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1. ...........................................................................1
1.1 .........................................................................3
1.2 ..............................................................5
1.3 ........................................................................8
1.4 ..............................................................11
1.5 ...........................................................16
1.6 ..........................................................18
2. ................................................................23
2.1 ........................................................................25
2.2 ..........................................................27
2.3 ................................28
2.4 / .............................28
2.4.1 .............................................................30
2.4.2 .................................................................32
2.4.3 ..................................35
2.4.4 .............................................37
2.4.5 ..........................................................39
3. ........................................................51
3.1 .......................................................................................53
3.2 + = ........................54
3.3 .........................................................................................56
3.4 ...........................................................................................59
3.5 .............................................................................................60
3.6 ....................................................................................64
3.7 ...................................................................................66
3.8 ......................................................................................69

vi

3.8.1 .....................................69
3.8.2 .....................70
3.8.3 Fibonacci...................72
3.9 .................................................................73
3.9.1 .................................................................................73
3.9.2 ................................................................................75
3.9.3 ................................................................................75
4. ...........................................................79
4.1 ................................................................81
4.2 ...................................................83
4.3 .......................................................85
4.4 ......................................................87
4.5 .........................................................................90
5. ............................................................................95
5.1 ....................................................................97
5.1.1 ..........................97
5.1.2 ..................................98
5.1.3 ........99
5.1.4 .........................................100
5.2 ...............................................................101
5.3 .....................................................104
5.3.1 ...................................107
5.3.2 .....................................................108
5.4 .........................................................................109
6. .......................................................115
6. 1 .....................................................117

6.2 .....................................................................117
6.2.1 ...........................................................118
6.2.2 .....118
6.2.3 ............................................119
6.2.4 4 .........................................................127
6.3 . ..................................................130
6.4 ...........................................131
6.4.1 ..............................132
6.4.2 ......................................132
6.4.3 .......................................132
6.5 ....................................136
6.6 .................................................137
6.7 .............................................137
7. ...................................................145
7.1 ........................................................148
7.2 ........................................................................148
7.3 .....................................................................................149
7.4 ................................................................................151
7.5 ..................................................................152
7.6 ................................................................................153
7.7 ...............................................................153
7.8 ......................................................................154
7.9 - .............................................................155
7.10 ................................................................157
8. ......................................................................163
8.1 ........................................................................165
8.1.1 .........................................................................166

vii

viii

8.1.2 .............................................................172
8.2 ..................................................................173
8.2.1 ...............................................173
8.2.2 _ ...................................................175
8.2.3 ....................................................178
9. .................................................................................................183
9.1. . ...........................................................185
9.2. ..............................191
9.3. .............................................................191
9.4. .................................................198
10. ..............................................................................203
10.1. ................................................205
10.2. ...............................207
10.3. ..............208
10.4. .............................................................................209
10.5. ...................................................210
10.5.1 ..................................213
10.5.2 ....................................214
10.5.3 ..........................216
10.6. -. ...........................................220
10.7. .................................................................................222
11. ..................................229
11.1. .................................231
11.1.1 ....................................................................232
11.1.2 ...........................................................................234
11.1.3 ........................................................................235

11.1.4 .........................................................................237
11.2. .....................238
11.2.1 ...................................................................239
11.2.2 .............................................240
11.3.
...............................................241
11.4. ........248
11.4.1 ............................................................249
11.4.2 ..........................................................251
11.5. .............................................252
12. ..............................................................259
12.1. ......................................................................261
12.2. ..........................................................262
12.3. ..........................................266
12.4. ..................................270
12.4.1 .......................................................................271
12.4.2 ........................................................273
12.5. .................................274
13. .......................................................279
13.1 ....................................................................281
13.2 .........................................................................284
13.3. ......................................................284
13.4 ..............................288
14. - .................................................................291
14.1 .....................................293
14.1.1 - .................................................293
14.1.2 ..........................................................................297

ix

14.1.3 ......................................................................301
14.1.4 .......................................................................305
14.2 ...............................................308
14.2.1 ........................................................310
14.2.2 ...............................................310
14.2.3 .............................................315
14.3 ..........................................................315
: ASCII....................................................................323
............................................................................326
................................................................................................327
.............................................................................................333
.................................................................................................337

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-

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.


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1.4.
.
;
.

1.

Jacques Arsac, Les machines a penser Des ordinateurs et des hommes,

Seuil, Paris, 1987.

2.

Emanuel Falkenauer, Genetic algorithms and grouping problems, Wiley,

1998.

3.

Les Goldschlager & Andrew Lister: Computer Science A modern

introduction, Prentice Hall, 1990.

4.

R. Kadesch, Problem Solving-Across the Disciplines, Prentice Hall

Engineering, Science & Math, 1996.

5.

Nicholas Negroponte, Being digital, Alfred Knopf Inc, 1995.

6.

G. Polya, How to solve it A new aspect of mathematical method,

Princeton University Press (second edition renewed), 1985.

22

http://snow.utoronto.ca/Learn2/targets8.htm
,
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http://www.awesomelibrary.org/Classroom/Science/Problem_Solving/Pro
blem_Solving.html
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http://www2.hawaii.edu/suremath/click.html
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http://www.infinn.com/creative.html
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., ., .,
, , 1991.

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, , , 1993, .

3.

,
Pascal, Art of Text, , 1998.

4.

.. , , , 1990.

5.

D. Brunskill and J. Turner, Understanding Algorithms and Data Structures,

McGraw-Hill, 1996.

6.

D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming: Fundamental Algorithms,

Vol.1, 3rd edition, Addison Wesley, 1997.

7.

M.A. Weiss, Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis, 2nd edition,

Benjamin/Cummings, 1995

http://hissa.ncsl.nist.gov/~black/CRCDict/
, (Algorithms, Data Structures, and Problems Terms and Definitions
for the CRC Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Technology)
http://www.ee.uwa.edu.au/~plsd210/ds/ds_ToC.html

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64

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.

, . ,
. .

(sequential) (linear) .
Sequential Search key table. position 0, , , (, 1 n).
Sequential_Search
// n, table, key //
done
position 0
i 1
(done=) (i<=n)
table[i]=key
done
position i

i i+1
_
_
//done, position //
Sequential_Search

, table
. , . ,
: done
i n. , , , .

,
. , 56 4 . , () 11 9 , .
. 11 12.

, . , :
3 ,
3 ( , n 20),
3 ,

. 3.6.

65

66

, .

3.7

(sorting)
(ordering). (ascending
sequence) .

.

,
, , , .
.
. a1,a2,...,an
(permutation) , ak1,ak2,...,akn ,
(ordering function), f, :
f(ak1) f(ak2) ... f(akn)
A
, (descending sequence) .

H (straight exchange sort)

, .
.
- -
(bubbles) ,
-

/ , .
, . (files).
, , . ,
,
,
, . (records),
(fields),
, . ,
: , , , , .
(primary key) . (secondary keys), .
(searching)
, ( , , , ..), ( , , , , ..),
(,
.).
. (bubblesort).
. : 52, 12, 71, 56, 5, 10, 19, 90 45.
.
,
-

67

68

.
(i).

. 3.7. .

.

.

(quicksort).

.

// table, n //
i 2 n
j n i _ 1
table[j-1] > table[j]
table[j-1], table[j]
_
_
_
// table //

table n . , , ,
.
table[j-1], table[j]
. .

temp table[j-1]
table[j-1] table[j]
table[j] temp

3.8

(recursion), .
.
,
, .

3.8.1

H . , n, n , n!,
:
n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x x (n-1) x n

n ( n 1) ! n > 0
n!=
n = 0
1

.
. n .

// n //
n = 0
product 1

product n * (n-1)
_
// product //

69

70

, n! , 2.
2
// n //
product 1
i 2 n
product product * i
_
// product //
2

, n , . , .

3.8.2

E
() .
.
.
x y.
( ), . , z,
z
, x y,
z.
__
// x,y //
x < y
z x

z y
_
(x mod z 0) (y mod z 0)
z z-1
_
// z //
__

71

,
,
.

// x,y //
z y
z 0
z x mod y
x y
y z
_
// x //

. , 150 35. z, x y, . , x y 150 35 (

). 0 z, x, 5.
z

35

150

35

10

35

10

10

, . H
.

// x,y //
y = 0
z x

z (y, x mod y)
_
// z //

72
3.8.3

Fibonacci

, ,
Fibonacci , :
0

Fi = 1
F = F + F
i1
i2
i

i = 0
i = 1
i > 1

Fibonacci :
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 .
A . Fibonacci
Fn .
n.
Fibonacci1

// n //
n 1 Fib n
f0 0
f1 1
i 2 n
fib f0+f1
f0 f1
f1 fib
_
// Fib //
Fibonacci1
Fibonacci2

// n //
n 1
Fib n

Fib Fib(n-1) + Fib(n-2)

_
// Fib //
Fibonacci2

73

. ,
. .
. . ,
,
.
Fibonacci
,
,
. , .
F5. Fibonacci .

3.9

. , . ,
.

3.9.1


. (pointer) . , .., , . , 3.8. -

. 3.8

74

index pointer
. ,
.

3.9 ,
, .

. 3.9.

. 3.10
.

. 3.10.

,
(dynamic),
,
.
,

,
.

, ()
( ). ,
.

. 3.11.

, 3.11. (
) , .

3.9.2
(trees) , . , ( ). ,
, . , , . 3.12.
. . ,
... ,
.

. 3.12.

3.9.3
(graph) (
) ( ) . ,
.

. 3.13.

75

76

. . , ,
, .

, , .
.
( ),
, . ,
.
.
.
/
.
. ,
, .

, , , ,
, , , FIFO LIFO, , , , , , .

-
1.

;
.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. .
11. ;
12. .
13. .
14. .
15. .
16. .
17. .

1.

