03-2010

Bi ging
NHP MN TR TU NHN TO
Ts. L Vn Hng
TNG QUAN V TTNT
Tr tu nhn to TTNT (Artificial Intelligence):
L mt nhnh ca khoa hc my tnh, chuyn nghin cu, thit
k v ch to cc h thng thng minh c tr tu ging nh
(hoc hn) con ngi.
Mc tiu: To ra nhng my tnh c kh nng:
Nhn thc: c kh nng quan st, hc hi, hiu bit cng nh c
nhng kinh nghim v th gii xung quanh. Qu trnh nhn thc
gip c tri thc.
Suy lun: l kh nng vn dng nhng tri thc sn c a ra cc
quyt nh.
Phn ng: a ra cc hnh ng thch hp da trn tri thc v suy
lun.
C 3 kh nng ny u cn n yu t c bn Tri thc.
TNG QUAN V TTNT
Nng lc my tnh ngy cng mnh m cho php nhng chng
trnh my tnh p dng cc thut gii TTNT c kh nng phn ng
nhanh v hiu qu hn trc.
Deep Blue nh bi Casparov l 1 bc tin di trong nghin cu v
TTNT. Tuy nhin, Deep Blue ch bit chi c v khng c c tr
thng minh s ng ca 1 a tr ln ba nh: nhn din ngi
thn, kh nng quan st v nhn bit th gii, tnh cm thng
ght,
Kh nng hin ti ca tt c cc sn phm TTNT vn cn khim tn
nhng ngnh khoa hc ny vn ang tin b mi ngy v t ra hu
dng trong 1 s cng vic i hi tr thng minh ca con ngi.
TTNT tr thnh mt phn thit yu ca cng nghip k thut,
cung cp gii php cho nhng vn kh khn nht trong ngnh
khoa hc my tnh.

TNG QUAN V TTNT
V tr ca TTNT trong vic ch to cc h
thng thng minh:







Thp
Cao
Cc mch in
t n gin
My tnh TTNT
ngy nay
My tnh TTNT
trong tng lai
Con ngi
My tnh
tiu chun
Bt/Tt cc
cng tc
LCH S
1930s, Alan Turing gi rng bng cch lm vic vi cc k t
n gin nh 0 v 1, my c th m phng bt c hnh
ng c th nhn thc no ca qu trnh suy din ton hc;
1950s, cc nh nghin cu vit cc chng trnh gii cc
bi ton i s, chng minh cc kt qu logic, bng ngn
ng lp trnh Lisp;
1980s s thnh cng v mt thng mi ca cc h chuyn
gia m phng tri thc v cc k nng phn tch ca 1 hoc 1
nhm cc chuyn gia;
1990s v 2000s, TTNT gt hi c nhng thnh cng ln.
TTNT c dng cho khai ph d diu, chun on y t, v
nhiu lnh vc khc trong cng nghip k thut.
CC LNH VC CHNH
Lp lun suy lun suy din gii quyt vn (deduction
reasoning problem solving):
Xy dng cc thut ton bt chc qu trnh lp lun tng bc
ca con ngi khi thc hin cc suy lun logic, chi c,
1980s -1990s: Cc phng php lm vic vi cc thng tin khng
chc chn v khng y , nh logic m, l thuyt xc sut
Biu din tri thc (knowledge representation):
Cc vn cn gii quyt thng yu cu biu din tri thc rng
ln v cc i tng, cc thuc tnh, cc nhm v quan h gia cc
i tng; cc tnh hung, s kin, trang thi v thi gian; nguyn
nhn v kt qu,
Lp k hoch (planning): cc h thng thng minh phi bit
thit lp cc mc tiu v cch t c chng, c kh nng
chn phng thc tt nht trong cc phng thc c sn
t c mc tiu.
CC LNH VC CHNH
Hc my (machine learning): Hc khng c gim st
(unsupervised learning), hc c gim st (supervised
learning);
X l ngn ng t nhin (Natural language
processing): My c kh nng c hiu ngn ng t
nhin;
Nhn thc (perception): Nhn bit ging ni, khun
mt, i tng;
Kh nng di chuyn v thao tc cc i tng: Ch
to Robot;

THUT TON THUT GII
Thut ton: Mt phng thc gii quyt vn
(bi ton) bng mt chui hu hn cc
bc.
Khi gii quyt cc vn , c trng hp:
Cha c cch gii theo kiu thut ton v cng
khng bit c tn ti thut ton hay khng;
C thut ton gii nhng khng chp nhn
c v thi gian gii qu ln hoc c cc iu
kin kh p ng;
C nhng bi ton c gii theo nhng cch gii
vi phm thut ton nhng vn c th chp nhn
c.
THUT TON THUT GII
M rng thut ton:
Tnh xc nh (decidability hiu qu): bng gii
thut quy v ngu nhin;
Tnh ng n (soundness correctness): Chp
nhn cc cch gii thng cho kt qu tt (nhng
khng phi lc no cng tt) nhng t phc tp v
hiu qu.
Thut gii: Cch gii chp nhn c nhng
khng hon ton p ng y cc tiu
chun ca thut ton.
THUT GII HEURISTIC
L khi nim m rng ca Thut ton
Thng tm c li gii tt nhng
khng chc l li gii tt nht
D dng v nhanh chng a ra kt
qu hn so vi thut ton ti u, v vy
chi ph thp hn
Th hin kh t nhin, gn gi vi cch
suy ngh ca con ngi
THUT GII HEURISTIC
C nhiu phng php xy dng, thng da vo
cc nguyn l c bn sau:
Vt cn thng minh: Khi khng gian tm kim ln, tm cch
gii hn li khng gian tm kim hoc thc hin 1 kiu d
tm c bit da vo c th ca bi ton nhanh chng
tm ra mc tiu.
Tham lam (greedy): Ly tiu chun ti u (ton cc) ca bi
ton lm tiu chun chn la hnh ng cho phm vi cc
b ca tng bc.
Th t: Thc hin hnh ng da trn 1 cu trc th t
hp l ca khng gian kho st nhm nhanh chng c c
mt li gii tt.
Hm heuristic: L hm nh gi th, gi tr ph thuc vo
trng thi hin ti ca bi ton ti mi bc. Dng gi tr
ny chn la cch hnh ng tng i hp l.
BI TON HNH TRNH
NHANH NHT
Hy tm mt hnh trnh cho mt ngi giao
hng i qua n im khc nhau, mi im i
qua mt ln v tr v im xut pht sao cho
tng thi gian on ng cn i l ngn
nht. Gi thit rng gia hai im bt k u
c con ng ni trc tip
Cch 1: Lit k tt c cc con ng c th
i, tnh thi gian ca mi con ng, ri tm
con ng c thi gian ngn nht. C
phc tp l O(n!).
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT
Cch 2: ng dng nguyn l Greedy:
Ly tiu chun hnh trnh nhanh nht ca bi ton
lm tiu chun chn la cho mi bc:
B1: T im khi u, lit k tt c cc con ng n
cc i l cn li ri chn con ng nhanh nht
B2: Khi i n 1 i l, chn i l tip theo cng
theo nguyn tc trn, ngha l chn con ng nhanh
nht n 1 trong nhng i l cha i n. Lp li B2
cho n lc khng cn i l i.
n gin hn v thng cho kt qu tng i
tt.
phc tp l O(n
2
)
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT

