = 40 x c-Si at absorbing solar radiation
a-Si
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c-Si
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Intermolecular Forces
Almost all covalently bonded substances consist of independent molecular units. only intramolecular forces (the covalent bonds) between neighboring molecules gases ! no attractions
forces between molecules

1. induced dipole attractions/ dispersion forces/London forces 2. Dipoledipole, 3. ion-dipole, 4. hydrogen bonding operates between all molecules
only occur in specific circumstances
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Dispersion (London) Forces
instantaneous dipoles are created and generate dispersion forces. Instantaneous dipoles forming in one molecule will generate dipoles in neighbouring molecules due to electrostatic attraction and repulsion. The result of the development of so many temporary dipoles is a brief, weak force of attraction (dispersion forces)
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Electronegativity
= the power of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself. reflects the comparative Zeff of the two atoms on the shared electrons
Relative concept, not a measurable function
there will be a permanent dipole in the molecule.
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DipoleDipole-Dipole Forces
dipole-dipole attractions effect <

induced dipole effect.
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Hydrogen Bonding
the strongest intermolecular force; 5 to 20 % the strength of a covalent bond. hydrogen bond strength : HF > HO > HN
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Molecular Symmetry
Symmetry compounds to interpret the vibrational spectra of the
Symmetry Operations
- a procedure performed on a molecule that leaves it in a conformation indistinguishable from, and superimposable on, the original conformation There are five symmetry operations: 1. Identity 2. Proper rotation: rotation about an n-fold axis of symmetry 3. Reflection through a plane of symmetry 4. Inversion through a center of symmetry 5. Improper rotation: rotation about an axis followed by a refl ection (real or imagined) perpendicular to that axis
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Identity
The identity operator, E, leaves the molecule
unchanged. Thus, all molecules possess E.
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Proper Rotation The rotation operation, symbol Cn
x, involves rotating the molecule by 360/n degrees about an axis, symbol Cn, through the molecule. The value of n represents the number of times
the molecule can be rotated during a complete 360 rotation while matching the original conformation after each rotation.
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Symmetry and Vibrational Spectroscopy

plays an important role in molecular behavior Ex : in transition metal compounds, molecular symmetry is key in determining the number and energies of electronic excited states and the probability of an electron being excited into each of those states. These electronic excitations result in the color and color intensity of the compound.
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Transition Metal Complexes

CHAPTER 19
Read in the name your God who created
)I(
Inorganic Chemistry 3
)I(
Miftahul Khair, M.Sc (miftah@fmipa.unp.ac.id) 170
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Preface
special interest due to : the transition metal compounds come in every color of the rainbow, Ex : CrCl3.6H2O can be purple, pale green, and dark green Alfred Werner (1893) : transition metal compounds consisted of the metal ions surrounded by the other ions and molecules.
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Transition metals
is an element that has at least one simple ion with an incomplete outer set of d electrons.
Exclude: Group 12 elements-(Zn, Cd, and Hg) because these metals d10 electron configuration. The Group 3 elements-(Sc, Y, and La) because they almost always exhibit the +3 oxidation state (do electron configuration). postactinoid metals
1.
2.
3.
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Introduction to Transition Metal Complexes

A grouping consisted of Transition metal ion covalently bonded to other ions or molecules.
the diversity of the metal complexes provides the wealth of transition metal chemistry
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Warner : metal ion has combining power; specific number (coordination number) of molecules or ions (ligands) with which transition metals could combine. Ex: Pt(II), NH3, Cl-, and K+.
Measurement of electrical conductivity of their solutions and by gravimetric analysis using silver nitrate solution
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Stereochemistries
Tetrahedral : common in Period 4 transition metals square planar : Periods 5 and 6.