, , , 1996.

2.

, .
, , 1993.

77

78

3.

,
Pascal, Art of Text, , 1998.

4.

, , , 1993.

5.

D. Brunskill and J. Turner: Understanding Algorithms and Data

Structures, McGraw-Hill, 1996.

6.

D. E. Knuth: The Art of Computer Programming : Fundamental

Algorithms, Vol.1, 3rd edition, Addison Wesley, 1997.

7.

M.A. Weiss: Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis, 2nd edition,

Benjamin/Cummings, 1995.

http://hissa.ncsl.nist.gov/~black/CRCDict/
, (Algorithms, Data Structures, and Problems Terms and Definitions
for the CRC Dictionary of Computer Science, Engineering and Technology).
http://www.ee.uwa.edu.au/~plsd210/ds/ds_ToC.html

, .

4.

80

, ,
. ,
,
. ,
.
.

:

,

,
,

,
.

3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

4.1

, . . ,

, . ,
. .
:
3 ,
3 ,
3
:
3 ,
3 .
, :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

,

,
( ),
(.. ),

(.. )

. , , , , . ,
.

81

82

. 4.1. .

4 4
, 6
. ,
. ,
1, , 2, 3 4. .
)

1.

2.

3.

36 .

1.

2.

30 .
, ,
,
. ,
. ,
. , :
,

( ),
, .

4.2

, , .
, -

83

84

. , .

. ,
.
( ). , :
3 ,
3
3 .

.

, .

. ,
:
3
3
3

.
, . .
,
.

4.3

85

(divide and conquer)

,
. , -
.
,
.
(top-down).
,
:
1.

2.

-
.

3.

-.

4.

-, .

: .

, n .

. n : names[1..n] phones[1..n] .
, ,
(
).

, 3 :
1.

names,

. 4.2.

86

2.

names,

3.

names.

. (, names).
, .
_
// names, phones, onoma, arxi, telos //
meso [arhi + telos]/2
onoma = names[meso]
Tel phones[meso]

onoma < names[meso]

_(names, phones, onoma, arhi, meso-1)

_(names, phones, onoma, meso+1,telos)

_
_
// Tel //
_

. .
.

. 4.3 -
.

, , .
. ,
,
. , , - . , .

. ( Bolzano)
f(x)=0 [a, b]. , ,
f(a).f(b)<0 ( ). x1 (=(a+b)/2)
[a, b] , f(a).f(x1)<0. ,
[a, x1], [x1, b]. x2 .
x1, x2, ...
. , .

. 4.4

4.4

, .
- -

87

88

. , (bottom up). ,
. ,
, .

..
.

, .
,
- . :
1.

2.

3.

. ,
,

.
, , , ab. 1, .

89

1
// a, b //
power 1
i 1 b
power power * a
_
// power //
1

1
, , b
b- . , a16
: (((2) 2)2)2.
,
b. power
. , 2 (, a=2),
0 1, 1 2, 2 4,
3 16 , .
0
0

1
1

2
2

3
4

4
8

2 =1

2 =2

2 =4

2 =16

2 =256

0-

. 4.5 2.

, , . , 27 , 4 2, 27 = 24 *22 *21.
ab
, .

90

2
// a, b //
!:
power[1] a
i 1
pow 1
pow < b
i i+1
pow 2* pow
power[i] power[i-1] * power[i-1]
_
!:
used 0
result 1
used < b
used + pow <= b
result result * power[i]
used used + pow
_
pow pow / 2
i i - 1
_
// result //
2

4.5

,
, ,
, . ,
, . . ,
4.1, . (greedy method),
:

( ).

,
, .

1,
2, 5, 10, 20, 50 100 200, 500, 1000,
5000 10000 .
, , . 789 . 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 2 , 8 .
,
. T
,
.

// C, n, poso //
find poso
coins 0
choice n
(choice>0) (find > 0)
C[choice]<= find
coins coins + 1
find find - C[choice]

choice choice - 1
_
_
// coins //

91

92

C n .
( coins). , .

. . : , . .
. . ,
, .

, , ,
, .

-
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

, .

8.

1.

:
, , , 1993.

2.

: .
, , 1993.

3.

: , , , 1988.

4.

:
Pascal, Art of Text, , 1998.

5.

, , , , 1996.

6.

, , , 1995.

7.

Niklaus Wirth: , , ,
1990.

8.

G. Brassard and P.Bratley: Fundamentals of Algorithms, Prentice Hall,

1996.

9.

T. Cormen, C. Leiserson and R. Rivest: Introduction to Algorithms MIT

Press, 1990.

10. E. Horowitz, S. Sahni and S. Rajasekaran: Computer Algorithms,

Computer Science Press, 1998.

93

94

11. I. Oliver: Programming Classics: Implementing the Worlds Best

Algorithms, Prentice Hall, 1993.

http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~kirk/algorithmcourses/index.html
. .
http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~naor/puzzler.html
puzzle.
/.
http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~algorith/
(Stony Brook)
- . .

5.

96

.
, (, ). , ,
() . , ,
, .

:
,
,
,
,
,
.

3
;
3 ;

5.1

,
.
(performance)
(efficiency) .
. :
1.

2.

3.

, ;

.

.

5.1.1

, . .
.
. , :
3 ,
3 ,
3 .
, , .

97

98

: :
1
n 10
A_
m
n n - 1
M_ (m=0) (n=0)
m
1

10 ( n=0).

5.1.2

(size) .
. ,
. ,
,
n,
.
5.1
,
:
. 5.1.

(n)

5.1.3

99

:
2
x 123
y 234
i 0 4
i
z x * y
_
x
y
z
2

. 5 , :

x y

i
i
i
i
z (25)

1
6
5
5
10

x, y, z

32

n ,
n. 5.2
n, - :

100

. 5.2.

5.1.4

42 -

10

77 -

100

707 -

1.000.000

7 ()

, . ,
,
, . , , . , . ,

:

,
,
,
-,
, .
,
, :
3 ,
3 ,
3 ,

3
.

5.2

,
.
.

.
. , ,

. , .

. ,
, , .. .
. ,
;
, . :
: 10 .
:

101

102

3
// a //
low a[1]
i 2
i < 10
a[i] < low low a[i]
i i+1
_
// low //
3

, . 10 , . 3 :
11

56

32

69

81

90

222

444

65

51

51

99

98

90

11

333

38

224

61

73

80

59

,
. :
6

3, 2. , , .
,
.
, , , .
(i < 10), .

103

,
. , , ,
.
, , .
1/10, 10 . 0,9.
, 0,9*0,9=0,81.
:

0,1

0,9

0,19

0,81

0,271

0,729

0,344

0,656

0,410

0,590

0,469

0,531

0,522

0,478

, 7 0,5 .
. ,
.

.

:

104

,

, . .
a b

. , .
, : a b b a, .
,
a0 b0 . ,
: a=b0 b=a0.
. , ,

. :
t a, a b b t
, ,
.

5.3

(empirical) (a posteriori).
, , (processing time) (memory space). .

.
,
.

.
(theoretical) (a priori).
n, (size)
,
, . , .
, k n=k.
f(n) (time complexity) (space complexity).
, .
O (-notation),
order . .
: f(n),
O(g(n)), c n0,
n n0 :
f ( n) c g ( n)
.
f(n)=2n3+5n2-4n+3. , x (
) ,
. , 2 g(n)=n3. ,
(n3). ,
.
f(n)=5.2n+4n2-4logn, g(n)=2n, f(n) 5
2n. ,
f(n), 1, 2, 3 n .
( , n=10),
2n.
-

105

106

, ,
. , ,
.

, :
(1). K
. .
(logn). . log , ln
. , .
O(n). .
n .
O(n logn). (n logn),
( ).
.
O(n2). .
.
O(n3). . .
O(2n). .
5.3 (n). . (n3) , (23) . ,
.

107

. 5.3.

n=20

n=40

n=60

(n)

0.00002

0.00004

0.00006

(n2)

0.0004

0.0016

0.0036

0.008

0.064

216

(2 )

1.0 o

2.7

366

(n!)

771

3 1032

3 1066

(n )

.
, ,
.

3, .

5.3.1

C, (key
comparisons), .
(moves) . C M n ,
.
,
,
. :
C = 1 + 2 + + (n-1)

C=

n ( n 1)
2

,
(n2).

108
5.3.2

3.6 ,
.
,
(successful). , (unsuccessful).
.
, .
, n . , , , . , n-
, n
. ,
:
=

(1 + 2 + K + n)
n

n ( n + 1)
2n

n +1
2

, (n),
.

(n). ,
,
.
, ,
.
. 5.4.

(1)

(1)

Fibonacci

(n)

O(n2)

O(n)

O(logn)

5.4

109

, ,
, . , ,
. , .
.
, / . ,
, , ,
( ).
, . ,
, , . (parallel) ,
, , . ,
.
,
2 ,
, . . , .

110

,
.
, . , ,
, ,
,
..
, , (Computational Complexity),
. , . (optimal),
, .
(polynomial)
. ,
(n), O(n3/2), O(n2) ..

O(2n), O(n2 2n) O(nn), .
, .
, :
x1, x2, , xn (
n ). n/2 , ,
x1, x2, , xn (
n ). n/2 , .
, . , n ,
. (n2), . ,
-

. , .
. (2n).

( ) , . (intractable).
,
.
.
. ,
,
. ,
.
, , NP- Nondeterministic
Polynomial.
.
,
(approximate) ,
.
, ,
.

, , ,
, .

. -

111

112

,
.

,
.
,
.
. () .

.
, (, , ).

/ , , , , , , , ,
, ,

-
1.

2.

3.

113

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. , .
11. ;
12. ;
13. ;

1.

,
, , ,
1993.

2.

, .
, , 1993.

3.

, , , , 1988.

4.

,
Pascal, Art of Text, , 1998.