1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
4 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
5
4 2
1
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT
1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
4 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
1
3
4
4
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT
1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
4 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
1
3
2
3
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT
1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
4 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
1
3
2
1
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT
Thut gii heuristic cho kt qu
1+3+2+1+4=11, trong khi hnh trnh ti u l
2+1+3+3+1=10







Ti u Heuristic
1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
4 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
4
1
3
2
1
HNH TRNH NHANH NHT

i lc a ra kt qu khng tt: Thut gii heuristic
cho kt qu 1+3+2+1+90=97, trong khi hnh trnh ti
u l 2+1+3+3+1=10









Ti u Heuristic
1
2
3 4
5
5
2
3
90 2
1
1
3
4
4
1
2
3 4
5
90
1
3
2
1
BI TON PHN VIC
Mt cty nhn c hp ng gia cng n chi tit C1,
C2, , Cn. Cty c m my gia cng l M1, M2, , Mm.
Mi chi tit c th c gia cng trn bt c my
no. Mt khi gia cng mt chi tit trn 1 my,
cng vic s tip tc cho n lc hon thnh. Vic
gia cng chi tit Ci trn mt my bt k cn dng 1
thi gian l ti. Tm cch phn b cng vic thi
gian hon thnh ton b cc chi tit l nhanh nht.
Thut ton ti u theo kiu vt cn c phc tp
O(m*n)
BI TON PHN VIC
C th: c 3 my M1, M2, M3 v 6 chi
tit vi thi gian tng ng l t1=2,
t2=5, t3=8, t4=1, t5=5, t6=1
Cch 1: Tng thi gian l 12
t2=5
t5=5
t1=2
t4=1
t6=1 t3=8
BI TON PHN VIC
Thut gii heuristic theo nguyn l xp th t:
Sp xp cc chi tit theo th t gim dn v thi gian gia
cng
Ln lt sp xp cc chi tit theo th t vo my cn d
nhiu thi gian nht
Phng n L* ny cng chnh l phng n ti u vi tng
thi gian l 8, ng bng thi gian hon thnh chi tit C3
phc tp l O(n)






t3=8
t2=5 t1=2
t4=1
t6=1
t5=5
BI TON PHN VIC
Tuy nhin, c nhng trng hp thut ton heuristic
khng a ra c phng n ti u, v d:
heuristic



ti u



t4=2
t1=3
t2=3
t5=2 t3=2 t4=2
t3=2 t1=3 t5=2
t2=3
BI TON PHN VIC
Nu gi T* l thi gian gia cng xong n
chi tit theo thut gii heuristic v T
0
l thi
gian ti u th ngi ta c/m c rng: T*/T
0

<= 4/3 1/(2*m)
S my cng ln th sai s cng ln
Vi m=2, T*/T
0
<= 7/6, y l sai s ca
trng hp trn
Trng hp m ln th 1/(2*m) xem nh gn
bng 0. Nh vy, sai s ti a l
T*<=4/3*T
0
, ngha l ti a l 33%
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM
HEURISTIC
Ni chung, nhiu vn phc tp u c dng tm
ng i trong th: xut pht t 1 nh ca
th, tm ng i hiu qu nht n 1 nh no
Pht biu khc: Cho trc 2 trng thi T
0
v Tg hy
xy dng chui trng thi T
0
, T
1
, , Tn-1, Tn=Tg sao
cho:
E cost(Ti-1,Ti) tha mn 1 iu kin cho trc no
(thng l nh nht)
Ti thuc tp hp S khng gian trng thi bao gm tt c
cc trng thi c th c ca bi ton
Cost(Ti-1,Ti) l chi ph bin i t Ti-1 sang Ti.
T 1 trng thi Ti c nhiu cch bin i sang Ti+1.
CC PHNG PHP TM KIM
HEURISTIC
Nhng bi ton nh vy c th c
biu din di dng th:
Mi trng thi l 1 nh ca th.
Tp hp S bao gm tt c cc nh ca
th.
Vic bin i t trng thi Ti-1 sang Ti l
vic i t nh i din cho Ti-1 sang nh
i din cho Ti theo cung ni gia 2 nh.
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Depth-First Search:
Ti trng thi (nh) hin hnh, chn 1 trng thi
tip theo (trong tp cc trng thi c th bin i
thnh t trng thi hin ti) lm trng thi hin
hnh k tip cho n khi n trng thi ch.
Nu khng th bin i thnh trng thi k tip
th quay lui li trng thi trc trng thi hin
hnh. Nu trng thi trc ny m cng khng
th bin i c na th quay lui li trng thi
trc na v c th. Nu quay lui n trng
thi khi u m vn tht bi th kt lun l bi
ton khng c li gii.
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
Quay lui
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
Quay lui
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
Quay lui
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
Quay lui
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Khi u
ch
Khi u
ch
Quay lui
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
Vic tm kim pht trin theo chiu su. Ch
m rng su xung t cc trng thi c
chn (mu xanh) m khng m rng cc
trng thi khc (mu trng).
Tnh hiu qu:
Hiu qu ca chin lc ph thuc vo phng n
chn hng i.
Thun li khi mun tm ch 1 li gii.
TM KIM THEO CHIU SU
B nh: Ch lu li cc trng thi cha
xt n
Trng hp xu nht: Vt cn ton b
Trng hp tt nht: Phng n chn
hng i l tuyt i chnh xc v cho
lun li gii ca bi ton.
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
Breath-First Search:
T trng thi khi u, xy dng tp hp S gm
cc trng thi k tip (m t trng thi khi u
c th bin i thnh).
Sau , ng vi mi trng thi Tk trong tp S, xy
dng tp Sk gm cc trng thi k tip ca Tk ri
b sung Sk vo S.
Lp li qu trnh trn cho n khi S c cha trng
thi ch (tm c li gii) hoc S khng thay i
sau khi b sung tt c cc Sk (khng c li
gii).
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
Khi u
ch
Khi u
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
M rng theo kiu vt du loang: t
mt nh loang ra tt c cc nh xung
quanh, khng b st nh no.
Hiu qu:
Ph thuc vo su ca li gii: tt cho
trng hp li gii nm gn gc cy tm
kim, xu cho trng hp ngc li.
Thun li khi mun tm c nhiu li gii.
TM KIM THEO CHIU RNG
B nh: Phi lu ton b cc trng thi
Trng hp xu nht: Vt cn ton b
Trng hp tt nht: Vt cn ton b
cho n su ca trng thi ch.