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Ligands
: the atoms, molecules or ions attached to the metal ion
1 coordination site; monodentate
2 coordination site; bidentate, etc
All ligands that form more than one attachment to a metal ion are called chelating ligands
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Chemistry Department chemdraw
Ligands and Oxidation States of Transition Metals

wide range of oxidation states dependent on the ligands Nature the ligand Stabilize Low Oxidation States Stabilize "Normal" Oxidation States Stabilize High Oxidation States Ligands CO, CNwater, ammonia, and halide ions fluoride and oxide ions. Examples Fe(CO)5 [Fe(OH2)6]2+ and [Fe(OH2)6]3+ . [CoF6]2- , [FeO4]2-,
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Isomerism in Transition Metal Complexes isomer types
Structural isomers: the bonds to the metal are different Stereoisomer : the bonds to the metal are identical
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Structural Isomerism 1. Linkage isomerism

ligands can form bonds through more than one atom
E.g : Co(NH3)5Cl2(NO2), [Co(ONO)(NH3)5]2+, [Co(NO2)(NH3)5]2+,
2. Ionization isomerism.
give different ions when dissolved in solution
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3. Hydration isomerism.
Ag+ precipi tation of Cltest
4. Coordination isomerism.
both the cation and the anion are complex ions. Ligands interchange between the cation and anion
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Stereoisomerism
Geometric Isomerism
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Optical isomers
Pairs of compounds in which one isomer is a nonsuperimposable mirror image of the other. Found when a metal is surrounded by three bidentate ligands:1,2 diaminoethane : [M(en)3]n+ Labile : rapid ligand exchange Inert : slow ligand exchange
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Naming Transition Metal Complexes

1. Nonionic species are written as one word; ionic species are written as two words with the cation first. 2. The central metal atom is identified by name, which is followed by the formal oxidation number in Roman numerals in parenthesis, such as( IV) for a +4 state and (-II) for a -2 state. If the complex is an anion, the ending -ate adds to the metal name or replaces any-ium - en, or es ending.
Ex: cobaltate and nickelate, but Chromate and tungstate (not chromiumate or tungstenate).
For a few metals, the anion name is derived from the old Latin name of the element :
Ex: ferrate( iron), argentate (silver) , cuprate ( copper), and Aurate (gold).
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3. The ligands are written as prefixes of the metal name. Neutral ligands are given the same name as the parent molecule, Negative ligands are given the ending -o instead of -e.
Ex: sulfate sulfato nitrite nitrito.

Anions with -ide endings completely replaced by -o.
Ex: chloride chloro; iodide iodo cyanide cyano; hydroxide hydroxo.

There are three special names :
Coordinated water is Commonly named aqua ammonia ammine carbonmonoxide carbonyl. .

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4. Ligands are always placed in alphabetical order (in chemical formulas, the symbols of anionic ligands always precede those of neutral ligands). 5. For multiple ligands, the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra- penta-, and hexa- are Used for two, three, four, five, and six, respectively. 6. For multiple ligands already containing numerical prefixes (such as 1,2-diaminoethane) the prefixes used are bis',tris', and, tetrakis for two, three, and four. This is not a rigid rule. Many chemists use These prefixes for all polysyllabic ligands.
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[Pt(NH3)4]Cl2
Tetraammineplatinum(II) chloride.
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cis- diamminedichloroplatinum(II) and trans-diamminedichloroplatinum(II).
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potassium tetrachloroplatinate(II).
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tris(1,2diaminoethane)cobalt(III) chloride.
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An Overview of Bonding Theories of Transition Metal Compounds

Had to account for 1. colors found among the compounds, 2. the wide range of stereochemistries 3. paramagnetism
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The 18-Electron Rule

octet rule is used to predict the formulas of covalent compounds occupancy of s and p orbitals Similar concept for 18 e- rule. occupancy of s, p, and d orbitals Limitation : valid for very low oxidation state metal complexes
Ex: tetracarbonylnickel(0) Ni(CO)4
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Valence-bond theory
Advantage: can be used for the many non-18 electron complex VBT:
the interaction between the metal ion and its ligands to be that of a Lewis acid with Lewis bases, but in this case, the donated ligand electron pairs are considered to occupy the empty higher orbitals of the metal ion.
can be used for the many non-18 electrons.
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[NiCl4]2Ni= [Ar]3d8
The electron distribution of the free nickel(II) ion
tetrahedr al
However:
The hybridization and occupancy the higher energy orbitals by electron pairs (open half-headed arrows) of the chloride ligands.
1. we can only construct the orbital diagrams once we know from a crystal structure determination and magnetic measurement what the ion shape and number of unpaired electrons actually are. 2. it doesn't explain why the electron pairs occupy higher orbitals, even though there are vacancies in the 3d orbital 3. theory fails to account or the color of the transition metal complexes.
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Crystal Field Theory
the transition metal ion is free and gaseous and the ligands behave like point charges; and there are no interactions between metal orbitals and ligand orbitals.
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approacho f thc ligandc lectron

