1

ABSTRACT The need for satisfactory operation of power stations running in parallel and the relation between system frequency and the speed of the motors has led to the requirement of close regulation of power system frequency. Power systems are frequently subjected to varying load demands. The perturbation in generated power must match the load perturbations if exact nominal state is to be maintained. A mismatch in the real power affects primarily the system frequency. For an efficient and successful power system operation in the wake of area load changes and abnormal conditions, such mismatches have to be corrected via supplementary control. In this project work, a detailed investigation on load frequency control problem for both the isolated power system and interconnected power system has been carried out. In case of interconnected power system, a two area system model is taken into consideration for simplicity. Conventional Transfer function approach and State Space approach are adopted to analyze the dynamic performance of the system. The response obtained by the two approaches are verified MATLAB. Firstly the system studies have been carried without proportional feed back controllers, later the proportional plus integral strategy is implemented to obtain an improved response for the system. Also the effect of + 50% variation in system parameters from their nominal values on the dynamic performance of the system has been studied by obtaining the response plots of frequency deviation of disturbed area. Finally, the techniques of Optimal control theory are applied to develop an optimal feed back controller for enhancing the system dynamic performance of both Isolated and Interconnected power systems. Numerical examples have been considered to demonstrate the effectiveness of optimal controller over the PI controller and the results are presented and duly discussed.
ka

by using

CONTENTS
Abstract 1. Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Load Frequency Problem 1.3 Literary review 2. 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Modeling of Power system components 2.2.1 Modeling of speed governing system 2.2.2 Modeling of turbine 2.2.3 Modeling of Generator-Load 1 2 3 .4 ....4 .4 ....8 ....9

Load Frequency Control of Isolated Power Systems

2.2.4 Block Diagram of an Isolated Power system 11 2.3 Dynamic Response without feedback PI Control 12 2.3.1 Transfer Function Approach 2.3.2 State Space Approach 16 25 2.4.1 Control strategy 2.4.2 Transfer Function Approach 27 2.4.3 State Space Approach 2.5 Case Studies 2.6 Discussions Systems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Modeling of Multi Area Power Systems .47 48 30 36 46 25 2.4 Dynamic Response with PI Control 13

3. Load Frequency Control of Interconnected Power

3.3 Modeling of Two Area Systems 3.4 Dynamic Response of Two Area Systems with PI control 3.4.1 Area Control Error 3.4.2 State Space Approach 3.5 Case Studies 3.6 Discussions Systems using Optimal Controller 4. Load Frequency Control for Interconnected 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Optimal Control Theory 4.2.1 System State x 4.2.2 System Cost C 4.2.3 Optimal Controller 4.2.4 Calculation of the Optimal controller K 4.2.5 Snag of Optimal Control .78 4.3 Application of Optimal Control to an Isolated Power System 4.3.1 Isolated Power System with Reheater constraint .83 Reheater constraint using Optimal controller 4.4 Application of Optimal Control to Interconnected Systems 4.5 Discussions 5. Conclusions .96

50 .52 .52 .55 .64 ..73

.74 .74 .75 .75 .76 .76

.79

4.3.2 Isolated Power System with .85 89 .95

References

.99

INTRODUCTION The continuous growth in size and complexity of electric power systems along with increase in power demands has motivated the power control engineers to put their best efforts in the area of Power System Control. The operation of an interconnected power system usually leads to improved system security and economy of operation. In addition, the interconnection permits the utilities to take the advantage of the most economical transfer of power. The benefits have been recognized from beginning and interconnections continue to grow. The various areas or power pools are interconnected through tie-lines. These tie-lines are utilized

for contractual energy exchange between areas and provide inter-area support in case of abnormal conditions. 1.1 Introduction Normally, the power systems operate in nominal system state which is characterized by constant system frequency and voltage profile with certain specified system reliability. The change in frequency and voltage from their nominal values change when there is any mismatch in real and reactive power generations and demands. It can be proved by sensitivity analysis that a mismatch in the real power balance affects primarily the system frequency, but leaves the bus voltage essentially unaffected. Also a mismatch in the reactive power balance affects only the bus voltage magnitudes, but leaves the system frequency essentially unaffected. Automatic generation control (AGC) of interconnected power systems is defined as the regulation of power output of generators within a prescribed area, in response to change in system frequency, tie line loading, or the relation of these to each other, so as to maintain scheduled system frequency and/or established interchange with other areas within predetermined limits. Over the years, many automatic generation control (AGC) schemes have been suggested to deal this problem efficiently and effectively. The main requirement of AGC is to ensure that: 1) 2) 3) Frequency of various bus voltages and currents are maintained at near Tie line power flows among the interconnected areas are maintained at Total power requirement on the system as a whole is shared by specified nominal values. specified levels individual generators economically in optimum fashion. 1.2 Load Frequency Problem

Consider two machines S1 and S2 running in parallel . S1 S2

Fig 1 Two Plants connected through a tie-line The possibility of sharing the load by the two machines is as follows: Say, there are two stations S1 and S2 interconnected through a tie-line. If the change in load is either at S1 or S2 and if the generation of S1 alone is regulated to adjust this change so as to have constant frequency, the method of regulation is called Flat Frequency Regulation. Under such situations station S2 is said to be operating on base load. the major draw back of flat frequency regulation is that S1 must absorb all load changes for entire system thereby the tie line between the two stations would have to absorb all load changes at station S2 since the generator at S2 would maintain its output constant. The other possibility of sharing the change in load is that both S1 and S2 would regulate their generations to maintain the frequency constant. This is known as Parallel frequency Regulation. The third possibility is that the change in a particular area is taken care of by the generator in that area thereby the tie-line loading remains constant. This method of regulating the generation for keeping constant frequency is known as Flat-Tie line loading Control. This arrangement has the advantage that load swings on station S1 and the tie line would be reduced as compared with the flat frequency regulation. The application of modern control theory to AGC problem of interconnected power system has been the subject wide range of applications over the past three and half decades. Among the various types of automatic

Load

Load

generation controllers, the most widely employed are

the conventional

proportional integral (PI) controller and the state feedback controllers based on optimal control theory to achieve better system dynamic performance.

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF AN ISOLATED POWER SYSTEM 2.1 Introduction The main objective for the load frequency control is to exert control of frequency and at the same time exchange of real power via the Tie-lines. The change in frequency and tie-line real power are sensed which is a measure of the change in rotor angle , i.e. the error to be corrected. The error signals i.e. f and Ptie are amplified mixed and transformed into a

10

real power command signal PC which is sent to the prime mover to call for an increment in the torque. The prime mover therefore brings in the generator output by an amount PG which will change the values of f and Ptie. The process continues till deviation f and Ptie are well below the specified tolerances. 2.2 Modeling of Power System Components Modeling of different power system components i.e. Speed governing system, Turbine, Generator-load are described and the various block diagrams representing the components are presented in this section. 2.2.1 Modeling of Speed Governing System The schematic diagram of speed governing system which controls the real power flow in the power system is shown in fig 2.1.
steam

Lower Speed changer Raise A B C

Direction of positive movement

D

l1

l2

l3

l4

To turbine
E

Pilot valve

High

pressure oil
Speed governor

11

Fig:2.1 Speed Governing System The Speed Governing System consists of the following parts:1.

Speed Governor:

This is a fly-ball type of speed governor and

constitutes the heart of the system as it senses the change in speed or frequency. With the increase in speed the fly ball move outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves downwards and vice versa.
2.

Linkage Mechanism: ABC and CDE are the rigid links pivoted at B

and D respectively. The mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in the proportion to change in speed. Link4 (l4) provides a feed back from the steam valve movement.
3.

Hydraulic Amplifier: This consists of the main piston and pilot valve.

Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into high power level piston valve movement which is necessary to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
4.

Speed Changer: The speed changer provides a steady state power

output setting for the turbine. The downward movement of the speed changer opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the turbine under steady condition. The reverse happens when the speed changer moves upward. Consider the steady state condition by assuming that linkage mechanism is stationary, pilot valve closed, steam valve opened by definite magnitude, the turbine output balances the generator output and the turbine/generator is running at a normal speed or at a normal frequency f ,the generator output PGO and let the steam valve setting corresponding to these conditions be XE.