KT LUN
C 2 chin lc tm kim ny u l cc phng
php tm kim c h thng v chc chn tm ra li
gii.
Tuy nhin, do bn cht l vt cn nn khng thch
hp cho nhng bi ton c khng gian tm kim ln.
C 2 u c tnh cht m qung v khng ch n
nhng thng tin (tri thc) trng thi hin thi,
thng tin v ch cn ti v mi quan h gia chng
(cc thng tin ny v cng quan trng v rt c
ngha thit k cc thut gii hiu qu hn)
TM KIM LEO I
Leo i n gin:
Thc cht l 1 trng hp c bit ca tm kim
theo chiu su nhng khng th quay lui.
Vic la chn trng thi tip theo c quyt nh
da trn mt hm heuristic (t tn l h).
Hm heuristic l 1 c lng v chi ph dn n
li gii. y khng phi l chi ph ti u thc s.
TM KIM LEO I
T tng:
B1: Nu trng thi khi u cng l trng thi ch th
thot v bo tm c li gii. Ngc li, t trng
thi hin hnh (Ti) l trng thi khi u (T0)
B2: Lp li cho n khi gp trng thi ch hoc khng
tn ti 1 trng thi tip theo hp l ca trng thi hin
hnh:
B2.1. t Tk l 1 trng thi tip theo hp l ca trng thi hin
hnh Ti
B2.2. nh gi Tk:
B2.2.1. Nu l ch th kt thc
B2.2.2. Nu khng phi l ch nhng tt hn trng thi hin hnh
th chuyn n thnh trng thi hin hnh
B2.2.3. Nu khng tt hn trng thi hin hnh th tip tc lp li
bc B2.
TM KIM LEO I
Ti=T0; Stop = False;
While (Stop == False) {
If (Ti == Tg) {<Tm c kt qu>; Stop = True;}
Else { Better = False;
While ((Better==False) && (Stop==False){
If (<Khng tn ti trng thi k tip hp l ca Ti>){
<Khng tm c kt qu>; Stop = True;}
Else {
Tk = <1 trng thi k tip hp l ca Ti>;
If <h(Tk) tt hn h(Ti)>{
Ti := Tk; Better = True;
}
}
}
}
}
TM KIM LEO I
Bi ton 4 khi lp phng:








Cho 4 khi lp phng ging nhau A, B, C, D trong cc mt
M1, , M6 c t bng 6 mu khc nhau. Mi bc ta ch c
xoay 1 khi lp phng quanh 1 trc xyz 90 theo chiu bt k
(ngc hoc thun theo chiu kim ng h).
TM KIM LEO I
Ban u 4 khi lp phng c xp vo mt
hng bn tri. Hy xc nh s bc quay t nht
sao cho tt c cc mt ca cc khi lp phng
trn bn mt ca hng l c cng mu nh
hng bn phi.
TM KIM LEO I
Ci t:
Xc nh tm c li gii:
If (Gtri+Gphi+Gtrn+Gdi==16)
G=True;
Else G = False;
Trong : Gtri l s lng cc mt bn tri c cng mu vi mt bn
tri ca hng bn phi. Tng t cho Gphi, Gtrn,
Do cc khi lp phng A, B, C, D l ging nhau nn nu c 2 mt
khng i nhau trn hng ng mu th bn mt cn li ca hng
cng ng mu. V vy, hm G ch cn c /n nh sau:
If (Gphi+Gdi==8)
G=True;
Else G = False;
Hm heuristic h c nh ngha nh sau:
h=Gtri + Gphi + Gtrn + Gdi
TM KIM LEO I
Bi ton 4 hnh lp phng ny n gin
thut gii leo i c th hot ng tt.
Nu chn trng thi tt hn lm trng
thi hin ti sao khng chn trng thi tt
nht? Leo i dc ng.
Chn trng thi tt nht c nhanh chng
dn n li gii hn khng?
LEO I DC NG
V c bn ging nh leo i n gin,
Khc nhau: leo i dc ng duyt tt c
cc hng i c th v chn i theo trng
thi tt nht trong s cc trng thi k tip
c th (trong khi leo i ch chn i theo
trng thi k tip u tin tt hn so vi
trng thi hin hnh).
LEO I DC NG
T tng:
B1: Nu trng thi khi u cng l trng thi ch th
thot v bo tm c li gii. Ngc li, t trng
thi hin hnh (Ti) l trng thi khi u (T0)
B2: Lp li cho n khi gp trng thi ch hoc khng
tn ti 1 trng thi k tip no tt hn trng thi hin
hnh:
B2.1. t S bng tp tt c cc trng thi k tip c th c ca Ti
v tt hn Ti.
B2.2. Xc nh Tmax l trng thi tt nht trong tp S, t
Ti=Tmax
LEO I DC NG
Ti=T0; Stop = False;
While (Stop == False) {
If (Ti == Tg) {<Tm c kt qu>; Stop = True;}
Else { Best = h(Ti); Tmax=Ti;
While (<tn ti trng thi k tip hp l ca Ti>{
Tk = <1 trng thi k tip hp l ca Ti>;
If <h(Tk) tt hn Best>{
Best = h(Tk);
Tmax := Tk;
}
}
If (Best>h(Ti)) Ti=Tmax;
Else {<khng tm c kt qu>;
Stop = True;
}
}
}
NH GI
So vi leo i n gin (LG), leo i dc ng
(LD) c u im l lun lun chn hng i c
trin vng nht i.
Tuy nhin, LD ch tt hn LG trong 1 s trng
hp.
chn hng i tt nht, LD phi duyt qua tt c cc
hng i c th.
LG ch chn i theo trng thi tt hn u tin m n tm
ra c.
Thi gian LD chn c 1 hng i s ln hn so vi
LG.
Do lc no cng chn hng i tt nht nn LD thng
i n li gin sau 1 s bc t hn so vi LG
LD s tn nhiu thi gian hn cho 1 bc nhng li i t
bc hn.
NH GI
C 2 phng php LG v LD u
c kh nng tht bi (mc d tn ti li
gii):
C 2 gii thut u c th kt thc khi t
c 1 trng thi m khng cn trng thi
no tt hn na c th pht sinh t n,
nhng y khng phi l trng thi ch.
iu ny xy ra nu chng trnh t n
1 im cc i a phng hoc 1 on
n iu ngang
NH GI
im cc i a phng: l 1 trng thi tt hn tt
c cc trng thi ln cn ca n, nhng khng tt
hn 1 s trng thi xa v chng c gi l nhng
ngn i thp.
on n iu ngang: l 1 vng bng phng, trong
ton b cc trng thi ln cn u c cng gi tr.