5.

. , , , , 1993.

6.

Niklaus Wirth, , , ,
1990.

7.

G. Brassard and P.Bratley, Fundamentals of Algorithms, Prentice Hall,

1996.

8.

T. Cormen, C. Leiserson and R. Rivest, Introduction to Algorithms MIT

Press, 1990.

114

9.

E. Horowitz, S. Sahni and S. Rajasekaran, Computer Algorithms,

Computer Science Press, 1998.

10. I. Oliver, Programming Classics: Implementing the Worlds Best

Algorithms, Prentice Hall, 1993.

http://www.csd.auth.gr/~contest/
. .
http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/
.
http://acm.baylor.edu/acmicpc/

Association for
Computing Machinery (ACM).

6.

116

. , . . ,
,
. ,
.

.

:

.
.
.
.

3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

6. 1

117

, , .
.
.
.
,
,
. ,
, , .
.
, .
. ,
, ,
,
.
,
. ,
, .

6.2

. ,
.
(hardware) , , -

()
()

118

1945 , .
,
,
.

6.2.1

,
.

, 0
1, .
,
.
ENIAC ,
, ,
.
,
. ,
, .
0 1, ,
, .

6.2.2
, ,
0 1. ADD () , . . ,
(assembler).
,
, -

119

.
.
, .
, . ,
.
10101000
10001100
00111100
01010001
01000011
11000000
10001100
11111111

00001010
00000001
00000001
00000001
11111010
00000010

LOOP

INDEX=$01
SUM=$02
LDA #10
STA INDEX
CLA
ADD INDEX
DEC INDEX
BNE LOOP
STA SUM
BRK

sum = 0
FOR index=1 TO 10
sum=sum+index
NEXT index
END

. 6.1. ,
1 10

6.2.3
-,
50
.
1957 IBM
FORTRAN. FORTRAN FORmula
TRANslation, . FORTRAN
. FORTRAN ,
, .
FORTRAN ,
. FORTRAN , .

120

PROGRAM EQUATION
READ(*,1) A,B
1 FORMAT(F5.1)
IF (A.EQ.0) GO TO 20
X=(-1.)*B/A
WRITE(*,2) X
2 FORMAT(X=,F10.2)
GO TO 50
20 IF (B.EQ.0) WRITE(*,3)
IF (B.NE.0) WRITE(*,4)
3 FORMAT()
4 FORMAT()
50 STOP
END
.6.2. FORTRAN . , .
4, 77, 90/95 Visual
FORTRAN. .

FORTRAN ,
,
.

.
1960 , COBOL. COBOL (Cmmon Business Oriented Language - ) , , FORTRAN .
COBOL .
.


, ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language ). ,

121

IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. EQUATION.
ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
SOURCE-COMPUTER. IBM-PC.
OBJECT-COMPUTER. IBM-PC.
SPECIAL-NAMES. DECIMAL-POINT IS COMMA.
DATA DIVISION.
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.
77 X
PIC S9(6)V9.
77 A
PIC S9(6).
77 B
PIC S9(6).
77 W-X
PIC -(6),-.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
ARXH.
DISPLAY .
ACCEPT A.
DISPLAY .
ACCEPT B.
DISPLAY .
IF A = 0
GO TO ROYT-1.
COMPUTE X = B * (- 1) / A.
MOVE X TO W-X.
DISPLAY H : W-X.
STOP RUN.
ROYT-1.
IF B = 0
DISPLAY
ELSE
DISPLAY .
STOP RUN.
. 6.3. COBOL Grace Marray Hopper
1960. COBOL
-
. COBOL
(divisions).
, ADD, MULTIPLY, MOVE
.. .
-
.
.

122

10 REM
20 INPUT A=,A
30 INPUT B=,B
40 IF A=0 THEN 100
50 X=-B/A
60 PRINT X=;X
70 END
100 IF B=0 THEN PRINT ELSE PRINT
110 END
. 6.4. BASIC 1964 Dartmouth College
-
Kemeny Kurtz.
. BASIC

(1975).
8 ROM Bill Gates Paul Allen.
,
Microsoft Bill Gates
. GWBASIC 1981 IBM PC. ,
.
QuickBASIC Visual BASIC. .

1960,
.
60 PL/1
(Programming Language/1 1)
, , ,
FORTRAN COBOL .
. 60
LISP (LISt Processor- ), PROLOG
(PROgramming LOGic ) 70.
( , ,
..).
,
60 , BASIC PASCAL.

TO KYBOS :A
REPEAT 4 [FD :A RT 90]
PU SETPOS [20 20] PD
REPEAT 4 [FD :A RT 90]
PU HOME PD
REPEAT 2 [FD :A RT 45 FD 29 RT 135]
PU SETX :A SETY 0 PD
REPEAT 2 [FD :A RT 45 FD 29 RT 135]
HOME
END
. 6.5. LOGO 1967
Seymoyr Papert. -.

-
. -
.

BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic

Instruction Code ) , ,
.
,
(interpreter).
,
.
Microsoft QuickBasic
Visual Basic,
PASCAL ( Niklaus Wirth) . 1970 ALGOL. ,
. . PASCAL

ADA Modula-2.
1960
.

123

124

(DEFUN a-exisosi (a b)
(setf apot (- (/ b a)))
(princ )
(princ a)
(princ x + )
(princ b)
(princ = 0 = )
(princ apot))
. 6.6. LISP 1959 .
-
.
, ,
-
. , -
. ..
(a-exisosi 2 5).

.
.
C. C
BELL
Unix, , Pascal . C C++, . 70 .
.
, (Internet), JAVA. H JAVA
SUN
, ,
.
,
.

-

#include <stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
float a, b;
printf(A = );
scanf(%f, &a);
printf(B = );
scanf(%f, &b);
if (a == 0) {
if (b == 0) {
printf(\n);
}
else {
printf(\n);
}
}
else {
printf(X = %f\n, -b/a);
}
return 0;
}
. 6.7. C Bell
-
& 1972 Dennis Ritchie. C


.
UNIX, C

.
.

-. , , .

(object driven programming) (visual
programming).

125

126

CLEAR
? 1.
? 2.
? 3.
? 4.
INPUT [1..4] : TO CHOICE
DO CASE
CASE CHOICE=1
APPEND
CASE CHOICE=2
LABEL FORM PELATES
CASE CHOICE=3
BROWSE
OTHERWISE
QUIT
END CASE
. 6.8. dBASE 70
Ashton-Tate 8-bit . dBASE
() . dBASE ,

. dBASE III Plus.

Clipper ,

. ,

xBASE,
Access.

. , .
Visual Basic, Visual C++
Java.

:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

,
.

6.2.4 4
( 3 ) . .
, .
. 4 .
,
, -

127

128

.
(procedural) . , . :
(object -oriented languages)
(functional languages) .. LISP
(non procedural languages) ..
PROLOG. .
(query languages) .. SQL.
. :
.
. . :
3 (science-oriented languages) .. FORTRAN
3 (business-oriented languages)
.. COBOL.

.. BASIC, Pascal.
(system programming
languages) .. C.
(artificial intelligence languages) ..
LISP, PROLOG.
. .. , , , , ..

,
.
SELECT ENAME, JOB, SAL
FROM EMPLOYES
WHERE DEPTNO=20
AND SAL > 300000;

SQL
EMPLOYES ,
20 300.000 .

. . .

.
.
.
,
.

,
, . , .

129

130

6.3

, .
, . , , , .
, ,
.

.
: 48 (-
-), 10 (0-9) .
(A-Z a-z)
.

,
. , , .

(accidence)
(syntax).
. , , ,
.

131

.
.

(Semantics)

.
, .

.
. ,
,
,
.
, .
,

. ( GW-Basic QuickBasic)
( Basic Visual Basic).

6.4

,
,

, ,
.

132

6.4.1

(top-down
program design) , ,
, , .
,
.
,
6.4.

6.4.2

. , (module), .

.
,
, .

6.4.3

,

. 6.4.

(structured programming). 1960.

1964
Bohm Jacopini .
, 1968 Edsger Dijkstra .
GO TO Statement Considered Harmful - GOTO . ,
.

,

.
,
GOTO .

133

134

GOTO:
GOTO (). GOTO
,
.
.
GOTO,


, .

GOTO.
, ,
,,,,,
>0 GOTO 1
=0 GOTO 2

GOTO 4
1:
GOTO 4
2:
GOTO 4
4:! ,
,,,,
>0
_ =0

_
,,,

GOTO .

,
GOTO .
, .
GOTO .

GOTO .
,
,
, .

, , .
.
.
2 .
GOTO, .

,
.

135

136

.
.
.
.
.

.
.

6.5

70
.
(object-oriented) .

.
. ()
. ,

.

.

,
(objects). ,

137

. , , ;,
;, ;
;. 11.
,
.

6.6

, .
.
. ,
.
,

.
5, ,
.

6.7

,
, .

. -

OCCAM.

138

, (compilers) (interpreters).
. .

.
(source), (object).
, .
,
(libraries) . (linkerloader).
(executable), . .
, . . , .
, .

. 6.5.

.
,
, , , .
.
.
, .
, , . . , ,
. -

. 6.6.

139

140

,
.


.
,
.

(editor). ,
,
: , . .
. (visual)
( , , ) .

. , .
, , .
,
, , . , .

. , -

, .
, ,
.

-
;
;

;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;

, , , , , , , , ,

141

142

1.

Ph. Breton, , , ,

2.

. , , , 1986.

3.

. -, , ,
, , 1992.

4.

, , , 1986.

5.

.-., FORTRAN 77 FORTRAN

90, , , 1995.

6.

. -. , COBOL ,
, , , 1992.

7.

. -. , Structure & Advanced COBOL, , , 1992.

8.

. -. , GWBASIC ,
, , 1992.

9.