12

Let the point A of the speed changer lower down by an amount XA as a result the commanded increase in power PC then XA = K1PC. The movement of linkage point A causes small position changes XC and X D of the linkage points C and D. With the movement of D upwards by X D high pressure oil flows into the hydraulic amplifier from the top of the main piston thereby the steam valve will move downwards a small distance XE which results in increased turbine torque and hence power increase, PG. This further results in increase in speed and hence the frequency of generation. This increase in frequency f causes the link point B to move downward a small distance XB proportional to f. Assume the movements are positive if the points move downwards. Two factors contribute to the movement of C:
i) Increase in frequency causes B to move by XB when the frequency

changes by f as then the fly-ball moves outward and B is lowered by X B . Therefore, this contribution is positive and is given by K1f.

ii)

The lowering of the speed changer by an amount XA lifts the

point C upwards by an amount proportional to XA, i.e. K2PC. XC = K1f - K2PC ..2.1

Where K1 and K2 are the positive constants depends upon the length of the linkage arms AB and BC and upon the proportional constants of the speed changer and the speed governor. The movement of D is contributed by the movement of C and E. Since C and E move downwards when D moves upwards,

13

therefore,

X D= K3XC + K4XE

2.2

Where K3 and K4 are positive constants depend upon the length of the linkage CD and DE Let the oil flow into the hydraulic cylinder is proportional to position X D of the pilot valve, the value of XE is given by XE=K5
t

-(X D )dt
0

2.3

Where the constant K5 depends upon the fluid pressure and the geometries of the orifice and the cylinder. Taking Laplace transforms to equations 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3 XC (s)= K1F(s) - K2PC(s) X D (s)= K3XC (s)+ K4XE (s) XE (s)= -K5X D (s) /s = -K5 (K3.( K1F(s) - K2PC (s))+ K4XE (s)) s

Eliminating the variables XC and X D , XE (s) = K2K3 PC(s) - - K3 K1F(s) K4+s/K5 XE(s)= K G [PC (s) -F(s)/R] 1+sTG .2.4

Where R = K2/K1 speed regulation of governor. K G = K2K3/K4 gain of speed governor. TG = 1/K4K5 fig2.2 time constant of speed governor. The above equation 2.4 can be represented as a block diagram shown in

PC

KG + 1+sTG XE(s)

14

1/R

F(s)

Fig. 2.2 Block diagram of speed governing system for steam turbine 2.2.2 Modeling of Turbine The turbine power increment P
T

depends entirely upon the

valve power increment Pv and the response characteristics of the turbine. A non-reheat turbine with a single gain factor K T and a single time constant T T is considered and in the crudest model representation of the turbine the transfer function is given as G T (s)= P T (s) = XE (s) KT 1+sT T ...2.5

The above transfer function is represented in the form of Block diagram along with the governor as shown in fig 2.3
PT(s) PC

KG
+ -

XE(s)

KT 1+sTT

1+sTG

1/R

F(s)

Fig.2.3 Block diagram of power control mechanism of turbine

15

2.2.3 Modeling of Generator-Load The model gives relation between the change in frequency as a result of change in generation when the load changes by a small amount. Let PD be the change in load demand, as a result the generation also swings by an amount PG. The net power surplus at the busbar is PG-PD and this power will be absorbed by the system in two ways a) Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in generator rotor Let Wo be the Kinetic Energy before change in load occurs when the frequency is f o. Let f be the change in frequency. Let W be the Kinetic Energy when the frequency is f+ f o. As K.E. is proportional to square of the speed of the generator W= W W=W (1+2f/f)
2 f +f f

(neglecting the higher terms)2.6

By Differentiating equation 2.6, dW = 2W . d (f) 2.7 dt f dt The load on the motors increases with increase in speed. The load nearly constant for small changes in

b)

on the system being mostly motor load the rate of change of load w.r.t. frequency can be regarded as frequency, i.e. D=PD where D, Load Frequency Constant, can be obtained empirically f Therefore, the net power surplus at the busbar is given by PG-PD = 2W . d (f) +D f f dt 2.8

16

Let H be the inertia constant of the generator in MW-sec/MVA Let P be the rating in MVA, then W =H*P. Substituting W in equation 2.8, PG-PD =2HP. d (f) +D f f dt Dividing equation 2.9 throughout by P, PG (p.u.)-PD (p.u.) = 2H . sF(s) +D(s)F(s) f = F(s){D(s)+2Hs/f} i.e. F(s) = PG (s)-PD (s) D(s)+2Hs/f F(s) = [PG (s)-PD (s) ] KP ..2.10 1+sTP Where Tp=2H/Df power system time constant Kp=1/D power system gain .2.9

Or

The transfer function in equation 2.10 is represented in the form of a block diagram as shown in fig 2.4

PG

KP + F(s) 1+sTP

PD

Fig2.4 Block diagram of Generator- Load model

17

2.2.4 Block diagram of an Isolated Power System The models of speed governor, turbine, generator-load are combined to represent complete block diagram of an isolated power system for Load Frequency Control and is represented in fig 2.5

PD(S)

KG
+-

KT
+

KP 1+sTP

F(S)

PC(S)

1+sTG

1+sTT

1/R

Fig 2.5 Block Diagram of an Isolated Power System for load frequency control

From the block diagram in fig 2.5, the change in F is due to

1) 2)

either change in speed changer setting(Pc) or Load Demand(PD) Consider a fixed setting in speed changer i.e. Pc =0, which is known

as free governor operation, and a sudden change in load (i.e. step disturbance in load) and so PD(s)= PD/s

18

By representing the block diagram in fig 2.5 in the form of a transfer function F(s) , F(s) = (1+sTp)+ KP * (PD /s) K G KT KP/R (1+sTG)(1+sTT) 2.11

2.3 Dynamic Response without Feedback PI Control To obtain the dynamic response giving change in frequency as a function of the time for a step change in load, there are two different approaches 1) 2) Transfer Function approach State Space approach

2.3.1 Transfer Function Approach To obtain transient response or frequency response analysis of single input and single output linear systems, the conventional transfer function representation forms a useful model. The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of the output variable to the laplace transform of the input variable under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero. The highest power of the complex variable s in the denominator of the transfer function determines the order of the system.

19

When the transfer function of a physical system is determined, the system can be represented by a block. It describes the input and output behaviour of the system and does not give any information concerning the internal structure of the system. Recalling the equation 2.11, F(s) = KP (1+sTp)+ * ( PD/s) K G KT KP/R (1+sTG)(1+sTT) 2.12

By simplifying the equation 2.12 and assuming K G KT ~ 1 F(s) = R (1+sTG) (1+sTT) 1+{(1+sTG) (1+sTT) (2Hs+D) R} R(1+s2TT TG+s(TT+ TG) 1+[{1+ s2TT TG+s(TT+ TG)}{2Hs+D}R]

F(s) = {D+1/R}

s2 TTTG+s(TT+TG)+1 s3TTTG2H+s2{TTTGD+2HTT+2HTG}+s{DTT+2H+DTG}+

To obtain the response of isolated power system without feedback by the transfer function approach using Matlab programming. The following is the program to use in MATLAB Program For Transfer Function Model(Protfsa.m):
T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R)in Hz/puMw:); :');

F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec TG=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec TT=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec

20 :'); :'); :'); :');

D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT(D)in puMW/Hz:');

Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; R=R/F; Num=[TG*TT TT+TG 1]*-dP; Den=[TT*TG*H (TT*TG*D+2*H*TT+2*H*TG) (D*TT+2*H+D*TG) (D+1/R)]; Tf=tf(Num,Den); step(Num,Den); Tf

>> Protfsa
TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMw ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT(D) in puMw/Hz ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec :250 :3 :60 :5 :0.8 :0.2 :0.5

21 ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE :20 Transfer function: -0.02 s^2 - 0.14 s - 0.2 ----------------------------------0.5 s^3 + 7.08 s^2 + 10.56 s + 20.8

Fig 2.6 Response plot for an isolated power system without PI feedback control by Transfer Function approach 2.3.2 State Space Approach The state variable approach is a powerful technique for the analysis and design of control systems and which has a lot of advantages over transfer functional approach. The state variable analysis can be applied to multi input and multi output systems. The transient analysis can be carried with initial conditions and can be carried on multiple input and multiple output systems. In this method of

22

analysis, it is not necessary that the state variables represent physical quantities of the system. The variables that do not represent physical quantities and those that are neither measurable nor observable may be chosen as state variables. The state model of a system consist of state equation output equation.
x (t)= Ax(t)+Bu(t)
*

..state equation .output equation

y(t) = Cx(t)+Du(t) where A n x n Sate Distribution Matrix B n x m Control Distribution Matrix C Output matrix D Transition Matrix

Analysis of State Space Equation:

23

PD(S)

+-

KG 1+sTG

XG

x3

KT 1+sTT

x2

1 2Hs+D

x1

F(S)

1/R

Fig 2.7 Block diagram of an isolated power system for analyzing state space equations The state space equations can be derived by considering the intermediate states and from the block diagram

x1=f, change in frequency x2=PG, change in power generation x3=XG, change in governor position x1=( x2-u)
1 2Hs+D .2.13 .2.14 2.15 (1+sTG )

x2= x3/(1+sTT) x3=- x1

1 R

from equation 2.14

x2+TTs x2= x3 x2+

x 2 TT = x3
*

2.16

24

from equation 2.15,

- x3R- x3R TGs= x1 - x3R- x 3RTG = x1

*

..2.17 from equation 2.13, x 1 2H+x1D= x2-u

*

x1*2Hs+ x1D= x2-u

.2.18

By solving the equations 2.16, 2.17 and 2.18,

x 1 =(- x1D- x2-u)/2H
*

.2.19

x 2 =(- x2+ x3)/ TT

*

2.20
x 3 = (-x1- x3R)/(R* TG)
*

2.21

Writing the equations 2.19, 2.20 and 2.21 in Matrix form ,

-D/2H 0 -1/RTG

1/2H -1/TT 0

0 1/TT -1/TG

x1 x2 x3

-1/2H

0 0

2 3

-D/2H 1/2H where A= 0 -1/TT -1/RTG 0

0 1/TT -1/TG

B=

-1/2H 0 0

C=(1 0 0)

and D= ( 0 )

25

To obtain the response of isolated power system without feedback by the state space approach using Matlab programming. The following is the program to use in MATLAB.
Program for State Space Model(Prosssa.m) T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW :');

R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMw:'); F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec :'); :');