Cc im cc
i a phng
on n
iu ngang
Li gii
NH GI
i ph vi cc nhc im ny, thng
dng 1 s phng php sau:
Kt hp leo i v quay lui:
Quay lui li trng thi trc v th i theo hng
khc.
Hp l nu ti cc trng thi trc c 1 hng i tt m
ta b qua.
Do c im ca leo i l bc sau cao hn bc
trc nn phng php ny s tht bi khi xut pht t
1 im qu cao hoc xut pht t 1 nh i m i n
c li gii cn phi i qua 1 thung lng tht su.
NH GI
Mt trng hp tht bi ca leo i kt hp vi quay lui.










V tr v hng
i hin ti
V tr xut pht
Khng th quay lui
thp hn ngng ny
Li gii
NH GI
Thc hin 1 bc nhy vt theo hng no
i n 1 vng mi ca khng gian tm
kim:
Bc lin tc nhiu bc m tm thi qun i
vic kim tra bc sau cao hn bc trc. C
v hiu qu khi gp phi 1 on n iu ngang.
Tuy nhin, ta cng c th nhy vt qua li gii
thc s trong trng hp ang ng kh gn li
gii.
S bc nhy l bao nhiu v nhy theo hng
no l 1 vn ph thuc rt nhiu vo c im
khng gian tm kim ca bi ton.
NH GI
Mt trng hp kh khn cho nhy vt






Li gii
V tr sau khi nhy
V tr hin ti
on n iu ngang
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
Xt bi ton sau:
Cho 1 ct gm cc khi xp chng ln
nhau. Hy xc nh s thao tc bin i t
nht t mt khi ban u v khi ch.
Thao tc bin i:
Ly 1 khi nh 1 ct bt k v t n ln 1
ch trng to thnh 1 ct mi. Ch c th to
ra ti a 2 ct mi.
Ly 1 khi nh 1 ct v t n ln nh 1 ct
khc.
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
Khi u Kt thc
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
Cch 1:
Hm heuristic n gin nh sau: cng 1 im cho
mi khi v tr ng nh trng thi ch v tr
1 im cho mi khi v tr sai so vi trng thi
ch.
Trng thi khi u c gi tr l -8 v tt c cc
khi u sai v tr.
Trng thi kt thc s c gi tr l 8.
Bc 1: T trng thi khi u, ch c th chuyn
khi A xung to thnh 1 ct mi (trng thi T1)
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
h(T1)=-6; h(Ta)=-8; h(Tb)=-6; h(Tc)=-6.
Thut gii leo i tm dng.








T1 Ta Tb Tc
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A B
C
D
E
F
G
H A
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
Cch 2:
Hm heuristic: cng 1 im cho mi khi
ph tr ng (khi ph tr l khi nm bn
di khi hin ti), ngc li tr 1 im.
Trng thi khi u c gi tr l -28.
Trng thi kt thc s c gi tr l 28.
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
h(T1)=-21; h(Ta)=-28; h(Tb)=-16; h(Tc)=-15. Thut
gii leo i dc ng s chn bin i n trng thi Tc









T1 Ta Tb Tc
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
A B
C
D
E
F
G
H A
VAI TR CA HM HEURISTIC
Hiu qu ca leo i ph thuc vo:
Cht lng ca hm heuristic
c im ca khng gian trng thi
Trng thi khi u
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Best First Search (BFS):
Tm kim theo chiu su: khng quan tm n s
m rng ca tt c cc nhnh
Tm kim theo chiu rng: khng sa vo cc
nhnh ct
Tm kim u tin ti u: kt hp c sc mnh
ca c 2 phng php trn:
Cho php i theo 1 con ng duy nht ti 1 thi im
nhng ng thi vn quan st nhng hng i khc.
Nu con ng ang i c v khng trin vng bng
nhng con ng ang quan st, s chuyn sang i
theo 1 trong s nhng con ng ny.
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Ti mi bc, ta chn i theo trng thi c kh nng
cao nht trong s cc trng thi c xt cho n
thi im .
Khc vi LD l LD ch chn trng thi c kh
nng cao nht trong s cc trng thi k tip c th
n c t trng thi hin ti.
Nh vy, s u tin i vo nhng nhnh tm kim c
kh nng nht (ging nh LD) nhng khng b ln
qun trong cc nhnh ny v nu cng i su vo 1
hng m ta pht hin ra rng hng i ny xu hn
c nhng hng cha i th s khng tip tc i
hng ny na m chn i theo 1 hng tt nht
trong s nhng hng cha i.
TM KIM U TIN TI U