. -. -. , PRO
LOG, , , 1991.

10. . , LOGO , , , 1991.

11. . , C , , , 1995.
12. M., SQL 4 ,
, , 1995.
13. E. Horowitz, , , , 1995.
14. R. Shackelford, Introduction
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.

to

Computing

and

Algorithms,

15. W. Hutching-H. Somers, An Introduction to Machine Translation,

Academic Press, London, 1992.

cuiwww.unige.ch/langlist
. 2000 .
www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
.
www.progsource.com
, , Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
www.hensa.ac.uk/parallel/

.
Softwaredesign.com/objects.html

.
Iamwww.unibe.ch/~scg/Ooinfo
,
.

143

7.

146

, ,
. .
.
,
,
.
, ,
.

:
.
.
.
.
, , .

3 ;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

,
.
,
. .
:
,
. , .

. ,
. , .
, , .

, . , Pascal,
Visual Basic, C, C++, Java , .

.

,
.
.

147

148

7.1

, , ,
, .

(-)
(-)
(-)
(a-z)

0-9

+ - * / = ^ ( ) . , ! &

7.2

,
.
,
,
.
. . , . 1, 3409, 0, -980.
.
. 3.14159,

149

2.71828, -112.45, 0.45 . , .

.
. . , , , 15 .
, . , , .
. .
.

7.3

(constants) .
, , , .

, (
, ).

-1 = --1
-2 = --2
.
.
.
- = --

(bytes). bytes

.
.

(integer)
1, 2 4 bytes (real) 4 8 bytes.

150

=3.14159
=0.18
=

.
,
.

.

, ( ) , . (-,
-), (0-9) (underscore)
(_), .

, , , , .,
. .
: ,
, , _, 100, , , _.
: 100,
, $.

7.4

(variable) .

=
() , . , .
,
.
, .
.

, , .

,
.

, , ,
.
, , ,
_, .

-1: --1
-2: --2
.
.
.
-: --

151

152

: ,
: ,
:
:

.
, , , ,
.

.

,

.

7.5

: , ,
,
.
:

7.6

153

DIV

div
, mod .
..

MOD

7 div 2 = 3 7 mod 2 = 1

. :
()

()

()

_()

()

()

ex

A_M(X)

_()

7.7

, (expressions). , , ,
.
.
,
.

154

, , .

,
1.
2.
3.

a+1

a+1

1/2 a

. .

1/2*a^3

3x + 2y
ab

(3*x+2*y)/(a-b)

2*()

,
. . .
, . ..
2+3*4 14, (2+3)*4 20,
.

7.8

155

- <-

<- 132
<-
<- *

, .
. ,
, , .
<- (=). , ,

.

7.9

,
, .
, , .
.

156

.
.
(,).
, .
.

, , : ,

.
. , ,
.
.
.

. .

, .

7.10
,

. , .
.
, .
, .
,
.
_.
(. . 10),
_.
.
,
&.
(!),
.

. ,
. 18%.

157

158

_
!

=0.18

: , _,
: _, _

!



_
!
<- * _
_ <- *
_ <- +_
!
,,. ,
, _
, _
_ _

Pascal Basic.

Pascal
PROGRAM computers;
CONST
fpa=0.18;
VAR
cost, value, quantity:INTEGER;
total,cost_fpa:REAL;
BEGIN
write( );
readln(quantity);
write( );
readln(value);
cost:=quantity*value;

cost_fpa:=cost*fpa;
total:=cost+cost_fpa;
writeln ( , quantity, :,
cost);
writeln ( : , cost_fpa:7:0);
writeln ( : , total:7:0)
END.

Basic

fpa = .18
INPUT : , Quantity
INPUT : , Value
Cost = Quantity * Value
CostFpa = Cost * fpa
Total = Cost + CostFpa
PRINT ; Quantity; :;
Cost
PRINT USING H : ######; CostFpa
PRINT USING : #######; Total
END

, , , , ,
.

:
: , ,
, .
.
.
,
( )
- .

159

160

, , , , , , -

-
.
;
;
;
;
;
;
;

1.

. , . , Pascal, ,
1984.

2.

. , Basic: , , ,
1991.

3.

. , QuickBasic , , , 1992.

4.

R. Shackelford, Introduction
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.

5.

S. Leestma-L.Nyhoff, Turbo Pascal, Programming and Solving, McMillan,

New York, 1990.

6.

N. Wirth, Systematic Programming: An introduction, Prentice Hall, 1973.

to

Computing

and

Algorithms,

http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
.
http://www.progsource.com
, ,
: Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
www.cit.ac.nz/smac/pascal/default.htm
Pascal . , .
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~jprins/tp.html
, , , Turbo Pascal.
http://qbasic.com/
,
Qbasic.
www.basicguru.com
Basic. , , .

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal
comp.lang.pascal.misc
Pascal
alt.lang.basic
comp.lang.basic.misc
Basic

161

8.

164

,
. , ,
, , .
, , . .

.

:
, .
() .
.
.
.

.
: , .

3 ;
3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

8.1

165

,
. .
. , . , , 0.
,
0, , 0,
.

, , ,
, .
, .
.
.

<>

>

>10000

>=

+ >= (+)/

<

^2-4** < 0

<=

<= 500

=0
1 <>

166

, .
. .
,
.

,
.

,
.
(=)
(<>),
.

,
. , , .

0<<5
=1 2 3

>0
=1

<5
=2

=3

8.1.1
.
. ...,
...... ......
. _.
( ),
_.

,


>=0
< _()
_

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

_ <- _+1
_

, _, .
_
,
,
, ( ).
.......

167

168

>=0
< _()

.
_

...... :

-1
-2

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

_ <- _+1

0
__ <- __ +1
_

, ,
_.
_

.
, ,
, .

...... .

,,,,,,,
,
< 80
< 1.70
,
_
_
,,,,,

.
,

__, .

,,,,,,,
,
< 80 < 1.70
,
_
,,,,,

......_

169

170

-1
-1
-2

-
_AN -2
-1
-2

-1
-2

-
_

> 0

- <- _+1
_ <0

_ <- _ +1

0
_0 <- _0 +1
_

,
.
_

171

1
( )
. .

1-50

200,000

51-100

180,000

101-200

160,000

200

150,000

:
=<50
< *200000

=< 100
< *180000

=< 200
< *160000

< *150000
_
_
_

......_ :
=<50
< *200000
_ =<100
< *180000
_ =<200
< *160000

< *150000
_

, , ,

.

172

.
.

, :

_ >50

<=50
< *200000
_ >50 =<100
< *180000
_ >100 =<200
< *160000

< *150000
_

8.1.2
, , :

__1
_1
__2
_2
......

_
_

1,3,5,7,9

2,4,6,8


< 0 >9
_

.
, .


-.
.

8.2

, , . , .
, , _ , .

8.2.1 ...

... . , , .

173

174

... . ,
.

-1
-2

-
_

<0
<1000

< +
_

,
_ _. ,
. , _.
,
,
. .
2

, ,
.
0.

:, ,
:

<- 0
<- 0


<>0
<- +
<- +1


_
>0
<- /

: ,
: ,

_
-

, 0, .
. ,
, 0
.
.

8.2.2 _
_.
.

175

176

_
-1
-2

-
_ -

_

<- +
_ >= 1000

_ _.
( ), _ _, .
, .

_.

... _
.
_ . , _.
_
.

177

3


, . ,
( ).
2

:, ,
:
:
<- 0
<- 0
_
_
!


=<0
, ...
_
!
_ >0
<- +
<- +1
;

!
_ = =
<- /
=,
=,
_

Pascal
PROGRAM athroisma2;
VAR
x,sum,count:INTEGER;
avg:REAL;
choice:CHAR;

178

BEGIN
count:=0;sum:=0;
REPEAT
REPEAT
write( :);
readln (x);
IF x<=0 THEN
writeln ( , ..);
UNTIL x>0;
sum:=sum+x;
count:=count+1;
write( ;);
readln(choice);
UNTIL (choice=o) OR (choice=O);
avg:=sum/count;
writeln(: , sum:5);
writeln( : ,avg:6:2);
END.

8.2.3 ......

......


.

,
. , .
, . , ( _).
.
, . , ,
_.
, 1, .

179

1 2 3
-1
-2

-
_

1 100 2
<- +
_

,
. 1, .

4
100.

:,

<- 0
1 100 2
<- +
_
: ,
_

. .

....,
..
...

180

.
:
. ,
.
.
.
5
.

! 1 10

:,,
!:
!:
!:

1 10
1 10
<- *
,,,=,
_
!
_
_

Basic

DEFINT A-Z
FOR a = 1 TO 10
FOR b = 1 TO 10
c = a * b
PRINT a; x; b; =; c
NEXT b

181

PRINT
NEXT a
END

.

, , . .
:
_.
.
. , _ .
,
.
, _
.

, , ,

-
1.

2.

;
;

3.

4.

- - _;

5.

6.

182

7.

8.

_;

9.

10. ;

1.

. , Pascal, , , 1997.

2.

. -. , Turbo Pascal, , 1996.

3.

. , QuickBasic , , , 1992.

4.

R. Shackelford, Introduction
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.

5.

S. Leestma-L.Nyhoff, Turbo Pascal, Programming and Solving, McMillan,

New York, 1990.

6.

N. Wirth, Systematic Programming: An introduction, Prentice Hall, 1973.

to

Computing

http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
http://www.progsource.com
www.cit.ac.nz/smac/pascal/default.htm
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~jprins/tp.html
http://qbasic.com/
www.basicguru.com

and

Algorithms,

9.

184

. , .

.
,
, , , .

.
.
, .
.
.
.

3 , ;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

9.1.

185

, .
, , .

, 30, ,

.
<- 0
1 30

<- +
_
<- /30
..

, , .
,
.
.