D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT(D) in puMW/Hz: '); TG=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec : '); TT=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Pp=input('ENTER INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; R=R/F; A=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 ;0 -1/TT 1/TT ;-1/(R*TG) 0 -1/TG]; B=[-dP/(2*H) ; 0 ; 0 ]; C=[1 0 0 ]; D=[0 ]; fprintf('THE MATRICES A,B,C,D ARE:- '); A B C D step(A,B,C,D); THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN :'); OF %

TERMS

26

>> Prosssa TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMw ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT(D) in puMw/Hz ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE :250 :3 :60 :5 :0.8 :0.2 :0.5 :20

THE MATRICES A,B,C,D ARE:A = -0.0800 0 -100.0000 0.1000 -2.0000 0 0 2.0000 -5.0000

B = -0.0200

27 0 0

C = 1 D = 0 0 0

Fig 2.8 Response plot of Isolated Power System without PI feedback control by State Space Approach

28

2.4 Dynamic Response with PI Control With the primary LFC loop, a change in the system load will result in a steady state frequency deviation depending on the governor speed regulation. In order to reduce the frequency deviation to zero, a reset action is to be provided. The reset action can be achieved by introducing an integral controller to act on the reference setting to change the speed set point. The integral controller increases the order of the system by one. 2.4.1 Control Strategy Uncontrolled system is subject to steady state errors and so control strategy is required. The control specifications are 1)
2)

Control loop must be characterized by a sufficient degree of stability Following a step load change, the frequency error should return to

zero. This is referred to as isosynchronous control. Magnitude of transient frequency must be minimized. 3) 4) Integral of the frequency error should be minimized. The individual generators of the control area should divide the total

load for optimum frequency.

29

Let Pc be the negative feed-back signal drawn from frequency deviation. Suppose, if it was not an integral feedback, i.e. if Pc=-K1F(s) where k1gain for proportion control

Recollecting the system response from equation 2.11 F(s) = KP (1+sTp)+ K G KT KP/R (1+sTG)(1+sTT) * ( PD /s)

F(s)= - KP(1+sTG)(1+sTT) PD(s) {assuming KG KT~ 1} .2.22 (1+sTG)(1+sTT) (1+sTP)+(K1 +1/R)KP i.e. Steady state frequency error, FSS = Lt F(s)= -KP PD S0 1+(K1+1/R)KP i.e. As Fss0, K1, which is not suitable for proportional control and so cannot be recommended for control So, if Pc(t)=-KI f(t)dt Pc(s)=-KIF(s)/s So , F(s)= FSS= Lt -KPPD(s) s(1+sTP)+(K2+s/R)

s. F(s) =0 s0

30

Thus by using Integral control strategy, steady state error can be eliminated(i.e.Fss=0). Thus PI controller when introduced improves the transient performance and ensures better stability. The complete block diagram with integral control for an isolated power system is shown in figure 2.9
PD(S)
+-

PC(S)

KG 1+sTG

KT 1+sTT

KP 1+sTP

F(S
)

1/ R

KI/s

Fig 2.9 Block Diagram of an Isolated Power System with PI controller The dynamic response for a step change in load, with integral control can be obtained by two different approaches 2.4.2 Transfer Function Approach From the above block diagram shown in fig 2.9 the system equation can be written as F(s)= - KP * PD (1+sTP)+( 1 + KI ) * R s .2.23 KP ( 1+sTG)(1+sTT)
o

But D=1/Kp and Tp=2H/D Hence on simplifying, equation 2.23 becomes

31

F(s)=

Rs( 1+sTG)(1+sTT) s[(1+sTG)(1+sTT) (1+sTp)+s/R+KI

F(s)=
+KI

s3 TTTG+s2 (TT+TG)+s
s4TTTG2H+s3{TTTGD+2HTT+2HTG}+s2{DTT+2H+DTG}+s{D+1/R}

From the above equation, the response in the transfer function approach can be obtained by a program using MATLAB.
Program for Transfer Function Model(Protfsawi.m) :');

T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY

R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in HZ/puMW:'); F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN Pp=input('ENTER %INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; R=R/F; Num=[0 Tg*Tt (Tg+Tt) 1 0]*(-dP); THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN :'); :'); :'); :'); :'); :'); TERMS OF

Den=[Tg*Tt*2*H Tg*Tt*D+Tg*2*H+Tt*2*H)(2*H+Tg*D+Tt*D)(D+1/R) Ki];

32 Tf=tf(Num,Den); Tf step(Num,Den);

>> Protfsawi TOTAL RATED CAPACITY :250

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in puMW/Hz:3 ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :60 :5 :0.8 :0.2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 Transfer function: -0.02 s^3 - 0.14 s^2 - 0.2 s --------------------------------------s^4 + 7.08 s^3 + 10.56 s^2 + 20.8 s + 7

33

Fig 2.10 Response Plot of an Isolated Power System with PI control using Transfer function Approach 2.4.3 State Space Approach The block diagram with different states required for analyzing the state equations is shown in fig 2.11

x
PC(S)
4

PD(S)
+-

KG 1+sTG

x
3

KT 1+sTT

x
2

KP 1+sTP

x
1

F(S)

1/R

KI/s

34

Fig 2.11Block Diagram with PI Control in State Space Representation

x 1=( x2/2H)-( x1D/2H)-(u/2H) x 2=-( x2/TT)+(x3/ TT)

*

..2.24 ..2.25

x3=( x4-1/R) 1/(1+sTG) x3 (1+s TG)= - x4 x1/R i.e. x 3= -( x4/ TG) ( x1/R TG)-( x3/ TG) x4= x1Ki/s i.e. x 4= x1Ki
* *

2.26

2.27

So the standard form of equations are -D/2H 1/2H

1 2

0 1/TT

0
0

x1 x2 x3 x4

-1/2H
0 0 0

0 -1/RTG Ki

-1/TT 0 0

3 4

-1/TG 1/TG 0 0

To obtain the response of isolated power system with PI control by the state space approach using Matlab programming, the following numerical example is illustrated

35 Program for State Space Model(Prosssawi.m):T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR in Hz/puMw F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :'); :); :'); :'); :'); :'); :'); :');

Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF %INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; R=R/F; A=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(R*Tg) 0 -1/Tg

B=[-dP/(2*H) ; 0 ; 0 ; 0 ];

C=[1 0 0 0]; D=[0 ]; disp('THE MATRICES A,B,C,D ARE AS FOLLOWS:-'); A B C D step(A,B,C,D);

>> prosssawi

TOTAL RATED CAPACITY

36 :250

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMW :3 ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :60 :5 :0.8 :0.2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20

THE MATRICES A,B,C,D ARE AS FOLLOWS:A = -0.0800 0 -100.0000 7.0000 0.1000 -2.0000 0 0 0 2.0000 -5.0000 0 0 0 -5.0000 0

B = -0.0200

37 0 0 0

C = 1 0 0 0

D = 0

Fig 2.12 Response plot for an isolated Power System with PI control using State Space Approach

38

2.5 Case Studies There are several parameters which effect the dynamic response of a system and they are Case 1 : Governor Speed Regulation Case 2: Time Constant of the Govenor Case 3: Time Constant of the Turbine Case 4: Integral Gain Case 5: Load Disturbance Different Case Studies have been carried by varying the above parameters. The variations are depicted by using MATLAB programming for an Isolated Power System with PI controller. The dynamic response for different cases is obtained by considering the example with 50% changes in the parameter values.

39 Program for Case studies in Singe area (prosacs.m):T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F)in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec :'); :'); :');

D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz:');

disp('ENTER THE PARAMETER IN WHCICH THE VARIATION IS TO BE SOUGHT:') disp('1.CHANGE IN SPEED REGULATION(R)\n'); disp('2.CHANGE IN GOVERNOR TIME CONSTANT(Tg)\n'); disp('3.CHANGE IN TURBINE TIME CONSTANT(Tt)\n'); disp('4.CHANGE IN INTEGRAL GAIN(Ki)\n'); disp('5.CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND(dP)\n\n'); value=input('ENTER A VALUE switch(value) :');

case {1} Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR IN SEC :'); Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :'); :');

Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:'); R=input('ENTER Hz/puMW'); dP=Pp*0.01; r=R/F; A1=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/ (r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg; Ki 0 0 0]; A2=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/ (r*1.5*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in

40 A3=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/ (r*0.5*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; case {2} Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN Pp1=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF %NCREASE:'); R=input('ENTER Hz/puMW:'); THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in :'); :'); :');

Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec dP1=Pp1*0.01;r=R/F;

A1=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; A2=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/ (r*Tg*1.5) 0 -1/(Tg*1.5) -1/(Tg*1.5);Ki 0 0 0]; A3=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/ (r*Tg*0.5) 0 -1/(Tg*0.5) -1/(Tg*0.5);Ki 0 0 0];

case {3} Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec :');

R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in HZ/puMW :'); Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN Pp1=input('ENTER % INCREASE:'); THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN :'); TERMS OF

Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec dP1=Pp1*0.01; r=R/F;

:');

A1=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; A2=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/(Tt*1.5) 1/(Tt*1.5) 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/(Tg) -1/(Tg);Ki 0 0 0]; A3=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/(Tt*0.5) 1/(Tt*0.5) 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/(Tg) -1/(Tg);Ki 0 0 0];

41 case {4} R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in puMW/Hz :'); Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF %INCREASE:'); Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN dP=Pp*0.01; r=R/F; :'); :'); :');