Cc con s di nt l gi tr cho bit
tt ca nt. Con s cng nh, nt
cng tt.
A
B C D
3 5 1
TM KIM U TIN TI U

A
B C D
E F
3 5
4 6
TM KIM U TIN TI U

A
B C D
E F H G
5
4 6 6 5
TM KIM U TIN TI U

A
B C D
E F H G
I J
5
6 6 5
2 1
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Tm kim ny ging vi LD, ngoi tr:
Trong leo i, khi mt trng thi c chn v tt
c cc trng thi khc b loi b, khng bao gi
c xem xt li.
Trong BFS, ti 1 bc, cng c 1 di chuyn c
chn nhng nhng ci khc vn c gi li c
th tr li sau khi trng thi hin hnh km
kh nng hn nhng trng thi c lu tr.
Ta chn trng thi tt nht m khng quan tm
n n c tt hn hay khng cc trng thi trc
, cn leo i s dng nu khng c trng thi
tip theo no tt hn trng thi hin hnh.
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Ci t:
Tp Open: cha cc trng thi c sinh ra
nhng cha c dng. Open l 1 hng i u
tin, trong phn t c u tin cao nht l
phn t tt nht. Open thng c ci t bng
cu trc d liu Heap.
Tp Close: cha cc trng thi c dng n
phng trng hp 1 trng thi mi c
to ra li trng vi 1 trng thi m ta xt n
trc .
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Thut gii BFS:
B1: t Open cha trng thi khi u
B2: Lp cho n khi n c trng thi ch hoc
khng cn nt no trong Open:
B2.1: Chn trng thi tt nht Tmax trong Open v xa
Tmax ra khi Open.
B2.2: Nu Tmax l trng thi kt thc th thot.
B2.3: Ngc li, to ra cc trng thi k tip Tk c th
c t trng thi Tmax. i vi mi Tk, thc hin tnh
tt f(Tk) v thm Tk vo Open.
TM KIM U TIN TI U
BFS kh n gin, tuy nhin ta thng khng dng BFS
mt cch trc tip.
Thng thng, ta thng dng cc phin bn ca A^T,
A^KT v A*.
Thng tin v qu kh v tng lai:
tt f ca 1 trng thi c tnh da trn 2 gi tr g v h,
trong h l 1 c lng v chi ph t trng thi hin hnh n
trng thi ch (thng tin tng lai), g l chi ph i t trng
thi khi u n trng thi hin hnh (thng tin qu kh).
f = g+h l 1 c lng v tng chi ph ca con ng t trng
thi khi u n trng thi ch dc theo con ng i qua
trng thi hin hnh
Quy c g v h u khng m v cng nh cng tt
TM KIM U TIN TI U
Khi u
ch
3
5
7
g(Ti)=3+5=8
h(Ti)=6
THUT GII A^T
tt ca nt l gi tr hm g
Thut ton:
B1: t Open cha trng thi khi u
B2: Lp cho n khi n c trng thi ch hoc
khng cn nt no trong Open:
B2.1: Chn trng thi Tmax c gi tr g(Tmax) nh nht
trong Open v xa Tmax ra khi Open.
B2.2: Nu Tmax l trng thi kt thc th thot.
B2.3: Ngc li, to ra cc trng thi k tip Tk c th
c t trng thi Tmax. i vi mi Tk, thc hin tnh
g(Tk)=g(Tmax)+ cost(Tmax,Tk), v thm Tk vo Open.
THUT GII A^KT
Algorithm for Knowledge Tree Search
tt ca nt l gi tr f=g+h
Thut ton:
B1: t Open cha trng thi khi u
B2: Lp cho n khi n c trng thi ch hoc khng cn nt
no trong Open:
B2.1: Chn trng thi Tmax c gi tr f(Tmax) nh nht trong Open v
xa Tmax ra khi Open.
B2.2: Nu Tmax l trng thi kt thc th thot.
B2.3: Ngc li, to ra cc trng thi k tip Tk c th c t trng thi
Tmax. i vi mi Tk, thc hin tnh
g(Tk)=g(Tmax)+ cost(Tmax,Tk),
Tnh h(Tk)
f(Tk)=g(Tk) + h(Tk);
v thm Tk vo Open.
THUT GII A*
L phin bn ca A^KT p dng cho trng hp th
khng ch l dng cy. C s dng thm tp Close.
A* m rng A^KT bng cch b sung cch gii quyt
trng hp khi m 1 nt m nt ny c sn trong
Open hoc Close. Khi xt 1 trng thi Ti, bn cnh g, h v
f, A* cn lu thm 2 thng s:
1. Trng thi Cha ca trng thi Ti, k hiu Cha(Ti), cho bit trng
thi dn n trng thi Ti. Trong trng hp c nhiu trng thi
dn n Ti th chn Cha(Ti) sao cho chi ph i t trng thi khi
u n Ti l thp nht, ngha l g(Ti) = g(Cha(Ti)) +
cost(Cha(Ti),Ti) l thp nht
2. Danh sch cc trng thi k tip ca Ti: lu tr cc trng thi k
tip Tk ca Ti sao cho chi ph n Tk thng qua Ti t trng thi
khi u l thp nht.
THUT GII A*
1. t Open ch cha T0, g(T0)=0; h(T0)=0,
f(T0) = 0, Close = {}.
2. Lp li cc bc sau cho n khi gp k dng:
2.1: Nu Open rng, bi ton v nghim, thot
2.2: Ngc li, chn Tmax trong Open sao cho f(Tmax)
l nh nht
2.2.1: Ly Tmax ra khi Open v a Tmax vo Close
2.2.2: Nu Tmax chnh l Tg th tm thy li gii v thot
2.2.3: Nu Tmax khng phi l Tg, to ra danh sch tt c cc
trng thi k tip ca Tmax. i vi mi trng thi Tk ny:
2.2.3.1: Tnh g(Tk)=g(Tmax)+cost(Tmax,Tk)
THUT GII A*
2.2.3.2: Nu tn ti Tk trong Open trng vi Tk,
Nu g(Tk) < g(Tk) th
t g(Tk)=g(Tk)
Tnh li f(Tk)
t Cha(Tk)=Tmax
2.2.3.3: Nu tn ti Tk trong Close trng vi Tk,
Nu g(Tk) < g(Tk) th
t g(Tk)=g(Tk)
Tnh li f(Tk)
t Cha(Tk)=Tmax
Lan truyn s thay i gi tr g, f cho tt c cc trng thi k
tip ca Tk c lu tr trong Close v Open
2.2.3.4: Nu Tk cha xut hin trong c Open v Close th:
Thm Tk vo Open
Tnh f(Tk)=g(Tk)+h(Tk)
THUT GII A*
ng i ti u t T0 n Tg: Ln ngc theo thuc tnh
Cha bt u t Tg v cc trng thi c lu tr trong
Close cho n khi n T0.
Cc thao tc cp nht l g(Tk), f(Tk) v Cha(Tk) trong
cc bc 2.2.3.2 v 2.2.3.3 th hin t tng lun chn
con ng ti u nht.
Trng hp ca 2.2.3.3, do Tk nm trong Close, nn cc
trng thi k tip xut pht t Tk c lu tr trong
Open v c th c trong Close. V vy, g(Tk) thay i dn
n gi tr hm g ca cc trng thi k tip ny cng thay
i theo v c th cho cc trng thi k tip ca cc trng
thi ny cho n khi mi nhnh kt thc vi 1 trng thi
trong Open.
THUT GII A*
Tm ng i ngn nht t Arad
n Bucharest