,
, .
30 1,
2,..., 30. .
, .
,
. -

186

, .
.
,
9.1.

. 9.1.

, .

,
[ ]. [2],
,
27.

.

i, j, k.

[i] i-
.
, , , , .

.

.

: [30]

, .
.
.
1

: [30], ,
: i,

<- 0
i 1 30

[i]
<- + [i]
_
<- /30
<- 0
i 1 30
[i] <
<- +1
_
_
:,
,
_

,
, . , ,
[i], -

187

188

,

, ,


.

,
<-+ [i].
, , . , 30 .
2

, , , 2 100.

.
N

Xi
i=1

Xi

i=1

2
N
. ,
. , , , .

, 3.
2

: i, , [100], , ,
_2,
: , _

!
( 100)

i 1
,i,-
[i]
_
!
<- 0
_2 <- 0
i 1
,i,-
[i]
<- + [i]
_2 <- _2 + [i]^2
_
!
T <- /
!
_ <- _(_2/ - ^2)
!
i 2 N
j N i -1
X[j-1] > X[j]
! j j-1
<- X[j-1]
X[j-1] <- X[j]
X[j] <-
_
_ !! j
_ !! i
!
MOD 2 =0 TOTE
<- (X[N/2]+X[N/2+1])/2

<- X[(N+1)/2]
_
!

============
=,
= ,
= , _
= ,
_

189

190

Basic

DEFINT A-Z
DIM x(100)
CLS
sum = 0: sum2 = 0

INPUT N=, n
FOR i = 1 TO n
PRINT ; i; - : ;
INPUT , x(i)
NEXT i

FOR i = 1 TO n
sum = sum + x(i)
sum2 = sum2 + x(i) ^ 2
NEXT i
mt! = sum / n

ta! = SQR(sum2 / n - mt! ^ 2) ..

FOR i = 2 TO n
FOR j = n TO i STEP -1
IF x(j - 1) > x(j) THEN SWAP x(j - 1), x(j)
NEXT j
NEXT i

IF n MOD 2 = 0 THEN
median = (x(n / 2) + x(n / 2 + 1)) / 2
ELSE
median = x((n + 1) / 2)
END IF
PRINT

PRINT =======================
PRINT
=; n
PRINT
=; mt!
PRINT =; ta!
PRINT
=; median
END

9.2.

191

, .
,
.
.
. .
. ,
100.
,
.
.
,
, .
.
.

. ,
. , , .
, .

9.3.

30 ,
-

192

30 , .

.
.

10

25

21

32

26

22

31

..

..

..

..

30

27

23

30

30 , 300 .
,
, . 27.

, (
) ( ).
[30,1] 27.
[i,j] i j , i 1 30 j 1 10.
3010.
3

( 30 10 ). , , .

_2

: [30,10], [10]
: i, j, ,

!
i 1 30
j 1 10
, i, j
[i,j]
_
_
!
j 1 10
<- 0
i 1 30
<- + [i,j]
_
[j] <- /30
_
j 1 10
<- 0
i 1 30
[i,j] < [j]
<- +1
_
_
, i, :, [j]
,
_
_

Pascal
PROGRAM poleis;
VAR
temperature: array[1..30,1..10] OF REAL;
ave:array [1..10] OF REAL;
total:REAL;
i,j,days:INTEGER;

193

,


, .

194

BEGIN
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
write ( :,i,j, );
readln (temperature[i,j])
END;
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
total:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
total:=total+temperature[i,j];
ave[j]:=total/30
END;
FOR j:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
days:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 30 DO
IF temperature[i,j] < ave[j] then
days:=days+1;
writeln ( ,i,
,ave[i]:4:1);
writeln ( :,
days);
END
END.

,
, . .

, . . ,
.
, 25
[1,1,1].

195

2001

10

25

21

32

2000

.
1
30
25

1
2

1999

18

31

..

23

..
10
18
32

...

22

18

31

..

...

18

30

..

25

26

22

31

...

...

...

...

30

27

23

30

21

27

22

30

26

..

26

..
2
27
21

23

10
32

30

4.
:
. .
. ,
.
. , .
. ,
.
, ,
, .
:

196

1.

, .

2.

, .

3.

,
.

.
,
.

: [10,7], i,j, , ,

: [10]

!
i 1 10
,i,
[i]
j 1 7
, j,-
[i,j]
_
_
!
!
<- 0
i 1 10
<- 0
j 1 7
<- +[i,j]
_
. ,[i], =,
<
<-
<- i
_
_

.. ,, ,[]
!
!
<- 0
j 1 7
<- 0
i 1 10
<- + [i,j]
_
. ,j,- =,
<
<-
<- j
_
_
.. ,, ,,-
_

Pascal
PROGRAM cinemas;
VAR
i,j,k,max,sum:INTEGER;
tickets:ARRAY[1..10,1..7] OF INTEGER;
name:ARRAY [1..10] OF STRING;
BEGIN
FOR i:=1 TO 10 do
BEGIN
write ( : );
readln (name[i]);
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
BEGIN
write ( , j, : );
readln(tickets[i,j]);
END;
END;
max:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
sum:=sum+tickets[i,j];

197

198

writeln( , name[i], = , sum);

IF max<sum THEN
BEGIN
max:=sum;
k:=i;
END;
END;
writeln ( , max, , name[k]);
max:=0;
FOR j:=1 TO 7 DO
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR i:=1 TO 10 DO
sum:=sum+tickets[i,j];
writeln( ,j, = , sum);
IF max<sum THEN
BEGIN
max:=sum;
k:=j;
END;
END;
writeln ( , max, , k);
END.

9.4.

. :
.
.
.
.
.
.
, -

, .
:
.


.

.
.
. , , . ,
.
.
3 , 2.
.
.

, .
.
:
3
3
, .
.
.

199

200

.
.
( )
, .

.
. ( ). ,
. . .
, . .

, , , , ,

-
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

201

10. ;
11. ;
12. ; ;

1.

. , Turbo Pascal 6.0 , , , 1993.

2.

QuickBASIC: , , , 1991.

3.

. , QuickBasic , , , 1992.

4.

R. Shackelford, Introduction
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.

5.

S. Leestma-L.Nyhoff, Turbo Pascal, Programming and Solving, McMillan,

New York, 1990.

6.

N. Wirth, Systematic Programming: An introduction, Prentice Hall, 1973.

to

Computing

and

Algorithms,

http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
.
http://www.progsource.com
, ,
:Pascal, Delphi, C/C++, Java, Perl, Visual Basic.
www.cit.ac.nz/smac/pascal/default.htm
Pascal . , .

202

http://www.cs.vu.nl/~jprins/tp.html
, , , Turbo Pascal.
http://qbasic.com/
,
Qbasic.
www.basicguru.com
Basic. , , .

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal
comp.lang.pascal.misc
Pascal
alt.lang.basic
comp.lang.basic.misc
Basic

10.

204

.
. ,
.
,
,
. .

:
.
.

.
.
.

3

;
3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ; ;

10.1.
,
,
. 6,
, , (top-down). .
o- ,
.
.
,
.

.
1
o
,
.

.
:



. :

205

206

.
. ,
,
,
.

10.1

.
( 3)
1 2 .

, (subprogram).

. 10.1

10.2.

,
.

, .
.

207

208

, ,
.
:
.
, ,

.
.
,
.
.
.
, ,
.
. ,
.

10.3.

6.
,
:
.

.
.

.

.
.
, .
.

. , . , , .
.

. ,

,
, ( ).
,
, . , .

10.4.

.
, ,
, -

209

210

.
, .
, .
.
, .
.
,
, .

10.5.
, . .

. ,
,
. .
. , ,
.

.

.
.

, .
( ).
.
.
2
,
.
.
)

(=r2)

, ,

, .
. , . _, :
_()

_


_ >0
_

211

212

. .
, .
_(R)
.
,
.
_(R) :

=3.14

: R

_ <- *R^2
_

.
, . .
()

:,
_

:
_2

: R, E

_(R)
<- _(R)
()
_

. ,
-

. 10, :

10
: 314

, .

10.5.1
.
( ):

....
<-
...
_

. ,

.
.
, , ,
, _<-*R^2.
, .
.
<-_(R).
O , : R. R
. . , .

213

214

10.5.2
.
( )

.
, /
.
.

.
,
.

- (-)

(, , )

. .

. .

_(R)
()

. ,
_
,
. ,
_ ,
( ) R . .
. , . , .
.
.
2 Pascal Basic.

Pascal
PROGRAM example2;
VAR
r,e:REAL;
FUNCTION area(r:REAL):REAL;
BEGIN
area:=pi*sqr(r)
END;
PROCEDURE input(var x:REAL);
BEGIN
REPEAT
write ( :);
readln(x)
UNTIL x>0;
END;

215

216

PROCEDURE output(result:REAL);
BEGIN
writeln ( :,result:6:2)
END;
BEGIN
input(r);
e:=area(r);
output(e)
END.

Basic
3
DECLARE SUB Eisodos (nb!)
DECLARE SUB Ektypwsh (res!)
DECLARE FUNCTION Emvado! (r!)
CLS
CALL Eisodos(r)
e = Emvado(r)
CALL Ektypwsh(e)
END
SUB Eisodos (nb)
DO
INPUT : , nb
LOOP UNTIL nb > 0
END SUB
SUB Ektypwsh (res)
PRINT :; res
END SUB
FUNCTION Emvado (r)
pi = 3.14
Emvado = pi * r ^ 2
END FUNCTION

10.5.3

.

217

3
.

, , 1, 1, ,, 2, 2
_3 , ,, ,
, .
,, 1 _3
_3. . ,
, .
, ,
,
.

(formal parameter list)

.
(actual parameter
list) .

218

_3 .
,, 1
1 , ,
, .
5 7.
, 1 1 .