A1=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; A2=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki*1.5 0 0 0]; A3=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki*0.5 0 0 0];

case {5} R=input('ENTER puMW/Hz :'); THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in :'); :'); :');

Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN

Pp1=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:'); dP1=Pp1*0.01; dP2=Pp1*0.5*0.01; dP3=Pp1*1.5*0.01; r=R/F;

A=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) (r*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; 0; 0 0 0]; C=[1 0 0 0]; D=[0 0 0]; step(A,B,C,D); break; otherwise , end B=[-dP/(2*H); 0; 0; 0]; C=[1 0 0 0]; D=[0];

0;0

-1/Tt

42 1/Tt 0;-1/

B=[-dP1/(2*H) -dP2/(2*H) -dP3/(2*H); 0 0 0 ; 0 0

sys1=ss(A1,B,C,D); sys2=ss(A2,B,C,D); sys3=ss(A3,B,C,D); step(sys1,sys2,sys3);

Dynamic Response after execution is as follows:

>> prosacs TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F)in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H) in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in Hz/puMw :250 :60 :5 :0.8

ENTER THE PARAMETER IN WHCICH THE VARIATION IS TO BE SOUGHT: 1.CHANGE IN SPEED REGULATION(R)\n

43 2.CHANGE IN GOVERNOR TIME CONSTANT(Tg)\n 3.CHANGE IN TURBINE TIME CONSTANT(Tt)\n 4.CHANGE IN INTEGRAL GAIN(Ki)\n 5.CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND(dP)\n\n

ENTER A VALUE

:1 :0.2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR IN SEC ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in puMW/Hz:3

44

Fig2.13 Response plot of an Isolated Power System with PI controller with variation in Governor Speed Regulation

ENTER A VALUE

:2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in puMW/Hz:3 ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec :0.2

45

Fig2.14 Response plot of an Isolated Power System with PI controller with variation in Time Constant of Governor

ENTER A VALUE

:3 :0.2

ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMW :3 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :7

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec :0.5

46

Fig2.15 Response plot of an Isolated Power System with PI controller with variation in Time Constant of Turbine

ENTER A VALUE

:4

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMW:3 ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec :0.2 :0.5

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :7

47

Fig2.16 Response plot of an Isolated Power System with PI controller with variation in Integral Gain

ENTER A VALUE

:5 :3 :0.2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in Hz/puMW ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20

48

Fig2.17 Response plot of an Isolated Power System with PI controller with variation in Load Disturbance

2.4 Discussions

49

The response of an isolated power system without integral feedback control when subjected to load change are shown in figs 2.6&2.8. From these figs. it is clear that response for the isolated power system obtained by the transfer function and state space approaches. Also the settling time is 8 secs and the steady state frequency deviation is . 0095Hz/pu. The response of an Isolated Power System with PI controller when subjected to a load change are shown in figs 2.10&,2.12. From these figures, it is clear that the settling time is 15 seconds and the steady state frequency deviation is zero. Hence it can concluded that the feed back control reduces the steady state deviation to zero. The response for the variation in different parameters are obtained in section 2.5. The response for + 50% variation in speed regulation of governor is shown in figure 2.13. From this figure, it can be observed that when R is increased the settling time decreases but frequency deviations increases and vice versa. The response for + 50% variation in Time constant of governor is shown in figure 2.14. From this figure, it is clear that when TG is decreased the settling time decreases and frequency deviations decreases and vice versa. The response for + 50% variation in Time Constant of Turbine is shown in figure 2.15. From this figure, it is evident that when TT is increased the settling time decreases and frequency deviations decreases and vice versa. The response for + 50% variation in Integral Gain is shown in figure 2.16. From this figure, it is evident that when Ki is increased the settling time increases and frequency deviations increases. The response for + 50% variation in Load disturbance is shown in figure 2.17. From this figure, it can be observed that when dP is increased the frequency deviation increases with no considerable change in settling time.

50

CHAPTER-3

51

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS 3.1 Introduction All power systems today are tied together with neighboring areas and the problem of load-frequency control becomes a joint undertaking. By considering a practical system with a number of generator stations and loads, it is possible to divide an extended power system into sub areas in which the generators are tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent group. Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions. The important advantages can be derived by pool operation are a)
b)

to improve system security and economy of operation the interconnection permits the utilities to make economy transfers

The basic operating principles for interconnecting systems are

a)

under normal operating conditions each pool member or control area

should strive to carry its own load, except such scheduled portions of the other members loads as have been mutually agreed upon.
b)

Each control area must agree upon adopting regulating and control

strategies and equipment that are mutually beneficial under both normal and abnormal situations. The advantages belonging to a pool are particularly evident under emergency conditions.

52

The Problems of frequency control of interconnected areas are more important than those of isolated areas. The objective of load frequency control of interconnected power systems is two fold: minimizing the transient error deviations in both frequency and tie line power and ensuring zero steady state errors of these two quantities. By a simple proportional integral control law the above mentioned objective is achieved. This chapter presents proportional control for minimizing the transient error and the integral control for zero steady state error. 3.2 Modeling of Multi area Power Systems In an isolated control area case, the incremental power (PG-PD) was accounted by the rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in or out of an area. Changes in the Tie-line power flows also affect the power balance in corresponding areas. Consider any area i in an n area power system corresponding to change in load demand PD. Let Ptie, i be the tie line schedule deviation Ptie, , i =

j =1

Ptie, , ij

..3.1

where Ptie,, ij is the change in tie line power flow over the line connecting areas i and j Ptie, , ij= Vi Vj sin[(i + i )- (j + j ) ] .3.2 Xij

where Vi,Vj voltage magnitudes at the tie-line ends in areas i and j respectively Xij Reactance of the same tie-line

i , j Nominal bus voltage phase angles

53

i , j Changes in the phase angles Expanding equation 3.2, Ptie, , ij = Vi Vj sin[(i - j )+ Vi Vj cos (i - j )( i - j ) Xij Xij but we have Pmax = Vi Vj / Xij So from the Equation 3.3 Ptie, , ij = Pmax sin(i - j )+ Pmax cos (i - j )( i - j ) = Ptie,, ij + Pmax cos (i - j )( i - j ) Synchronizing Coefficient Tij is given as Tij = Ptie, , ij - Ptie, , ij = (i - j) So, Ptie, ij = Tij (i - j ) where Ptie, , ij = Ptie,, ij- Ptie , ij For Frequency Deviation (f i) in the ith area , Ptie, ij = 2 Tij ( ..3.4 Pmax cos (i - j ) .3.3

f i dt - f j dt )
0 0

..3.5

By applying d/dt to the equation 3.5 d (Ptie,, ij ) = 2 dt

j =1

Tij (f i - f j)

.3.6

Applying Laplace Transform to the Equation 3.6

54

Ptie,, i(s) = (2/s) Tij { Fi (s)- F j (s)}

j= 1 j i

..3.7

Thus for the case of a multi-area interconnected systems, PGi -PDi = Di + 2Hi - d (fi ) + Ptie, i fs dt Taking Laplace transform on both side of equation and rearranging terms, Fi (s)= KPi [ PGi(s)-PDi(s)- Ptie,, i(s)] (1+sTPi) 3.3 Modeling of Two-Area Systems In fact, a Two Area system is a case of multi area system, where the areas are connected through the tie line power exchange. The reasons for choosing the two-area system as the object of our study are
1. 2.

..3.8

It is the simplest form of multi area systems. Because the few papers published on multiple-area control have

limited their analysis to two area-systems and the results can be compared.
3.

before understanding

the larger systems, it is of paramount

importance that the two area case must be thorough commanded.

From Equation 3.8 we have F1(s)= KP1 [ PG1(s)-PD1(s)- Ptie, , 1(s)] (for area1 i.e. i=1 )..3.9 (1+sTP1) [ PG2(s)-PD2(s)- Ptie,, 2(s)] (1+sTP2) (for area2 i.e. i=2 )..3.10

F2(s)= KP2

55

from Equation 3.7 assigning i=1 and j=2 Ptie, 1(s) = 2T12 [F1 (s)- F2(s)] s Ptie,, 2(s) = -2 T12 a 12 [F1 (s)- F2(s)] s ..3.11 .3.12

where a12 is the area-size ratio coefficient and it is the negative ratio between the rated Megawatts of areas 1 and 2, respectively. .ie.a 12 ~ -Pr1/ Pr2 . It must be include in the block diagram because the term Ptie,, 1 represents the tie-line power exchange out from area i expressed in per unit of area rating Pri . We have the following relation for the two tie line powers Ptie, 2 ~ a12 Ptie, 1 Combining the block diagrams of two single areas (fig 2.4) with synchronizing coefficient and area-size ratio coefficient, the block diagram for uncontrolled two area system is shown in fig 3.1 1/R1
PL1(S) -

KG 1+sTG1

KT 1+sTT1

+-

1 2H1s+D1

T12 /S
+
+ -

KG 1+sTG2

KT 1+sTT2
PL2(S)

1 2H2s+D2

1/R2 Fig 3.1 Block Diagram of two-area system without PI feedback control

56

Dynamic Response of Two-Area System with PI Control The feedback control without PI controller is not used, as it is not satisfying the minimum specifications which are 1) the static frequency error following a step load change must be zero 2) the transient frequency swings should be normal. Hence the control strategy is used to meet the above requirements and is of linear and integral form i.e. the Proportional Integral (PI) control is used to study the dynamic response of the 2 area system.