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Approachi ng ligand electrons
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orbitals oriented along the bonding directions will increase in energy and those between the bonding directions will decrease in energy
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seconds step-the loss of degeneracy of the d orbitals color and magnetic properties explanation.
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Octahedral Complexes
the six ligands are located long the Cartesian axes these negative charges along the Cartesian axes the energy dx2-y2 and dz2 orbital will be higher than dxy dxz and dyz.
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The electrons will fall into the lower energy. This net energy 'decreases known as the crystal field stabilization energy, or CFSE. Kimia Jurusan
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The energy level splitting depends on four factors:
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Inorganic Chemistry 1

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Inorganic Chemistry 1

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INORGANIC CHEMISTRY I

(3 credit semester hours )

CHEMISTRY DEPT. FACULTY OF MATHEMATIC AND SCIENCES STATE UNIVERSITY OF PADANG

Lecture 1 Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry

What is Inorganic Chemistry ?

Contras with organic Chemistry

Coordination number and geometry

THE HYSTORY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Lecture II ATOMIC STRUCTURE

MODEL ATOM OF THOMSON

MODEL ATOM OF RUTHERFORD

level), energy is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

inverse-square dependence of energy on nl results

h = wavelength of the light, frequently in nm

quantum numbers. numbers.

MODEL ATOM OF NIELSBOHR

Model atom of Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, nielsbohr and mechanic wave

Lecture 3 MODEL ATOM OF MECHANIC WAVE

h = wavelength of the particle

m = mass of the particle

THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION

orbitals are given.

LECTURE 4 Electron configuration

Energy level fill in electron configuration

The results may be summarized in an energy diagram:

Problems 1. a. Find the possible values for the I and rnl

quantum numbers for a 5d electron, a 4f

Lecture 5 The periodic table

LECTURE 6 PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ATOMS

calculated value of Z* consistent

Lecture 7 The Ionic Compound

The requirment for ionic bonding;

both have filled octets

BORN HABER CYLE

Lecture 8 Ionic radii and properties of ionic compound

Example: d KF = 2,66 A0 d NaF = 2,31 A0 d KCl = 3,14 A0 d NaCl = 2,81 A0

r= 0,35 d Kf- d NaF = 0,3

rK+ + rNa+ =0,35

d KCl- d NaCl = rK+ + rNa+ = 0,33

Conclusion: r ionic compound is constant.

Pauling Approach about Ionic Radii

Properties of Ionic Compound

Read in the name your God who created

Miftahul Khair, M.Sc (miftah@fmipa.unp.ac.id) 95

Models of Covalent Bonding

the ground-state molecular orbital diagram

Introduction to Molecular Orbitals

Statements about molecular orbitals:

Molecular Orbitals for Period 1 Diatomic Molecules

H2+ molecular ion.

electron configuration: (1s)1

electron configuration: (1s)2

He2+ molecular ion.

He2+ molecular ion.

electron configuration: (1s)2 (*1s)1

Bond bond bond strength order length (pm) (kJ/mol) 1-1= 0

or net bond order = 0 So, no covalent bonding !

electron configuration: (1s)2 (*1s)2

Molecular Orbitals for Period 2 Diatomic Molecules

The outermost occupied orbitals /the frontier orbitals

Li2 (g) molecule

bond bond strength length (pm) (kJ/mol)

Occupancy of frontier(valence) molecular orbital : (2s)2