Ora
Zeri
Arad
Tim
Cra
Sib
R.Vi
Pite
Bucharest
Fag
151
78
75
140
99
80
97
100
118
146
260
156
205
Khong cch theo ng
chim bay n Bucharest
Arad 366
Bucharest 0
Cra 160
Fag 178
Ora 380
Pite 98
R.Vi 193
Sib 253
Tim 329
Zeri 374
THUT GII A*
Chn h l khong cch ng chim bay, hm
chi ph cost l chiu di con ng ni 2
thnh ph
Ban u:
Open = {(Arad,g=0,h=366,f=366)}
Close = {}
Ly Tmax = Arab ra khi Open v a vo
Close:
Open = {}
Close = {(Arad,g=0,h=366,f=366)}
THUT GII A*
T Arad c th i n c 3 thnh ph Sib, Tim v Zeri. C
3 nt u c cha l Arab. Tnh g, h v f ca 3 thnh ph
nh sau:
h(Sib) = 253;
g(Sib) = g(Arad) + cost(Arad,Sib) = 140
f(Sib) = g(Sib) + h(Sib) = 393
h(Tim)=329; g(Tim)=118; f(Tim)=447
h(Zeri)=374; g(Zeri)=75; f(Zeri)=449
Do c 3 khng c trong Open v Close nn c b sung
vo Open:
Open = {(Sib, g=140, h=253, f=393, Cha=Arad), (Tim, g=118,
h=329, f=447, Cha=Arad), (Zeri, g=75, h=374, f=449,
Cha=Arad)}
Close = {(Arad,g=0,h=0,f=0)}
THUT GII A*
Chn Tmax = Sib l nt c f nh nht. Ly Sib ra khi Open
v a vo Close
Open = { (Tim, g=118, h=329, f=447, Cha=Arad), (Zeri, g=75,
h=374, f=449, Cha=Arad)}
Close = {(Arad,g=0,h=0,f=0), (Sib, g=140, h=253, f=393,
Cha=Arad)}
T Sib c th i n Arad, Fag, Ora v R.vi, tnh h, g v f
cho cc nt ny. Arad c trong Close, nhng do g(Arad)
mi (=280) ln hn g(Arad) lu trong Close (=0) nn khng
phi cp nht li gi tr g v f ca Arad lu trong Close. 3
nt cn li c a vo Open
Open = { (Tim, g=118, h=329, f=447, Cha=Arad), (Zeri, g=75,
h=374, f=449, Cha=Arad), (Fag, g=239, h=178, f=417, Cha=Sib),
(Ora, g=291, h=380, f=617, Cha=Sib), (R.Vi, g=220, h=193,
f=413, Cha=Sib)}

THUT GII A*
Chn Tmax = R.Vi. a R.Vi t Open vo Close
T R.Vi c th i n Cra, Pite v Sib, tnh h, g v
f cho cc nt ny. Sib c trong Close, nhng do
g(Sib) mi ln hn g(Sib) lu trong Close nn
khng phi cp nht li cc gi tr ca Sib. Hai nt
cn li c a vo Open
Open = { (Tim, g=118, h=329, f=447, Cha=Arad),
(Zeri, g=75, h=374, f=449, Cha=Arad), (Fag, g=239,
h=178, f=417, Cha=Sib), (Ora, g=291, h=380, f=617,
Cha=Sib), (Cra, g=366, h=160, f=526, Cha=R.Vi), (Pite,
g=317, h=98, f=415, Cha=R.Vi)}
Close = {(Arad,g=0,h=0,f=0), (Sib, g=140, h=253,
f=393, Cha=Arad), (R.Vi, g=220, h=193, f=413,
Cha=Sib)}
THUT GII A*
Chn Tmax = Pite. a Pite t Open vo Close.
T Pite c th i n R.Vi, Bucharest v Cra, tnh
h, g v f cho cc nt ny. Khng cp nht cc gi
tr ca R.Vi v Cra trong Close. a Bucharest vo
Open:
Open = {(Tim, g=118, h=329, f=447, Cha=Arad), (Zeri,
g=75, h=374, f=449, Cha=Arad), (Fag, g=239, h=178,
f=417, Cha=Sib), (Ora, g=291, h=380, f=617,
Cha=Sib), (Cra, g=366, h=160, f=526, Cha=R.Vi),
(Bucharest, g=417, h=0, f=417, Cha=Pite)}
Close = {(Arad,g=0,h=0,f=0), (Sib, g=140, h=253,
f=393, Cha=Arad), (R.Vi, g=220, h=193, f=413,
Cha=Sib), (Pite, g=317, h=98, f=415, Cha=R.Vi)}
THUT GII A*
Trong Open c Fag v Bucharest c cng f=417. Chn
Tmax = Bucharest v kt thc.
ng i c ln ngc theo thuc tnh Cha:
Cha(Bucharest) = Pite
Cha(Pite) = R.Vi
Cha(R.Vi) = Sib
Cha(Sib) = Arad
ng i ngn nht l Arad Sib R.Vi Pite Bucharest
Trong v d ny hm h c cht lng kh tt v th
kh n gin nn thut gii nhanh chng tm ra kt qu.
Trng hp ny c dng v ca tm kim theo chiu su
(hnh sau)
THUT GII A*