3.4.1 Area Control Error(ACE) By using the integral control, let the speed changer be commanded by a signal obtained by first amplifying and then integrating the frequency error, i.e. Pref -Ki f dt.

Where the unit for Ki is puMw/Hz/sec. The signal fed to the integrator is referred to as area control error (ACE), i.e. ACE f Integral control will give rise to zero static frequency error following a step load change because as long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing the speed changer to move. The integrator output, and thus the speed changer position, attains a constant value only when the frequency error has been reduced to zero. In case of two area systems, the tie-line bias control is based on the principle that all operating members must contribute their share to frequency control in addition to taking care of their own net exchange

57

In applying the reset control method to the two area system, the control error for each area consists of a linear combination of frequency and tie-line error i.e. ACE1= Ptie , 1 +b1f1 .. ....3.13

Where the constant b1 is called area frequency bias constant Applying Laplace transform to equation 3.19 ACE1(s)= Ptie,, 1 (s)+b1F1(s) Similarly for control area-2 ACE2(s)= Ptie , 2 (s)+b2F2(s) .....3.15 ..3.14

Combining the basic blocks of two diagrams with PC1(s) and PC2(s) generated by integrals of respective ACEs and employing the block diagram from the fig 3.1 a new block diagram is obtained which is shown in fig 3.2
1/R1

b1 K1/s
+

PL1(S) -

KG 1+sTG1

KT 1+sTT1

+-

1 2H1s+D1 1/s T12

+

1/s
+

K2/s

+-

KG 1+sTG2

KT 1+sTT2

+ -

1 2H2s+D2

b2
1/R2

PL2(S)

58

fig 3.2 Block diagram of Two-area system with PI controller Let the step changes in loads PD1 and PD2 be simultaneously applied in areas 1 and areas2, respectively. When Steady state conditions are reached, the output signals of all integrating blocks will become constant and in order for this to be so, their input signals must be zero.

So from fig 3.6, Ptie , 1 +b1f1 =0 and Ptie , 2 +b2f2 =0 3.16 ....3.17

f1-f2=0(input of integrating block-(2T12/s)3.18 From equations 3.10 and 3.11 we have Ptie, 1 = - T12 Ptie, 2 -T21 = - 1 a12 = constant 3.19

Hence the Equations 3.16, 3.17, 3.18 and 3.19 are simultaneously satisfied for Ptie, 1 = Ptie, 2 =0 f1 =f2 =0 Thus under steady state condition change in tie line power and frequency of each area is zero. This has been achieved by integration of ACEs in the feed back loops of each area.

59

The dynamic performance of two area system with proportional Integral Controller is obtained first by using the state space approach.

3.4.2

State Space Approach The steady state space analysis is carried out by using the block

diagram(fig 3.3) and developing the state space equations.

1/R1

b1

PL1(S)

x4
K1/s
+

KG 1+sTG1

x3

KT 1+sTT1

x2

+-

1 2H1s+D1

x1
1/s

x9 x8
+-

T12

1/s KG 1+sTG2

K2/s

x7

KT 1+sTT2

x6

+ -

1 2H2s+D2

x5

b2
1/R2

PL2(S)

60

Fig 3.3 Block diagram of Two-Area system with PI Controller to represent the states

So from the block diagram 3.7, we have the equations x1=( x2-d1- x9)(1/2 H1s+ D1) x 12 H1+ x1 D1= x2- d1- x9 x 1= -( x1 D1/2 H1)+( x2/2 H1) -( x9/2 H1) -( d1/2 H1) x2= x3/(1+s TT1) x 2=-( x2/ TT1)+( x3/ TT1) x3=( x4- x1/ R1).1/(1+s TG1) x 3=-( x1/ R1 TG1)-( x3/ TG1)+( x4/ TG1) x4=-( b1 x1+ x9).Ki1/s x 4=- Ki1 b1 x1- Ki1 x9 x5=( x5+ x7- d2)/(2 H2s+ D2) x 5=-( x5 D2/2 H2)+( x6/2 H2)+( x9/2 H2)-( d2/2 H2) x6= x7/(1+s TT2) x 6=-( x6/ TT2)+( x7/ TT2) x7=( x8- x4/ R2).1/(1+s TG2) x 7=-( x5/ R2 TG2)-( x7/ TG2)+( x8/ TG2)
x 8=- Ki2 b2 x5+ Ki2 x9
* * * * * * * * *

.3.20

..3.21

.3.22

.3.23

3.24

.3.25

..3.26 ..3.27

61

x9=( x1/s) T12-( x5/s) T12 x 9= x1 T12- x5 T12

*

..3.28

So combining equations from 3.26-3.34 and writing in standard matrix form, we have
x1 x2
* *

-D1/2 H1 1/2 H1
0

0 1/ TT1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

-1/2 H1 0 0

x1

-1/ TT1

x2
x3 x4
x4 x5 x5
* * *

-1/ R1 TG1

-1/ TG1 1/ TG1 0 0 0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0 0

0 0

x3

-K i1 b1

0 - D2/2H2 1/2H2 0

1/2H2 +

x6
x6 x7 x7
*

-1/ TT2 1/ TT2 0

0 -1/ R2TG2 0

-1/ TG2 1/ TG2

x8
x8 x9 x9
*

-K 2 b2

K2

T12

- T12

- d1/2H1 0 0 0

y
y
*

1 = 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

x1 x7

62 0 0 and B= 0 0 which is of the standard form x =Ax+Bu

y =Cx+Du
*

x9

0 - d2/2H2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A Solution to the above system of equations represented is obtained by writing a MATLAB program and applied to numerical example, which is illustrated as Program for Two-Area with PI Controller

(prossmapi.m):T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW F=input('ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz :'); :');

R1=input('ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA1 in Hz/puMw :'); R2=input('ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA2 in Hz/puMw :'); H1=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs :'); H2=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in secs :'); Tg1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA1 in sec:'); Tg2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 2 in sec :');

63 Tt1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 1 in sec :');

Tt2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 2 in sec :');

D1=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz :'); D2=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz :'); b1=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz :'); b2=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz :'); Ki1=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 Ki2=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 T12=input('ENTER puMw: '); Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; r1=R1/F; r2=R2/F; A=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 B=[-dP/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; -T12 0 0 0 0]; IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE THE SYNCHRONISING POWER :'); :'); COEFFICIENT in

64 C=[1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0]; D=[0 ;0 ]; step(A,B,C,D);

The execution is as follows:>>prossmapi TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz :2000 :60

ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA 1 in Hz/puM:2.4 ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA2 in Hz/puMw:2.4 ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in secs ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 2 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 2 in sec :5 :5 :0.08 :0.08 :0.3 :0.3

ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz : 0.00833 ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz 0.00833 ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz 0.425 : :

ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz : 0.425 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 :1 :1

ENTER THE SYNCHRONISING POWER COEFFICIENT in puMw ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD

65 :0.545

IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE INCREASE:20

Fig 3.4 Response plot of Two-Area system with PI controller with a load disturbance in area-1

66

Case Studies There are several parameters which effect the dynamic response of a system. They are Governor Speed Regulation, Time Constant of the Governor, Time Constant of the Turbine, Integral Gain, Load Disturbance, Frequency Bias Constant and Synchronizing Coefficient. The first four case studies have been discussed in section 2.5. These case studies can be applied in two-area systems also, but the case studies that have been made by the two area system are case 1: Variation in Frequency Bias Constant case 2: Variation in Synchronizing Coefficient case 3: Variation in Load disturbance Different Case Studies are depicted by using MATLAB programming for an Two area Power System with PI controller. The dynamic response for different cases with 50% changes in the parameter values are obtained by

67

considering the numerical example. The MATLAB programming for this case is as follows.

Program

for

Case

Studies

in

Multi

Area

System(prossmacs.m)
T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW F=input('ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz R1=input('ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA1 in
Hz/puMw:');

:'); :);

R2=input('ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA2 in

Hz/pumw:');

H1=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs :'); H2=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in secs :'); Tg1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA1 in sec:'); Tg2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA2 in
sec :);

Tt1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA1 in sec :'); Tt2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA2 in sec :'); D1=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz'); D2=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA2 in puMw/Hz');

68 b1=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz'); b2=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA2 in puMw/Hz'); Ki1=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 Ki2=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 T12=input('ENTER THE SYNCHRONISING POWER COEFFICIENT in puMw :'); IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE :'); :');

Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD INCREASE:');

disp('ENTER THE PARAMETER IN WHICH THE VARIATION IS TO BE sOUGHT') disp('1.CHANGE IN FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT(b)'); disp('2.CHANGE IN SYNCHRONISING COEFFICIENT (T12)'); disp('3.CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND(dP)'); dP=Pp*0.01; r1=R1/F; r2=R2/F; value=input('ENTER A VALUE switch(value) case {1} A=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 :');

69 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]; A1=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*0.5*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/ (2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/ (r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*0.5*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 -T12 0 0 0 0]; A2=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*1.5*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/ (2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/ (r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*1.5*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 -T12 0 0 0 0]; case {2} A=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]; A1=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12*0.5 0 0 0 -T12*0.5 0 0 0 0]; A2=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 -T12 -T12