, _,
. (=5), (= 7),
1 (=-2) 1 (=12).

.
:

. 10.2. ()
()
()
() 1 1
.

.
, , (return address),
(execution time stack). . , . , a b,
c .
c, b, a.
,
. LIFO
.

. 10.3. .

219

220

.

. .

.

10.6. -.

.
. ( ) .



.

: A, B,

...
_

: , , ,

...
_

: , ,

...
_

221

, , , .
.
, , , ,

.
,,.
.
, .
, ,
. R
2.
.
, , .

.

, . .

, ,

.

, .
,
. .

(scope) .

222

, .

.

.
.

,
.

10.7.
.
. .
3,
,
.

,
.
,

:
:
n ( n 1) ! n > 0
n!=
n = 0
1
T ,
1 n=0.

n*(n-1)!, ,
.
.
():
!

=0
< 1

< *(-1)
_
_
():
!

: i,

Fact < 1
i 2
Fact <- Fact*i
_
_

, . , .
.
5!
().
5,
0, (4). -

223

224

, (3) (0).
(5)

<* (-1)

(4)

<* (-1)

(3)

<* (-1)

(2)

<* (-1)

(1)

<* (-1)

(0)

<1

=0 (0) 1, .
(2)=1*2, (3)=2*3, (4)=6*4 .
(5)=24*5. 120 .

225

(5)

<* (-1)
120

(4)

<* (-1)
24

(3)

<* (-1)
6

(2)

<* (-1)
2

(1)

<* (-1)
1

(0)

<1
1

. 3,
.
,
, .

.

,

( ).

( )

.
, , LIFO

,
, .

226

Pascal
FUNCTION factorial(n:INTEGER) : INTEGER;
BEGIN
IF n=0 THEN
factorial:=1
ELSE
factorial:=n*factorial(n-1);
END;
FUNCTION factorial(n:INTEGER) : INTEGER;
VAR
i,fact:integer;
BEGIN
fact:=1;
FOR i:=2 TO n DO
fact:=i*fact;
factorial:=fact
END;

asc
FUNCTION Factorial (n)
IF n = 0 THEN
Factorial = 1
ELSE
Factorial = n * Factorial(n - 1)
END IF
END FUNCTION

FUNCTION Factorial (n)

fact = 1
FOR i = 2 TO n
fact = fact * i
NEXT i
Factorial = fact
END FUNCTION

227

.

,

. , . ,
.
. ,
. ,
.
, .
.

, , , ,
, .

-
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

228

8.

; .

9.

10. ;
11. ;
.

1.

. , . , Pascal, ,
1984.

2.

. , Basic: , , , 1991

3.

. , QuickBasic , , , 1992.

4.

R. Shackelford, Introduction
Addison-Wesley, USA, 1998.

5.

S. Leestma-L.Nyhoff, Turbo Pascal, Programming and Solving, McMillan,

New York, 1990.

6.

N. Wirth, Systematic Programming: An introduction, Prentice Hall, 1973.

to

Computing

and

Algorithms,

http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/
http://www.progsource.com
www.cit.ac.nz/smac/pascal/default.htm
http://www.cs.vu.nl/~jprins/tp.html
http://qbasic.com/
www.basicguru.com

(Usenet):
comp.lang.pascal comp.lang.pascal.misc Pascal.
alt.lang.basic comp.lang.basic.misc Basic.

11.

230

, ,
.
,
. .
. ,
.

:
, , , ,

,
,

.

3
;
3 ;
3 ;
3
;
3 ;
3
;

11.1.
,
,
, , ,
. .
, .

. (object - oriented programming)
, .
- " ;".
, ,
()
.

, . ,
,
.
, . ,
,
-

231

232

, .
,

.
Simula
Smalltalk.

Visual C++, Java, Visual Basic, Delphi.

11.1.1.
(objects). , ,
. ,
, , (
11.1).

. 11.1.

, . , ,
.
, ,
, .. .
, ,
, .

, ,
.
, ,
( 11.2).

. 11.2 .

; .
,
,
. , (data)
(operations) . (methods).
,
.

, , . , . , , , , , ,
11.3.

233

234

. 11.3 .

, , . , , , .
. ,
. , , .

11.1.2.
,
. ,
. , . -

. , (instance)
.
(class) .
. . . , , .

11.1.3.

.
. ,
(attributes properties),
.

.


, , ,
, .
,
,
.
,
(properties window), .
,

235

Smalltalk, , , ,
.


(metaclass).

236

, , . :
(Data abstraction). .

.

. .
(Encapsulation). , ()
(). .
.
,

.
(Inheritance). .
(subclasses) .
()
.
, , , ..
.

(Polymorphism). , , ,
.

. . , . ,
, . .
.
,
. , Visual C++ Visual Basic, :
. =

. .

11.1.4.
,
Smalltalk Visual Basic, (methods).
. .
. .
,
. :
.

237

238

11.2.

(event-driven programming) ,
, .

, , .


.

,
.
. ,
, , .
,
, ,
.
, .
(event) , , .
, .

, ,
,
..


.

239

11.2.1.
, ,

.
, ,
(event procedures),
.

. , , .
:
_
...

...

To ,
.
,
, .

,
.
, ,

:

.
, Visual
C++
(functions).

240

...

...

:
_
...


...

.
(modular) , , (structural) , .
,
, ..
.

11.2.2.

, :
1.

2.

3.

, .

4.

, .

5.

( 2).

. . , , .

11.3.

,

.
.
,
(user interface). , . ,
. .
.
,

. .

241

.


. .

242

, . . , .

:
1.

-, .

2.

3.

, , ,
.
,
.

,
.
. :

,

,

243

.

.
(toolbox)
.

, .

. , .
.
, :
( ) ,

,

,

,

:

1
2
3

244

,


. 1,
,
.

,
.
. , .

, :

, ,
,

,

.
:

0

245

( )

,

.
.

. 11.4.

, 11.4.

,

. .
.

246

, .
.
, , .

:
,
, .

.
,
.
:
1_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

2_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

3_()
1. =
2. =
3. =

_()

, , . . ,
, , .

, .
(
11.5).

. 11.5.

( 11.6).

247

248

. 11.6.

,
.

11.4.

. . ,
.
, Visual C++,
Delphi Visual Basic,
. , ,
. , .

, , , ,
, , ,

. ,
, ,
,
.
,
. , (toolboxes),
(debugging tools), (code windows),
(report generators) . (wizards) , .
,
,
.
,
.

.

11.4.1
(menus) , , .
.
(menu bar)
( 11.7).

249

250

. 11.7.

, (Menu
Editor).

(popup menu) ( 11.8).

, .

. 11.8.

251

. 11.9.

, (toolbars) ( 11.9).


.

11.4.2
(dialog boxes) ( 11.10) . . , .

. 11.10.

. , ,
,
.
, -

.

.

252

(), (Cancel) (Retry).

.
,
,
.

11.5.
, .
, .
, , .


,
.
, .
(document-centered
view)
(multitasking).

. ,
, ,

, , ,
( 11.11).
,
. ,
.

. 11.11.

, (linking)
.
, . ,
, ,
.
.
, ,
. .
,
(real-time)
. , , ,
:

253

254

,
(embedding)
. .

.

, , .

. .
. ,
,
. .
, ,
. .
. , .
, .
,

,
,
.

, , , , .
, . ,
,
. ,

, .
,
, .
.
,
.
. , .

,
, , , , , -, , , , , , .

255

256

-
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. ;
11. ;
12. ;
13. .

1.

Object-Oriented modeling and Design, Prentice Hall, New York, 1991.

2.

G. Masini, A. Napoli, D. Colnet, D. Lonard, K. Tombre : Les langages a

objets, InterEditions, Paris, 1989.

3.

Gary Entsminger: Secrets of the Visual Basic for Windows, SAMS

Publishing, Indiana USA, 1992.

4.

Bertrand Meyer : Object-oriented Software Construction, Prentice Hall,

London, 1988.

5.

. -. : Visual Basic
4.0, , , 1997.

http://iamwww.unibe.ch/~scg/Ooinfo/
Internet, .
http://whatis.com/oop.htm
.
http://oop.cs.technion.ac.il
.
www.oop.com/frameworks/delphi/

Delphi.
http://www.humboldt.edu/~jsb7/C/WIN95/events.shtml

.
http://midrangecomputing.com/mc/97/05/
.
http://service.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/maths/jw/jw/vbintro/

Visual Basic Delphi.
http://www.cnet.com/Resources/Info/Glossary/Terms/ole.html
OLE (Object Linking and
Embedding).

257

12.

260

. , , (user
interface) . , ,

.
.

:


,

3

;
3 ,
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ,
;

12.1.
(user interface)
.
, ( 12.1).
, .
, .

. 12.1 :

, (lightpen) . , , , , , ,

. , , ,
, ,
.
.

.
, .

261

262

, Standard Directory of
Electrical and Electronics Terms, interface
shared boundary, .
( ) interface
. interface , , .
, .
, ,

.

.
, , .
. ,
.

12.2.
,
, ,
. , (,
) ,
, .
(command-based). -

, , . DOS. , .
, .

.
DOS, DOS (dosshell), DOS (Norton
Utilities, ). , , ,
.
Apple.
Apple
,
GUI (Graphical User Interface).
,
,
.
,
PCs,
.
, Windows S/2. Apple.
Macintosh Apple
.
GUIs . , , clicks .
GUI
. , , -

263

264

:
: , .
:
. . ( 12.2):
3 ,

,
3 (title bar),
,

. 12.2: .

3 (menu bar),
,
3 (toolbar), ,
3 (status bar), ,
3 (scroll bars), ,
, ,
3 (control menu),
,
3 (maximize button),

,
3 (minimize button), ,
3 (restore button), ,
3 (close button), .
:
. . , (, , ).
:

.
.

265

266

12.3.