[Arad]
[Sib]
f=393
[R.Vi]
f=413
[Pite]
f=415
Bucharest
f=417
Tim
f=447
Zeri
f=449
Arad
f=646
Fag
f=417
Ora
f=617
Sib
f=553
Cra
f=562
Cra
f=669
R.Vi
f=607
THUT GII A*
Mt trng hp phc tp hn: thm 1 thnh ph tm gi l T v ng t
Sib n T c chiu di l 100, ng gia T v Pite c chiu di l 75,
khong cch ng chim bay t T n Bucharest l 174.














Ora
Zeri
Arad
Tim
Cra
Sib
R.Vi
Pite
Bucharest
Fag
151
78
75
140
99
80
97
100
118
146
260
156
205
T
100
75
THUT GII A*





Bc 1 vn nh trng hp trc.
bc 2 ta c thm nhnh ca T.
[Arad]
[Sib]
f=393
R.Vi
f=413
Tim
f=447
Zeri
f=449
Arad
f=646
Fag
f=417
Ora
f=617
T
f=414
THUT GII A*

[Arad]
[Sib]
f=393
[R.Vi]
f=413
Pite
f=415
Tim
f=447
Zeri
f=449
Arad
f=646
Fag
f=417
Ora
f=617
Sib
f=553
Cra
f=562
T
f=414
THUT GII A*













Do Pite xut hin trong Open v g(Pite) mi (=315) c gi tr thp hn
gi tr c (=317) nn phi cp nht li cc gi tr ca g, f v Cha ca Pite
lu trong Open nh sau (Pite, g=315, h=98, f=413, Cha=T)
[Arad]
[Sib]
f=393
[R.Vi]
f=413
Pite
f=415
Tim
f=447
Zeri
f=449
Arad
f=646
Fag
f=417
Ora
f=617
Sib
f=553
Cra
f=562
[T]
f=414
Pite
f=413
Sib
f=753
THUT GII A*
















Nh vy, ban u thut gii chn ng i n Pite qua R.Vi. Sau , n
pht hin ra ng i n Pite qua T l tt hn nn s dng ng ny
[Arad]
[Sib]
f=393
[R.Vi]
f=413
Pite
f=415
Bucharest
f=415
Tim
f=447
Zeri
f=449
Arad
f=646
Fag
f=417
Ora
f=617
Sib
f=553
Cra
f=562
Cra
f=667
R.Vi
f=605
[T]
f=414
[Pite]
f=413
Sib
f=753
NHN XT V A*
Gi tr ca g cho php tm ra c li gii c hiu qu cho
bi ton (chng hn, ng i ngn nht).
Nu ch quan tm n vic tm c li gii m khng
quan tm n hiu qu ca li gii, c th t g lun
bng 0, lc ny f=h l khong cch gn nht n ch.
Thut gii c dng dp ca tm kim theo chiu su theo
nguyn l hng ch kt hp ln ngc.
Nu mun tm ra kt qu vi s bc t nht (n ch vi
t trng thi trung gian nht), c th t gi tr hm cost
gia 2 trng thi k tip lun l 1 hng s (thng l 1).
Nh vy, A* l 1 thut gii linh ng vi nhiu ty chn.
Ty theo bi ton m ta c b thng s thch hp A*
hot ng hiu qu nht.
NHN XT V A*
V gi tr h:
Nu h chnh l h (chi ph tuyt i chnh xc t trng
thi hin hnh n ch), th A* s i n ch m
khng cn phi i hng 1 ln no. iu ny trong
thc t hu nh khng c.
Nu h c c lng cng gn vi h th qu trnh tm
kim cng t b sai st, t b r vo nhnh ct hn,
ngha l cng nhanh chng tm thy li gii hn.
Nu h lun bng 0 (f=g), A* s tm ng i vi chi
ph t nht t trng thi khi u n trng thi hin
hnh bt chp ng i c kh nng dn n li
gii hay khng. y l hnh nh ca nguyn l tham
lam (greedy).
NHN XT V A*
Nu chi ph t 1 trng thi sang trng thi k tip
ca n lun l hng s v h lun bng 0, A* tr
thnh thut gii tm kim theo chiu rng v: tt
c cc trng thi cch trng thi khi u n bc
u c cng gi tr g=f. Gi tr ny s nh hn
ca tt c cc trng thi cch trng thi khi u
n+1 bc.
Nu g v h lun bng 0, ngha l mi trng thi
u tng ng nhau, ch c th chn trng
thi k tip bng ngu nhin.
NHN XT V A*
Nu h lun lun nh hn h i vi mi
trng thi, th A* s tm ra con ng ti
u (xc nh bi g) n ch nu n tn
ti v qu trnh tm kim s t b sa ly vo
nhng con ng qu d.
Nu c lng h ln hn h, th A* s d
dng b vng vo nhng hng tm kim
v ch.
NHN XT V A*
V d v nh gi h khng tt:

Do h(B) l nh gi thp
ca h(B) nn lng ph cc
bc i t B xung E, ri F.
Do h(D) l nh gi qu
cao ca h(D) nn D khng
bao gi c chn i.
V vy, khng tm c
ng i ti u ca bi ton.
Kh c cch nh gi h
khng bao gi vt qu h.
Cch duy nht l t h=0.