70 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12*1.5 0 0 0 -T12*1.5 0 0 0 0]; case{3} dP2=Pp*0.01*0.5; dP3=Pp*0.01*1.5; A=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]; B=[-dP/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; C=[1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0]; D=[0 ;0 ]; B1=[-dP2/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; B2=[-dP3/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; sys1=ss(A,B,C,D); sys2=ss(A,B1,C,D); sys3=ss(A,B2,C,D); step(sys1,sys2,sys3); otherwise, end; B=[-dP/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; C=[1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0]; -T12

71 D=[0 ;0 ]; sys1=ss(A,B,C,D); sys2=ss(A1,B,C,D); sys3=ss(A2,B,C,D); step(sys1,sys2,sys3);

The execution of the program is as follows

>>promacs TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz :2000 :60

ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA 1 in Hz/puMw : 2.4 ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA 2 in hz/puMw : 2.4 ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2:in secs ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 2 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 2 in sec :5 :5 :0.08 :0.08 :0.3 :0.3

ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz : 0.00833 ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz 0.00833 :

72 ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz : 0.425 ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz 0.425 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 ENTER THE SYNCHRONISING POWER COEFFICIENT in puMw ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 :1 :1 :0.545 :

ENTER THE PARAMETER IN WHCICH THE VARIATION IS TO BE SOUGHT: 1.CHANGE IN FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT(b) 2.CHANGE IN SYNCHRONISING COEFFICIENT (T12) 3.CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND(dP) ENTER A VALUE :1

fig 3.12 response plot of in area-2 with variation in frequency bias constant

73

Fig 3.5 Response plot in Area-1 with variation in Frequency Bias Constant

Fig 3.6 Response plot in Area-2 with variation in Frequency Bias Constant >> ENTER A VALUE
:2;

74

Fig 3.7 Response plot in Area-1 with variation in Synchronizing Coefficient

Fig 3.8 Response plot in Area-2 with variation in Frequency Bias Constant
ENTER A VALUE :3

75

Fig 3.9

Response plot in Area-2

with variation in Load

Disturbance in Area-1

76

Fig 3.10 Response plot in Area-2 with variation in Load Disturbance in Area-1

Discussions

The response of a Two Area Power System with PI controller when subjected to a load change in area-1 is shown in figs 3.4. From these figures, it is clear that the settling time for both the areas is 250 seconds and the steady state frequency deviation is zero. But the peak value of the transient response in area-1 is0.0095 Hz/pu and in area-2 is 0.0062 Hz/pu. Hence it can be concluded that the feed back control reduces the steady state deviation to zero. The response for the variation in different parameters is obtained in section 3.5. The response for + 50% variation in Frequency Bias Constant is shown in figure 3.5 for area 1 and in fig 3.6 for area-2 with a load disturbance in area-1. From these figures, it can be observed that when b is increased the settling time decreases and frequency deviations increases for both the areas and vice versa. The response for + 50% variation in Synchronizing Coefficient is shown in figure 3.7 for area-1 and in fig 3.8 for area-2 with a load

77

disturbance area-1. From these figures, it is evident that when T12 is increased the settling time decreases where as the frequency deviations increases and vice versa.

The response for + 50% variation in Load disturbance in area-1is shown in figure 3.9 for area-1 and in fig 3.10 for area-2. From these figures, it is evident that when dP is increased the frequency deviation increases with no considerable change in settling time for both the areas.

78

LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS 4.1 Introduction The classical design techniques used so far utilize the plant output for feed back with a dynamic controller. In this chapter, Modern control designs that require the use of all state variables to form a linear static controller are employed. Optimal Control is a branch of modern USING OPTIMAL CONTROLLER

79

control theory that deals with designing controls for dynamic systems by minimizing a performance index. This is also called as linear quadratic regulator (LQR) problem. The object of the optimal controller design is to determine the optimal control vector uopt(x,t) which can transfer the system from its initial state to the final state such that a given performance index is minimized. The performance index used in optimal control design is known as the Quadratic Performance Index and is based on minimum-error and minimum-energy criteria. 4.2 Optimal Control Theory The problem in optimal control theory can be explained as follows: Given the linear time invariant system represented by the state variable differential equation
x (t)=Ax(t)+Bu(t)
*

4.1

where

x n X 1 state vector u m X 1 control vector A n X n State Distribution matrix B n X m Control Distribution Matrix The objective is to find the control vector uopt which minimizes the

cost function C= (xQx+uRu) dt 4.2

where Q n X n positive semi-definite symmetric state cost weighting matrix R m X m positive definite symmetric control cost weighting matrix

80

x and u transpose of x and u respectively. 4.2.1 System State x: If the system is linear and time invariant , the state x can be represented in the form of equation 4.1 with the state variables x1,x2,..,xn are the components of the state vector x. these state variables are the minimum number of variables containing sufficient information about the previous state of the system, assuming the control inputs are known. The state variables are not purely mathematical but have true physical meaning. 4.2.2 System Cost C: The performance of the system is specified in terms of a cost that is to be minimized by the optimal controller. The components Q and R can be chosen mathematically by the way the system is to be performed. There are two cases in choosing Q and R which are
1) If R=0 but require Q0 then it means there is no charge for the control

effort used but the state for being nonzero is penalized. Here the best control strategy would be in the form of infinite impulses. This control would drive the state to zero in the shortest possible time with the greatest effort.

2) If Q=0 and R0 then the control effort is penalized but do not charge for

the trajectory the state x follows. In this case , the best control is to use u=0 i.e. not to provide any control effort at all. These two cases are the extreme cases, but they emphasize the importance in choosing the components of Q and R. 4.2.3 Optimal Controller:

81

The optimal controller that minimizes the cost C of the system in state variable form is a function of the present states of the system weighted by the components X n: u(t)= -Kx(t) 4.3 of a constant gain matrix K of dimension m

This optimal gain matrix is determined by solving the differential equation, the matrix Riccati equation. For the infinite time problem, the Riccati equation has a steady solution. Since the gain matrix is a constant, the optimally controlled system can be expressed in the closed form. x=Acx Ac ~ A-BK 4.2.4 Calculating the value of optimal controller K: Consider the plant described from the equations 4.1 and 4.2 The objective function is to: minimize C= (xQx+uRu) dt with the constraint: Ax(t)+Bu(t)= x To obtain the formal solution, Lagrange multipliers method is applied. The constraint problem is solved by
*

augmenting the equation 4.1 into equation 4.2 using an n-vector of Lagrange multipliers, . The problem reduces to the minimization of the following unconstrained function.
x]
*

L (x,,u,t) = [xQx+uRu]+[Ax+Bu-

4.4 The optimal values(denoted by opt) are found by partial differentiating

the Lagrangian function w.r.t. , u, x and equating them to zero i.e. L / = Axopt+Buopt- x opt=0 x opt = Axopt+Buopt
* *

..4.5

82

L/u = 2Ruopt+ B =0 uopt= R-1 B L/x = 2xoptQ+ + A=0 = 2Qxopt A ..4.7 ..4.6

Assuming there exists a symmetric, time-varying positive definite matrix P(t) satisfying = 2P(t)xopt substituting equation 4.3 control law uopt (t)= -R-1B P(t)xopt by derivating equation 4.8, = 2(Pxopt+pxopt) Finally equating 4.7 with 4.10, P(t)= -P(t)A-AP(t)-Q+P(t)BR-1BP(t) .4.11 ..4.10 .4.8 into equation 4.6 gives the optimal closed-loop . 4.9

The above equation is referred to as the matrix Riccati Equation. The boundary condition for equation 4.11 is P(tf) =0. Therefore, Equation 4.11 must be integrated backward in time. Since a numerical solution is performed forward in time, a dummy variable = tf-t is replaced for time t. Once the solution to equation 4.11 is obtained the solution to the state equation 4.5 in conjunction with the optimal control equation 4.9 is obtained. The optimal controller gain is a time varying state-variable feed back. the time varying optimal gain K(t) is replaced by its seady value, as its inconvenient to implement time varying feedback. For linear timeinvariant systems, since p=0, when the process is of infinite duration, that is tf ,Equation 4.11 reduces to the algebraic Ricatti equation

83

PA+AP+Q-PBR-1BP=0.4.12 4.2.5 Snag of optimal Control The Optimal control determined by the above equations is quite often impractical due to the following reasons:1) The optimal control is a function of all the states of the system. In

practice, all the states may not be available. The inaccessible states or missing states are required to be estimated 2) It may not be economical to transfer all the information over long

distances. 3) The control which is a function of the states in turn is dependent on

the load demand. Accurate prediction of the load demand may be essential for realizing the optimal controller. 4) The optimal control is also dependent on the weighting matrices

which are not unique.