,
,
.

.
;, . ,
,

, ,
(user task analysis).
,
. ,

.

:
: , , , .
, ,
.

,

,
.

: , . , ,
.
:
. ,
video
,

video,
.
: .
.

. , ,
, .
,
, . , ,
.
: , .

.
.
, ,
.



:
.
:

267

268

3 on line , .
, , ,
.
3 , (assistants)
.


.
3 ,
.
: , . , .

:

. ,
. ,
, ,
,
.

.
: . ,

; (/), ;
(/), ( , ).

.

269

................
!
, , ,
()
................
()
<- 0
_
(/);


, , , n
<- 1
, , ,
<- 2



_ =1 =2

, , .
. ,
, .

.

. .
( 12.3) :

,

.

270

. 12.3.

, ,
, .
,
.
, , . , .
,
.
, , .
,
,
.

12.4.
,
.

12.4.1.
. , .
,
. ,
.
: , , . ,
. , ,
, . :

,
,
,
,
,
.

. .
.
12.1.

271

272

12.1 :

.
.
:
. . , , , .
.
,
. .

. .
, .

273

. , , , .
. , .
.


.
.
12.2 .
12.2 :

12.4.2.

. , ,
. , -

274

.
.
,
,
, :
. .
, .
,
.
. ,
.
.

. . ,
.
.
. .

12.5.
.
, .

, , .
. , :
:

. . .
.
.
,
.
.
, .
. . ,
.
:
, .
. , , .
, .
, .
:
. .
, , -

275

276

. , . ( )
.

(user
interface) . ,
(GUI). , . .

.

(user interface), , , ,

-
1.

user interface
.

2.

3.

GUI.

4.

5.

6.

7.

277

;.

1.

Lon Brafield: The user interface Concepts & Design, Addison-Wesley

Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Holland,1993.

2.

Robert Lindstrom: Multimedia Presentations Create dynamic

presentations that inspire, Osborne-McGraw Hill, USA, 1994.

3.

Arch Luther: Designing Interactive Multimedia, antam Books, New York,

USA, 1992.

4.

Mark Maubury: Intelligent Multimedia Interfaces, AAAIPress/The MIT

Press, California, USA, 1993.

5.

Karen McGraw: Designing and Evaluating User Inetrfaces for

Knowledge_based Systems, Ellis Horwood Limite, West Sussex, England,
1992.

6.

: , , , , 1994.

7.

Ben Shneiderman: Designing the User Interface Strategies for Effective

Human-Computer Interaction, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Inc,
New York, USA, 1992.

http://cfg.cit.cornell.edu/cfg/design/contents.html
, ,
, , ..
.
http://www.depauw.edu/~dberque/hci/bell/index.html
Ben
Shneiderman Designing the User Interface , .

278

http://www.depauw.edu/~dberque/hci/chauner/main.htm
, , ,
, ,
.
http://www.sju.edu/~jhodgson/gui/guihome.html

. ,

.

13.

280

, , , . , , .
, .
, .
,
,
, ,
.

:
.
.

.
.

3 ;
3 ;
3 ;
3
,
;
3
;

281

13.1
, , , .
,
.
, :

, . .
, , .
, , .
, . , . ,
.

,
(crash) .
,
.

(bug)
. ,
bugs, .

282

, ,
.
,
, ,
,
,
.

.
, .


(testing) .
2000 (millennium bug). ,

.

:
1962 Mariner 1 Canaveral
. ... (NASA) , -

.
. NASA
FORTRAN . 80 .
1990 AT&T, . 5
.
Pentium 1994 ,
.
Thomas Nicely Lynchburg
Virginia . ,
450
1995 Denver .
. , .

,
3,2 .

283

284

13.2
,
(debugging).
.
,

. .

, .

, , ,
. , .
.

.

13.3.

. .

. ,
.
,
.
(debuggers).

,
.

:

(watch expressions)

. ,
,
.
.

. 13.1.

(breakpoint) .
.
, .

, .
.

285

286

. 13.2.

(history)
.
.

, . (tracing) ,

.


.

. 13.3.

(.. , ), .


,
,
, .

13.4

.
, .

287

288

.

, .

. , .
, .
:
,
.
,

(exception error handler), . .

,
.

Java, ADA C++ (exceptions),
Visual Basic (On Error GoTo).

:

.
.

, .
, , , .
, . (..
) , .

, .
,
.
. ,
( ) .

.
.

.

.
.

,
.

, , , ,
.

-
1.

289

290

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

, , 2, , 1986.

2.

. -. : Visual Basic
4.0, , , 1997.

3.

Ivars Peterson: Fatal Defect:Chasing killer Computer Bugs, Science

News, USA, 1995.

http://www.alsplace.com/home/pages/famous_bugs.htm

.
http://www.bugnet.com

.
http://www.guide-p.infoseek.com

.
http://www.netstuff.com/computerbug
.
http://www.techweb.com
, ,
2000.
http://www.year2000.co.nz
2000.

14.
-

292

.
,

, . , ,
, . VTOC (Visual Table
Of Contains), .
.

:
, .
.
( , ..).
.

.
.

3 ,
;
3 ;
3 ;
3 ;

293

14.1
, , .
. . :
3 ( , )
3 ( , )
3 ( )
3 ( )
3
, , ,
, , .
. . .
,
. ,
. ,
, .

14.1.1 -
, . ( ), ,
. , -

,

, .

294

. , , .
. :
3 .
3 .
!!

,
, .
.
1

1000 . ,
. .
:
, , .
(<>), , , (=) .
.
2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6,
7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9.
:

295

.
1

: i, S, _, A[1000]

i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_ <> [i]
_, S
_ <- A[i]
S <- 0
_
S <- S+1
i <- i+1
_
_, S
_ 1
2

: i, S, _, A[1000]

i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_ = [i] i < 1001
S <- S+1

296

i <- i+1
_
_, S
. <- (i)
S <- 0
_
_ 2
3

: i, S, _, A[1000]

i <- 1
S <- 0
_ <- [i]
i < 1001
_= [i]
S <- S+1
i <- i+1

_ , S
_ <- [i]
S <- 0
_A
_
_, S
_ 3

.
. (i).
(i),
, (i).
(i).
i
i<1001. _(i). , .. i<1001, i .

, ... .
, (=) (<>),
...TOTE....
:
3 .
3 , .
3 , .
,
(i) .
., S , .<-(i), s<-0" . , . .A, S ,
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. , s<-0, .A<-A(i)" . ,
.
s<-s+1.

14.1.2
. ,
, , ,
.
. ,
.
,
, 3
.

297

298

4 .
,
.
, .
2
.
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, 16%,
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.
.

299

300

.


.

_2

,
,
>
temp <-
<-
<-temp
_
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,
.
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:
, ,
<- 0
, ,
=0
<- 1
>
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<-
<- temp
<- 0
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>
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<-
<- temp
<- 0
_
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301

, . =1 . , ( ),
. > > , .
(>) (>, >).

.

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.
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365 , , 366.
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, , , 30 .
28 , ,
29.
4,
100, 400. : 1984 ( 4), 1900 ( 4 100), 2000 (
4, 100, 400), 1993 .
.
4 1582
. 4 15 .
10 1923. 10
23 1923.

303

, .

304

11/3/1923 22/3/1923. 5/10/1582 14/10/1582.

, .
, .
3 , .
3 , .
.
3 , .
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3 ,
.

, ,
_1(, , , c)
c=0
_2(, , , c)
c=0
_3(, , , c)
c=0

_1(, , , c)
!
c <- 0
>0 >0 >0 c <- 1
_ _1
_2(, , , c)
!
c <- 1
(10< <23) =3 =1923 c <- 0
_ _2
_3(, , , c)
! ( =1 )
4 <- mod 4
100 <- mod 100

400 <- mod 400

<- 0
4=0
100=0
400=0
<- 1
_

<- 1
_
_
! (c=1 )
c <- 0

1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12
<=31 c <- 1
4, 6, 9, 11
<=30 TOTE c <- 1
2
=0 <=28 c <- 1
=1 <=29 c <- 1
_
_ _3

_2. ,
.
.
, .
. .
.

14.1.4
, . :
. , (quick

305

306

sort), ( ) ,
,
,
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,
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,
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5


, .
( ).
.
number>0
<- +1
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<- +1

<- +1
_
number<0
<- +1
_ number>0
<- +1

<- +1
_

number=0
<- +1
_ number<0
<- +1

<- +1
_

;
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2 .
6
1000 . ,
.

3. , ,
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307

308

. ;

12345. 6 :
6 =(1*1+2*3+3*5+4*7+5*13) mod 11
=(1*1+2*3+3*5+4*7+5*13) mod 11 =(1+6+15+28+65) mod 11 = 5.
123455.
, , 6, ,
1000 .
6 : ,
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. 11 0
10. 10, 6 0.
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14.2

.
14.1 .

309

,

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. 14.1.

: .
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,
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310

14.2.1
. , , , .
. .
. . (test file), , .

14.2.2
. ,
, . .
. (test file)
,
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.
. (users manual).
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311

312

2000

,
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. , , ,
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.
HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input Process Output). ,
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(Visual Table Of Contains, VTOC).
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HIPO). , ,

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(Detail HIPO). ,
.

, VTOC,
. ,
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VTOC
.

. 14.2. VTOC

14.2 , . , . , . ,
.

313

314

, ,
. (
), 0000.
1000, 3000 ...
9000 ( 1000, 3000 .). , .
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1300 1000 ..
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(version).
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v.3.11). . ,
(Windows 95, Windows98, Office 97 .).
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315

316

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, :
3 .
3 , .
3 .
3 (, )
.
3 (modules) .
3 .

, :
3 . .
3 . (source program).
3 , .
(object program).

317

318

3 "
.
3 , .
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.
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.

319

320

, .
.
VTOC
.

