Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

Full experiments Measuring e/m for the electron

Learning Outcomes (what skills you will acquire)
Using a fine electron beam tube o Practice at calibrating equipment Propagation of uncertainties in measured quantities Straight-line graph analysis; comparing a quantity measured with two different techniques Understanding how the motion of charged particles is influenced by a constant magnetic field Measuring the charge to mass ratio for tangential and radial electron beams

Preparatory Task: Read the entire script; familiarise yourself with the learning outcomes and skills required. If you are not confident in having acquired the skills you will be using today, make use of the web resource where you can gain further practice. Write a short paragraph in your lab book giving details about the experiment, its aims and a brief outline of the theory behind the experiment. Classical mechanics? The derivation in the script is based on classical mechanics. Why are we justified in ignoring special relativity for this calculation? Given that a typical anode voltage is 200 volts calculate the speed of the electrons in the beam (use Tipler to find any fundamental constants you need). Explain whether it is reasonable to ignore special relativity in calculating the electrons' trajectories. [1 Mark]

1. What its about

Historical importance of this experiment. In 1897 J. J. Thomson performed a series of wide-ranging experiments with farreaching consequences (the "discovery of the electron"). These results were crucial to the development of the understanding of the electrical properties of matter. His experiments confirmed that the speed of the electrons is significantly less than that of electromagnetic waves, c; and gave an (e/m) of about 2000 times larger than that of a Hydrogen atom ionised in an electrolysis experiment. It was not obvious at the time whether the large charge to mass ratio was a consequence of a small mass, with the same unit of charge that was instrumental in electrolysis, or whether it was owing to a large intrinsic charge. What he was able to show was that this new particle, with its characteristic charge-to- mass ratio was a constituent of every material that he was able to utilise as a cathode. This independence showed that the particles of the beam are a common constituent of matter, which we now call the electron. Technological importance of this experiment. Although LCDs and plasma displays are being introduced almost all TVs in use today rely on a device known as the cathode ray tube, or CRT, to display their images. The fine beam tube you will use to perform this experiment is an elementary CRT. The manipulation of the trajectory of an electron beam by applying (time-dependent) electromagnetic forces which you will demonstrate is a key ingredient for displaying information on a TV screen.

Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

The principle that a charged particle's trajectory in uniform electric and magnetic fields is dependent on its mass is used in a device called a mass spectrometer.

2. Preparation 2.1 Principle of the fine beam tube

Electrons are ejected from a heated cathode into a partially evacuated tube. Collisions between the electrons and residual gas atoms or molecules yield positive ions along the path of the electron beam. The ions serve to partially focus the beam, owing to the Coulomb attraction which prevents the scattered electrons from straying far from the beam axis. Collisions between electrons in the beam and gas atoms in the tube excite the latter, which subsequently decay by emitting light. This is how we can see the trajectories of the electrons in the beam.

Figure 1: a schematic of the fine beam tube. The tube can provide either a radial or a tangential beam, the former directed horizontally through the tube and the latter directed vertically. It is possible to switch between the two beams by changing the electrical connections, as will be discussed later. 2.2 Electromagnetic Deflection of the Electron Beam A magnetic field perpendicular to the axis of the tube can be applied by means of a pair of Helmholtz coils. Each coil comprises N turns of copper wire through which a current I is caused to flow by means of a low voltage supply. When the coils are connected correctly and placed in the appropriate place, the magnetic induction B at the centre of the fine beam is: 8 0 NI , (1) 5 5 a where a is the coil radius. For the coils used in this experiment the parameters are N = 320 and a = 6.8 cm ( 0 = 4 107 henry m 1 ). B= The force, F, on the electron is the Lorentz force, which is perpendicular to its velocity and to the magnetic field and has magnitude:
F = Bev,

(2)

Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

where e is the magnitude of the electron charge and v its speed. When the magnetic field is applied, the electrons follow a circular path. It is well known that a particle following a v2 circular orbit must have an acceleration of magnitude pointing towards the centre of the R circle. Therefore for an electron of mass m in an orbit of radius R the force acting on it must have magnitude: mv 2 F= . (3) R From equations (2) and (3) it follows that the charge to mass ratio, (e/m), for the electron is given by: e v = . (4) m BR Conservation of energy allows us to calculate the speed of the electrons in the beam. The high voltage, V, supplied to the anode of the fine beam tube is related to the speed, v, thus: 1 eV = mv2 , (5) 2 or 2eV v= . (6) m Finally, e 2V = 2 2, (7) m B R where all the quantities on the right hand side can be measured.

3. Ready to Start
First, ensure that the unit supplying the high tension supply is switched off. Then, connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. The anode voltage must always be reduced to zero before switching on the cathode heater supply or when changing between the horizontal and vertical beams . Allow two minutes for the cathode of the tangential beam to warm up, then increase the anode voltage to between 100V and 200V. The electron beam should be visible - a black cloth behind the tube improves visibility.

Figure 2 - electrical connections to run the beam.

Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

4. Experiment Part A - the tangential beam

Now slowly increase the low tension supply to the Helmholtz coils. If the connections have been made correctly, the electron beam will become circular, its radius decreasing with increasing magnetic field strength. If you can not obtain a circular beam ask for assistance from the demonstrator. Task 1: direction of magnetic field Deduce the direction of the magnetic field, given that the vector force F on the electron, of charge -e, is given by F = e( v B) [1 Mark] Choose an anode voltage and a current through the Helmholtz coil. Measure the diameter of the electron beam. Tolerable precision is attained using vernier calipers, with a mirror to reduce parallax errors. Get your lab partner to measure independently the radius of the same beam. Then both of you should take another measurement each, such that you have (at least) four measurements of the diameter of the beam. Is the beam circular? Does this influence your measurement strategy? Task 2: repeated measurements of the diameter Calculate the mean, standard deviation and standard error of your measurements of the diameter. Comment on any differences between the standard error for the distribution of results you obtained and the precision of a single result (the precision of the instrument). Explain clearly the implication this result has for your measurements of the diameter. [1 Mark] Now with the same anode voltage change the current through the Helmholtz coils. Take at least four measurements of the beam diameter. Repeat for a third value of Helmholtz current for this anode voltage. Then repeat this measurement cycle for two other anode voltages. You should have nine pairs of (anode voltage, Helmholtz current) settings, and a mean value of the diameter and its uncertainty. The easiest way to analyse this data set is graphically. Bear in mind that you measured the diameter, not the radius, of the beam! Equation (7) can be rearranged to be of the form
B 2 R2 1 = V e 2 m

( )

( y = mx )
2 2

(8)

i.e. a straight line. Tabulate values of the quantity

( B R 2 ) and its associated uncertainty.

Plot a graph and obtain the best-fit straight line. Deduce the slope of the line and its uncertainty. Use these values to deduce (e/m) and its uncertainty. Task 3: reporting a value for (e/m) Based on your data what to you deduce for the electron's charge to mass ratio (e/m), and an associated uncertainty? How does this compare with the accepted value? [1 Mark]

Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

Part B - the radial beam

Reduce the anode voltage to zero. Switch to the horizontal beam (ask the demonstrator for assistance if you are unsure how to do this) and allow two minutes for the cathode to warm up. Increase the anode voltage to between 100V and 200V. With zero current through the Helmholtz coils, the beam should travel horizontally through the tube, producing a spot on the luminescent screen. If a current is now passed through the coils, the beam will be deflected as shown in the diagram. The opposite sense of deflection may be obtained by reversing the polarity of the voltage supplied to the Helmholtz coils.

Figure 3. The geometry of the deflection of a radial electron beam subject to a horizontal magnetic field. We first need to determine the radius of curvature of the beam. When the spot attains the edge of the luminescent screen, the corresponding value of l is given by 2 l = 9.5 cm. Use a ruler to determine the distance s of the electron gun from the centre 0 of the tube (in practice, measure p s and s + p, where p = 6.4 cm is the tube radius). The radius of curvature of the beam, R, is given by Pythagoras theorem as: R= where d 2 + L2 , 2d (9) (10) (11) (12)

d = p sin , L = s + p cos ,

and =

l p

when expressed in radians. Task 4: calculating the radius of curvature R of the electron beam Based on your data, what to you deduce for the value for the electron beam's radius of curvature, R, and its associated uncertainty? [1 Mark] Note the current through the Helmholtz coils and the anode voltage. You might wish to use the digital multimeter to measure the current. Repeat for different value of the anode voltage.

Electron e/m

Skills and Discovery Laboratory

Equation (7) can be rearranged to be of the form

B2 =

2 R2 e

i.e. a straight line. Tabulate values of the quantity ( B 2 ) and its associated uncertainty. Plot a graph of B2 on the y-axis against V on the x-axis, and obtain the best- fit straight line. Deduce the slope of the line and its uncertainty. Use these values and your estimate for the beam's radius of curvature, R, and its uncertainty, to deduce (e/m) and its uncertainty. Task 5: reporting a value for (e/m) Based on your data what to you deduce for the value for the electron's charge to mass ratio (e/m), and an associated uncertainty? How does this compare with the accepted value and the value you deduced in part A? [1 Mark]

( m)

( y = mx )

(13)

5. Exploration: If you have time

Think about the limiting errors in this experiment. Can you think of ways of improving the experiment. There are other students performing this experiment at the same time as you. Can you incorporate their measurements of (e/m) with your own to obtain a class value for this fundamental ratio? Thomson's result (1897) was 30% inaccurate - how is (e/m) measured with better precision now?

6. To conclude
At the time of Thomson's original experiment the results were interpreted as evidence for the particle nature of electrons; disproving the then topical wave theory preferred by many. J. J. Thomson won a Nobel Prize in 1906 "in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases". J. J. Thomson's son, G. P. Thomson, demonstrated diffraction with electrons, i.e. confirming they can exhibit wave behaviour, for which he shared a Nobel prize in 1937 (with Davisson) "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals". Tipler (5th edition) p 834-839 contains some useful information about the motion of electrons in uniform magnetic fields. Thomson's original 1897 paper is reproduced in Classical Scientific Papers S Wright (Mills and Boon, 1964). For your extended report A few points to ponder. What were the limiting errors in this experiment.? What precaution did you take to minimise random errors? What are the most likely systematic errors in this experiment. The accepted value for (e/m) is known to 8 significant figures1 . Would it be possible to repeat such precision with the apparatus used here?

See, for example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology web site at http://physics.nist.gov