4.3 Application of Optimal Control to an Isolated Power System The optimal controller is applied to isolated power system so as to enhance the dynamic performance of the system. In case of

84

an Isolated Power System the order of matrices Q and R is 4 x 4 and 1 x 1 respectively. The dynamic response to an Isolated Power System with PI controller and with Optimal Controller is illustrated by the following MATLAB program, considering the same example in section 2.4
Program with Optimal Controller to Isolated power system (Prosawioc.m) T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY R=input('ENTER puMW/Hz:'); F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMW/HZ Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :'); :'); :'); :'); :'); :'); THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) :'); in

Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; R=R/F; A=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0;0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(R*Tg) 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0]; B=[-dP/(2*H) ; 0 ; 0 ; 0 ]; C=[1 0 0 0];

85 D=[0 ]; sys1=ss(A,B,C,D);

disp('ENTER FORM:'); for i=1:4

THE

STATE

COST

WEIGHTING

MATRIX(Q)IN

for j=1:4 temp=input(''); Q(i,j)=temp(1); end end Q R=input('ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:'); Bc=B/dP; [K,P]=lqr2(A,Bc,Q,R); disp('THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS :'); P disp('THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS :'); Ac=A-Bc*K; sys2=ss(Ac,B,C,D); step(sys1,sys2); K

The Execution is as follows

86 >> prosaoc TOTAL RATED CAPACITY :250

ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR(R) in puMW/Hz:3 ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F) in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMW/Hz ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN :60 :5 :0.8 :0.2 :0.5 :7

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE STATE COST WEIGHTING MATRIX(Q)IN n X n FORM: 20 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 5

Q = 20 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 5

ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:0.15 THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS : P = 149.0273 -3.7741 -6.7772 -3.7741 3.3239 0.6093 -6.7772 0.6093 0.9375 9.2148 0.0968 -0.0661

87 9.2148 0.0968 -0.0661 7.3990

THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS : K = -99.3515 2.5161 4.5181 -6.1432

88

Fig 4.1 Response Plot of an Isolated power system with PI and Optimal Controller

4.3.1 Isolated Power System with Reheater Constraint: A case study has been carried out using the optimal controller i.e. to a thermal system in real terms. A simplified model of turbine is shown in fig2.3 i.e. a non-reheat turbine. Practically, to increase the overall efficiency the turbine is often divided into two or several stages. Between the stages the steam is reheated in reheaters. Considering the two stage turbine, The reheater represents a delay Tr , and the Total Turbine model is represented by the transfer function as GT(s) = (1-s Kr ) KT (1+s Tr) (1+s TT ) where Tr reheating Time Constant Kr Gain of reheats in Thermal unit The transfer function corresponding to the Reheater constraint is added to the Block diagram in fig2.5 and the new Block diagram is represented below

89
PD(S)

x5

x3
+

PC(S)

KG 1+sTG

x4

KT 1+sTT

1-s K 1+sT

x2

1 2Hs+D

x1

F(S)

1/R

KI/s

Fig 4.2 Block diagram of an Isolated power system with Reheater constraint Analysis of state space Equations: The state space analysis is carried to the model shown in fig5.2 and the state equations are x1=( x2- d)(1/2Hs+ D) x 12 H+ x1 D= x2- d x 1= -( x1 D/2H)+( x2/2H) -( d/2H) x2= (1-s Kr)x3 (1+s Tr)
* * *

..4.13
*

x2+ x 2 Tr = x3- x 3Kr ....4.14

x 2= -( x2/ Tr)+ (x3/ Tr)-( x3 Kr/ Tr) x3= x4/(1+sTT ) x 3=-( x3/ TT)+( x4/ TT) 4.15 x4=( x5- x1/R) 1/(1+sTG) x3 (1+s TG)= - x4 x1/R x 4= -( x4/ TG) ( x1/R TG)-( x5/ TG) x5= x1KI/s
* *

4.16

90

i.e. x 5= x1KI

4.17

The above equations 4.13 to 4.17 can be written in standard form as

x1 -dP/2H
*

-D/2H

1/2H

x1

x2

0 = + 0 0 0 KI 0

-1/ Tr (1+ Kr)/( TrTT) -(Kr/ TrTT ) 0 0 0 0 -1/TT -1/ TG 0 1/TT 1/TG

0 0 x4 0

x2 x3 0 x5

0
x3
*

x4
x5
*

-1/RTG

and the output equation is C=[ 1 0 0 0 0] and D=[0]

4.3.2 Isolated Power System with Reheater Constraint using Optimal Controller : The application of optimal control is done to attain the frequency a steady state value after a disturbance. The application of optimal controller is illustrated through MATLAB programming and the dynamic response is obtained for the example and is as follows
Program for Isolated Power System with Reheater Constraint (prosahc.m) T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW :');

R=input('ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR IN Hz/puMW(R) :');

F=input('ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F)in Hz H=input('ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec

91 :'); :');

D=input('ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in puMw/Hz :'); Tg=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec Tt=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec Kr=input('ENTER THE GAIN OF REHEATS IN THERMAL UNIT Tr=input('ENTER THE REHEAT TIME CONSTANT in sec Ki=input('ENTER THE PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL GAIN :'); :'); :'); :'); :');

Pp1=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:'); dP1=Pp1*0.01; r=R/F; A=[-D/(2*H) 1/(2*H) 0 0 0;0 -1/Tr 1/Tr+(Kr/(Tr*Tt)) -Kr/ (Tr*Tt) 0;0 0 -1/Tt 1/Tt 0;-1/(r*Tg) 0 0 -1/Tg -1/Tg;Ki 0 0 0 0]; B=[-dP1/(2*H) ; 0 ; 0 ; 0;0 ]; C=[1 0 0 0 0]; D=[0 ]; sys1=ss(A,B,C,D); disp('ENTER THE STATE COST WEIGHTING MATRIX(Q)IN n X n FORM:'); for i=1:5 for j=1:5 temp=input(''); Q(i,j)=temp(1); end end Q R=input('ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:');

92 Bc=B/dP1; [K,P]=lqr2(A,Bc,Q,R); disp('THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS :'); P disp('THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS :'); Ac=A-Bc*K; sys2=ss(Ac,B,C,D); step(sys1,sys2); K

The execution is as follows

>> prosahcoc TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SPEED REGULATION GOVERNOR IN puMW/Hz(R) ENTER SYSTEM FREQUENCY(F)in Hz ENTER INERTIA CONSTANT(H)in sec ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT in Hz/puMw ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE in sec ENTER THE GAIN OF REHEATS IN THERMAL UNIT ENTER THE REHEAT TIME CONSTANT in sec ENTER THE PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL GAIN :250 :3 :60 :5 :0.8 :0.3 :0.5 :0.5 :10 :7

ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD DEMAND IN TERMS OF % INCREASE:20 ENTER THE STATE COST WEIGHTING MATRIX(Q)IN n X n FORM: 20 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0

93 Q = 20 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0

ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:0.15 THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS : P = 112.1477 -4.1513 -4.5221 -5.7077 5.3851 -4.1513 65.1044 5.3891 0.6167 -0.2692 -4.5221 5.3891 2.6981 0.6112 -0.2339 -5.7077 0.6167 0.6112 0.7725 -0.2900 5.3851 -0.2692 -0.2339 -0.2900 0.3334

THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS :

K = -74.7652 2.7675 3.0148 3.8051 -3.5900

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Fig 4.3 response plot of an isolated power system with heat constraint and with PI and with optimal controller

From fig 4.3, it is observed that without optimal control the steady state value of frequency deviation is increasing and with the optimal control, the steady state value of frequency deviation is zero with minimum peak value of transient frequency.

4.5

Application of Optimal Control to Interconnected Systems

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The Theory of Optimal control can be applied to two area systems also to enhance the dynamic performance of the system. The block diagram of two area system is shown in figure 4.4
1/R1

b1 K1/s
+

PL1(S) -

KG 1+sTG1

KT 1+sTT1

+-

1 2H1s+D1 1/s T12

+

1/s
+

K2/s

+-

KG 1+sTG2

KT 1+sTT2

+ -

1 2H2s+D2

b2
1/R2

PL2(S)

fig 4.4 Block diagram of Two-area system with PI controller The block diagram and the state space Equations with PI controller are same and also can be applied with optimal controller. In this chapter only the State Cost Weighting Matrix(Q), of order n X n , and Control Cost Weighting Matrix(R), of order m X m are introduced to enhance the response of the system. In a Two Area Power System the values of n and m are 9 and 1 respectively. The optimal control theory is applied to a example(which was discussed in section 3.4) and is illustrated in the form of MATLAB programming

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Program for Two-Area System with optimal control (Promaoc.m) T=input('TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW F=input('ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz R1=input('ENTER GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA1 in Hz/puMw :'); R2=input('ENTER GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA2 in Hz/puMw :'); H1=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs :'); H2=input('ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2:in secs :'); Tg1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 1 in secs :'); Tg2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA2 in secs :'); Tt1=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 1 in secs :'); Tt2=input('ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA 2 in secs :'); D1=input('ENTER LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz :'); D2=input('ENTER LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz :'); b1=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz:'); b2=input('ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA2 in puMw/Hz:'); Ki1=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 Ki2=input('ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 :'); :'); :'); :');

T12=input('ENTER THE SYNCHRONISING POWER COEFFICIENT in puMw :'); Pp=input('ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD INCREASE:'); dP=Pp*0.01; IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE

97 r1=R1/F; r2=R2/F; A=[-D1/(2*H1) 1/(2*H1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1/(2*H1);0 -1/Tt1 1/Tt1 0 0 0 0 0 0;-1/(r1*Tg1) 0 -1/Tg1 1/Tg1 0 0 0 0 0;-Ki1*b1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -Ki1;0 0 0 0 -D2/(2*H2) 1/(2*H2) 0 0 1/(2*H2);0 0 0 0 0 -1/Tt2 1/Tt2 0 0; 0 0 0 0 -1/(r2*Tg2) 0 -1/Tg2 1/Tg2 0;0 0 0 0 -Ki2*b2 0 0 0 Ki2;T12 0 0 0 -T12 0 0 0 0]; B=[-dP/(2*H1) ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0 ;0; 0;0 ]; C=[1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0;0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0]; D=[0 ;0 ]; sys1=ss(A,B,C,D); disp('ENTER THE STATE COST WEIGHTING MATRIX(Q)IN n X n FORM:'); for i=1:9 fprintf('row for j=1:9 temp=input(''); Q(i,j)=temp(1); end end Q R=input('ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:'); Bc=B/dP; [K,P]=lqr2(A,Bc,Q,R); disp('THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS :'); P disp('THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS :'); Ac=A-Bc*K; sys2=ss(Ac,B,C,D); step(sys1,sys2); >> prossmaoc K %d :',i);