, , HIPO, VTOC,
, .

1.

2.

3.

3 ;

4.

5.

(VTOC).

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. ;
11. ;

1.
2.

, , 1986.
. , , , 1992.

http://diamond.idbsu.edu/~philmac/cs125/980331.htm
.
http://129.219.88.111/softeval.html

.
http://www.acm.org/pubs/toc/Abstracts/cacm/62963.html

, , , ACM (Association of Computing Machinery).

321

................................48

Fibonacci ......................................................72

......................................57

..................................................86

...............................................58

..................................................89, 90

.................................................54
...........................................58
() ........................69, 223
() .............................70, 223
.......................................70
() ....................71
() .........................71

.........................................91
......................................175, 177
.............................................................180
, .............188
............................................295
....................................298
..............................................303

algorithmic languages

.
algorithm

.
alphanumeric ,
.. .
recursion .
recursive function

, .
analysis

.
object .
.
object program .

object oriented language

, .
data abstraction
.
loop
, .
event .
.
machine language
.
programming
language .
graph ,
, .
write
.

328

data ,
, .
index ,
.
pointer .
tree .
,
, .
,
.
read , .
procedural language


.
interactive
() .
interface
, , , .
interpreter

.

program testing and debugging .
program testing

.
.
structure
programming ,
.
: ,
.
debugging .
debugger , ,
.
assignement .
software testing

.
instruction
, .

program
verification

.
iteration
.
data processing
.
: , , , ..
software tools
.
application
.
software life cycle
, ,
.
code
() linked list

(pointer)
.
software
, ,
.
variable ,
.

329

control variable .
compiler
.
event driven
.
accuracy 1)
. 2) .
.
queue
.
error trapping
, . , .
software package

.
software piracy .
software
development environment -

330

access
.

table
.

breakpoint

.

() information , , , ,
.

constant
.

() program .
,
.
programming .
programmer , , ,
, .

program
specification

, .
append
.

bottom-up approach

.

stack

.
string
,
.
merging
.
.
assembly language

.

.
assembler .
condition ,
.
bug .
program design

. .
sorting .

program
documentation .
operand
.
operator
.
artificial intelligence -

331

.
subprogram
,
.
natural language

, .
nesting H .
pseudocode
.


a posteriori=

background=,

chart=

a priori=

backslash= \

check digit=

abstraction= ()

backtracking=

check sum=

access=

backup=

checking=

accessing=

bar chart=

choice=

accidence=,

bell= ,

class=,

accuracy=

benchmark=

clear=

activation=

beta test=

client=

actual=

blank (character)=

clipping=

aid=

blinking=

code=

algorithm=

block=

coding=

alignment=,

bookmark=

collate=

alphanumeric=

boolean (data type)=

colon= :

box=

combination=

alteration=, ,

column=

ambersand= &

braces= {}

ambiguious=,

brackets= []

ambiguity=

break key=

analysis=

break=

analyst=

breakpoint=

command driven=

analytic=

browse=,

command language=

animation=

bubblesort=

command line=

annotation=

bug=

comment=

append=

build-in functions=

compact=

business applications=

compatibility=

application=
approximate=
argument=
array=
artificial intelligence=
assembler=
assembly language=
assignement=
at sign= @
attribute=
authentication= ()
authoring languages=

button=
call=
call-by-reference=
call-by-value=
cancel=
caret= ^
carriage return character=

catalog=
cell=,
certification=
character code=

automation=

character set=

auxiliary=

character=

combining=,
comma=
command=,

compare=
compatible=
compilation=
compiler=
computability=

computational complexity=
computational=
computer instruction set=
computer science=
concatenation=
concept=
conception=,

334
conceptual=

decrement=

condition=

default value=

conditional branch=

default=

conjuction=, , ,
/

definition=

constant=

definiteness=
delete=,
deletion=

constraint=

delimiter=

consultant=

demo(stration)=

context=

design=

continue=
control character=

development=
diagnostics= ()

control point=

diagram=

control variable=

diagramming technique=

convention=
conversational=
conversion=
copying=
correction=
counter=,
create=
cursor=
customer=
cut=,
cut-and-paste=
data=
data capture=
data compression=
data definition=
data entry=
data flow=
data processing=
data structure=
data type=
date=
debugger=,

debugging=
decision=
declaration=

entity=
entry=,
enviroment=
equal=
equation=
equivelence=
erase=
error=
error trapping=
escape=
evaluation=,
even=,
event=,

digit=

exclusion=

digital=

executable=

dimension=

execution=

directive=

exit=

directory=

expandability=

discrete=

exponent=

disjunction=, ,

expression=

display=

failure=,

divide and conquer=

document=,
documentation=

data base=

enhancements=,

download=
dummy instruction=
dump=
duplicate=
dyadic operation=
dynamic=
editing= (, )

factorial=
false=
fault=,
feature=
feed=
feedback=,
field=
file=
finiteness=
flag=,
flow chart=
font=

editor=

foreground=

effectiveness=

form=, , ,

efficiency=,

formal=

element=, ()

format=

embedding=

formatting=

empirical=

free text=

emulation=

function=

encapsulation=

global=

335

graph=

job=

monitor=,

greedy method=

join=, ,

move=

hardware=

jump=

multimedia=

heap=

justification=

natural language=

help=

key=

heuristic=

keyword=

negation=, ,

hyphen=

label=

hyphenation=,

landscape=

icon=

library=

identifier=
)

(-

ignore=
image=,
immediate=
implication=
implicit=,
implied=
improvement=
incompatibility=
indent=
index=
infinite loop=
information=
information processing=

inheritance=
input=
insertion=,
installation=
instance=
instruction=
integer=
interaction=
interactive=
interface=
interpreter=
interrupt=
intractable=
intricic=, ,
inverse=
italics=
item=
iteration=

nested=
nesting=
nomenclature=
numeric=

licence=

object=

life cycle=
link=, ,
linked list=
linker=

object driven=
object oriented=
odd=,

linking=
list=

office automation=

listing=,

office=

literal=

O-notation=

loader=

operand=

local=

operation=

logic=

operator=,

logical=

optimal=

loop=

option=

machine language=

optional=

macro (instruction)=

order=

main program=

ordering=

maintenance=

output=,

manipulation=

overflow=

manual=,

overlay=

map=

package=

mark=

parameter=

mask=

parity=

matching=,

parsing=

matrix=

password=

menu= ,

paste=,

merging=

patch=

mirroring=

pattern=

mode=,

performance=

modify=,

permission=

modular=,

permutation=

module=,

planning=,
()

monadic operation=

platform=,

336

structure programming=

pointer=

reserved word=

polymorphism=

restart=

polynomial=

retrieval=

pop=

return=

portability=

row=,

portrait=

rule=

precision=

run=

primary key=

save=

print=,

scalar=,

procedure=

scope=

processing=

scroll bar=

program=

scrolling=

prompt=

searching=

property=

secondary key=

pseudocode=

semantics=

pull down menu=

separation=

push=

sequential=

quantity=
queue=
quit=,
quotation mark=

subprogram=
subroutine=
sum=
syntax=
table=
testing=
text=
time complexity=
tool=
toolbar=
toolbox=
tracing=
transform=

sequence=, ,

translate=,
translator=
trapping=

serial=

tree=

set=

trial=

shift=,

unary=,

simulation=
software=

unconditional jump=

sorting=

underflow=

source=

underscore= _

real=

space

undo=

record=

specification=

recursion=

SQL(Structure Query Language)=

radian=
rank=
read=
ready=

reference=,
relation=
relative=
release= ()
reliability=
replica=
reply=
report=, ,
()
requirement=
rerun=
reserved=

complexity=

update=

stack=

user=
utility program=
validation=

standardization=
statement=,
)

upgrade=

(-

variable=
verification=

static=

verify=

status=

version=, ,

step=

virus=

straight exchange sort=

visual=

string=

window=

structural=

watchpoint=
write=

.-., , , , 1994


al Khowarizmi 25

64

29

ALGOL 120

16, 81

10

Allen P. 122

- 317

28

BASIC 122, 123

232

128

Bolzano 87

138

210

Clipper 126

123, 136, 231

85

293

241, 261

COBOL 120, 121

dBASE 126
Dijkstra E. 133
Fibonacci 72
FIFO 61, 62
FORTRAN 119, 120
Gates B. 122
GOTO 134
HIPO 312
Hopper G.M. 121
JAVA 124
Kemeny G. 122

301
90
293
85
88
100
26
60
152
Fibonacci 72

253
138
219
53
8
157
123, 132
85
74
87

67

LIFO 59, 62

236

67

LISP 122, 124

25, 155

285

284

Kurtz T. 122

LOGO 123
NP- 111
OCCAM 137
Papert S. 123

138
40

PASCAL 123

PROLOG 122

238

Ritchie D. 125

4 127

SMALTALK 235

- 128

SQL 129

- 118

VTOC 312

- 119

Wirth N. 55, 123

- 118

130
248

315
138
31, 153
285
154
282, 318
28
220
37
236
254
26, 155

75

39, 173

25

97

130, 148

8,

32, 165

286

56, 73, 185

25

69, 222

75

297

30
128

338

25, 71

101

59, 219, 225

111

60

118

105

235

69, 222

154

109

132

137

286

209

286

67

26

11
26

138
56, 185

118
153, 210
128
138
156
140
131
318

ASCII 326

8, 53

66

236

67

104

305

110

308

28

216

31

31

2000 4, 282, 312

130

17

132, 205

5
234
67
236
315

281
130
73
282
165

70
233
87
249
31, 151
138
127

- 16
- 16
- 17
- 17

216
293
148

- 17

130

- 111

- 16
- 17
- 17
117

317
110
207

137

111

138
28, 130

110

64

125, 238

131

46

285

308

45

31, 149

150

63

125

56

60