TOTAL RATED CAPACITY in MW ENTER THE SYSTEM FREQUENCY in Hz

98 :2000 :60

ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA1 in Hz/puMw:2.4 ENTER THE GOVERNOR SPEED REGULATION OF AREA2 in Hz/puMw:2.4 ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in secs ENTER THE INERTIA CONSTANT OF AREA 2:in secs ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA 1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF GOVERNOR OF AREA2 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA1 in sec ENTER THE TIME CONSTANT OF TURBINE OF AREA2 in sec :5 :5 :0.08 :0.08 :0.3 :0.3

ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA1 in puMw/Hz : 0.00833 ENTER THE LOAD FREQUENCY CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz 0.00833 :

ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 1 in puMw/Hz : 0.425 ENTER THE FREQUENCY BIAS CONSTANT OF AREA 2 in puMw/Hz 0.425 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 1 ENTER THE INTEGRAL GAIN OF AREA 2 ENTER THE SYNCHRONISING POWER COEFFICIENT in puMw 0.545 ENTER THE CHANGE IN LOAD :1 :1 : :

IN TERMS OF PERCENTAGE INCREASE:20

ENTER THE STATE COST WEIGHTING MATRIX(Q)IN n X n FORM: row1 row row row row row row row row Q = 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : 1 :0 :0 :0 :0 :0 :0 :0 :0 0 1.545 0 0 0 -0.545 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

-0.545 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1.545 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

99 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5450 0 0 0 -0.5450 0 0 0 0 0 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.5450 0 0 0 1.5450 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ENTER THE CONTROL COST WEIGHTING MATRIX IN m X m FORM:1 THE RICCATI EQUATION SOLUTION (P) IS : P = 231.66 1.25 -0.84 1.250 -0.84 0.26 -9.231 -38.615 0.3975 0.1773 1.5160 463.207 5.8628 0.134 -0.074 0.114 -0.015 1.534 -1.188

0.051 -0.0491 0.0341

-0.0158 -0.046 -0.0070 -0.008 -0.2622 -18.421 -0.2317 0.0009 0.189 0.162 0.229 0.060

0.051 0.053

-0.0144 -0.003 -0.0047 -0.004 5.8628 -0.007 0.4076 0.0858 0.085 0.0629 0.0009 0.0607

-9.23 -0.049 0.0341 0.5981 -38.6 0.13 0.397 0.1773 1.5160 -0.074 -0.0144 -0.004

0.114 -0.015 -0.003 -0.0043 -0.0073

1.534 -0.015 -0.007 -0.2622 -18.421 -0.2317 -1.18 -0.046 -0.008 0.1897 4.162 0.2291

0.9570 -0.338 -0.338 20.13

THE OPTIMAL GAIN MATRIX (K) IS : K = -23.16 -0.125 -0.153 0.118 0.0847 0.923 3.8615 -0.0135 -0.0114

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Fig 4.4 Response plot of area-1 with a step load disturbance in area-1 with PI and Optimal controller

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Fig 4.5 Response plot of area-2 with a step load disturbance in area-1 with PI and Optimal controller o

Discussions The response of an Isolated Power System when subjected to load change with PI and optimal controller is shown in fig 4.1 From this fig it is clear that the settling time without optimal controller is 14 secs and with optimal controller is just 6 secs. It can also be observed that the peak value of transient frequency with and without optimal controller is 0.0145Hz/pu and 0.0016 Hz/pu. The response of an Isolated Power System with Reheater Constraint when subjected to load change with PI and optimal controller is shown in fig 4.2 From this figure, it is evident that a steady state value of frequency deviation without optimal control is not reached where as when optimal control is applied, a steady state value is reached within 2.2 seconds. The response of an Two Area Power System when subjected to a load change in area-1 is shown in figs 4.4 and 4.5. From these figures, it is clear that there is no considerable change the settling time for both the areas for with PI and optimal controller (i.e. 250 secs) but a vast difference in the peak value of transient frequency deviation is observed. i.e. the value for without optimal controller is 0.009 Hz/pu and for with optimal control is 0.045Hz/pu. for area-1.

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CONCLUSIONS An exhaustive study on load frequency control problem of both isolated and interconnected power systems has been carried out. Necessary computer programs have been developed to carry out these studies by Transfer function approach, State space approach and finally verified by using Matlab. The techniques of PI control and optimal control have been employed to enhance the dynamic performance of both the isolated and interconnected power systems. The dynamic response for a step load change and response plots for variation in the system parameters from their nominal values have been presented. The results of the response plots obtained for the isolated power system without PI controller, with PI and optimal controller are presented in a tabular form below.
System Maximum Frequency Settling Time in Steady State error Deviation in Hz/pu seconds In Hz/pu 0.0138 0.0142 0.0012 0.0012 7.5 14 6.5 3.7 0.01 0 0 0

Isolated Power System without PI feedback Control Isolated Power System with PI controller Isolated Power System with Optimal controller Isolated Power System with Reheater using PI control Isolated Power System with Reheater using Optimal control

Table 5.1 Results of response plots for step load change in isolated power system

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From the table 5.1, It is observed that the dynamic response with PI controller decreases the steady state frequency deviation to zero compared to the system without PI controller whereas the settling time increases. With the optimal control the maximum value of frequency deviation is decreased for the system in addition to decrease in settling time. In case of Isolated Power System with Reheater, the frequency deviation is drastically increasing even with PI controller without any settling time. By adopting Optimal Controller, the steady state frequency error is zero with a decrease in settling time. The results of the response plots for various case studies (i.e.,50% increase in parameter values) carried out for the isolated power systems are presented in a tabular form below. Table 5.2 Results of response plots of Different Case Studies for isolated power system
Case Increase in Governor Speed Regulation(R) Increase in Time Constant of Governor(TG) Increase in Time Constant of Turbine (TT) Increase in Proportional Integral Gain (KI) Max Frequency Deviation Increases Increases Decreases Increases Settling Time Decreases Increases Decreases Increases

From the table 5.2, It is clear that for isolated power systems for normal operation settling time should be low for which the Governor speed regulation should be high, the Governor time Constant should be small, the Turbine time constant should be high and the Proportional Integral gain should be low.

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The results of the response plots, with PI and optimal controller obtained, for the two area power system are presented in a tabular form below

Table 5.3 Results of the response plots of the two

System Two Area Power System with PI controller (Area-1) Two Area Power System with PI controller (Area-2) Two Area Power System with Optimal Controller(Area-1) Two Area Power System with Optimal Controller(Area-2) Maximum Frequency Deviation in Hz/pu 0.0095 0.0064 0.0045 0.0035 Settling Time in seconds 260 260 260 260 Steady State error in Hz/pu 0 0 0 0

area system From table 5.3, it is clear that there is no change in settling time in case of two area-systems with PI controller and Optimal controller, but the maximum frequency deviation decreases incase of optimal controller. The results of response plots for various case studies (i.e.,50% increase in parameter values) carried out for two area systems are presented in a tabular form below

Table5.4 Results of response plots for Different Case

Studies for Two Area system
Case Increase in Frequency Bias Constant(b) Increase in Synchronizing Torque Coefficient(T12) Max Frequency Deviation Decreases Increases Settling Time Decreases No considerable change

From table 5.4, it can be inferred that for normal operation of two area power systems, the frequency bias constant should be high and the synchronizing torque coefficient should be low.

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In totality, it can be concluded that optimal controller gives a better performance in terms of settling time as well as frequency deviation compared to PI controller not only in the case of isolated system but also for interconnected system.

REFERENCES 1) O.I.Elgerd and C.E.Fosha, Optimum Megawatt-Frequency

Control of Multiarea Electric Energy Systems, and The MegawattFrequency Problem: A New Approach Via Optimal Control Theory, IEEE Trans. Power System Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-89, No.4, April 1970 pp. 556-576. 2) 3) N.N.Benjamin and W.C.Chan , Multilevel Load Frequency Control June -1978. M.M.Adibi, J.N.Borkoski, R.J.Kkafka, and T.L.Volkman, Frequency May 1999 pp. 751-756. Considering Parameter of Interconnected Power Systems, IEE vol. 125, No. 6 ,

Response of Prime Movers during Restoration, IEEE Trans. Power System Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-14, No.2, 4) Systems 5) 6) 7) with Asynchronous Ibraheem and P Kumar, Study of Dynamic Performance of Power Tie-Lines

Uncertainties, IE(I) Journal EL , vol. 85, June-2004. Hadi Saadat , Power system analysis , first edition, Tata Mc Graw Olle l. Elgerd , Electric energy systems theory, second C.L.Wadhwa, Electric power systems third edition., Tata Mc GrawHill Publications Hill publications. Edition(1983), TMH publications.

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8) 9)

P.S.R. Murthy, Power system operation and control, First Edition, TMH publications I.J.Nagarath and J.P. Kothari, Modern power system analysis. third edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill Publications.

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