A
B C D
E
F
I
G
g=1
h=3
f=4
g=2
h=3
f=5
g=3
h=3
f=6
g=1
h=4
f=5
g=1
h=5
f=6
J
g=2
h=2
f=4
g=3
h=0
f=3
NHN XT V A*
A* rt linh ng, nhng vn c nhc im
c bn l tn kh nhiu b nh lu li
nhng trng thi i qua (ging nh tm
kim theo chiu rng), nu mun chc chn
tm ra li gii ti u.
i vi nhng bi ton c khng gian tm
kim ln, th vic lu tr ny l 1 vn hc
ba. C nhiu hng tip cn lai (kt hp
nhiu phng php) gii quyt vn
ny.
A* V BI TON TA-CANH
Bi ton A* cn c gi l bi ton 9-puzzle:
Di chuyn: chuyn 1 nm cnh trng v pha trng.
T trng thi ban u bt k, tm cch di chuyn a
v trng thi cui.





Khi u ch
Cho n nay, ngoi 2 phng php l vt cn v tm
kim heuristic vn cha tm c 1 thut ton chnh xc,
ti u gii bi ton ny.
3 1 4
6
5 2
7
8
1 2 3
4
5 6
8
7
A* V BI TON TA-CANH
Ti 1 thi im c ti a 4 c th di chuyn.
Bi ton c cu trc thch hp gii bng A*. Tng s
trng thi c th c ca bn c l n
2
! (mi trng thi l
1 hon v ca tp n
2
con s)
Trong A*, hm c lng h ti trng thi Tk bt k
bng tng ca cc d(i,j), l s cn di chuyn a
con s (i,j) v ng v tr ca n trng thi ch vi
v tr (i,j) khng phi l trng. V d: i vi trng thi
ban u T0, f(T0)=h(T0)=2+1+3+1+0+2+1+1=11
A* gii bi ton ny kh tt v thng tm c li gii
(nhng khng phi lc no cng tm c li gii).
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Ta bit bn kiu tm kim l theo chiu su (CS),
theo chiu rng (CR), leo i (L) v u tin ti u
(BFS).
Bn kiu tm kim ny c th c xem l 4 thi cc
ca khng gian lin tc bao gm cc chin lc tm
kim khc nhau.
Khng gian ny c xy dng da trn 2 chiu:
Kh nng quay lui (R): kh nng cho php quay li xem
xt cc trng thi trc nu gp 1 trng thi khng th
i tip.
Phm vi nh gi: s cc trng thi c xt n trong mi
quyt nh.
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI

R
S
CR
CS
L
BFS
Ch xt ng
hin ti
Xt tt c cc
ng i qua
Khng th quay lui C th quay lui li tt c
cc trng thi cha xt n
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Theo hng R, L nm 1 thi cc (khng cho php
quay lui), cn CS v BFS nm thi cc khc (cho
php quay li tt c cc hng i cha xt n)
Theo hng S, L v CS nm 1 thi cc (ch xt
cc trng thi mi c to ra t trng thi hin ti),
cn CR v BFS nm thi cc khc (xem xt ton b
cc ng i c, bao gm c nhng ng mi
to ra cng nh tt c nhng con ng cha c
xt n trc y).
Vng mu xanh biu din 1 vng lin tc cc chin
lc tm kim kt hp 1 s c im ca 3 chin lc
L, CS v BFS.
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Do BFS ti 1 thi im phi lu nhiu
ng i nn rt tn b nh.
Nu khng b nh dng 1 mnh
BFS, ta c th kt hp BFS vi CS
gim bt yu cu b nh. Vic ny s
lm gim s lng cc trng thi c th
xt n ti mi bc.
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 1: BFS c dng ti nh ca th tm kim
(biu din bng vng t m) v CS c dng ti y
(vng t nht):
u tin p dng BFS vo trng thi khi u T0 nh bnh
thng.
Tip tc dng BFS cho n khi s lng trng thi c lu
tr vt qu 1 ngng cho php no .
p dng CS xut pht t trng thi tt nht Tmax trong tp
Open cho n khi ton b khng gian con pha di Tmax
(xut pht t Tmax) c duyt ht.
Nu khng tm thy kt qu, Tmax c ghi nhn l khng
dn n kt qu v ta li chn ra trng thi tt th 2 trong
Open p dng CS cho phn khng gian pha di trng
thi ny
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 1:










Tmax trong tp
Open ca BFS
Khng gian tm
kim ca BFS
Hnh tam gic tng
trng cho cy tm kim
Khng gian tm kim ca CS
(mi tn t tri sang phi
c ngha l duyt
ln lt)
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 2: Dng CS ti nh ca khng gian tm kim v
BFS c dng ti y:
p dng CS cho ti khi gp 1 trng thi Tk su (s trng
thi trung gian) vt qu 1 ngng d0 no .
Ti im ny p dng BFS cho phn khng gian pha di
bt u t Tk cho n khi n tm c li gii hoc khng tm
thy.
Nu khng tm c li gii th quay lui v li dng BFS cho
ti su d0.
Tham s d0 s c chn sao cho b nh dng cho BFS s
khng vt qu 1 ngng cho trc. Tuy nhin, kh xc nh
c d0 do kh nh gi c rng ca khng gian bi
ton.
Kiu kt hp ny c thun li: cng tin v pha y ca
khng gian tm kim, c lng h cng tr nn chnh xc hn
v do BFS cng hot ng hiu qu hn.
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 2:
d0
Khng gian tm
kim ca BFS
Khng gian tm
kim ca CS
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 3: BFS c thc hin cc b v CS c thc
hin ton cc:
Bt u bng BFS cho trng thi khi u n khi 1 s lng
b nh M0 c dng ht.
Xem tt c nhng trng thi trong Open nh nhng trng thi
con trc tip ca trng thi khi u v chuyn giao chng
cho CS.
CS s chn trng thi tt nht trong nhng trng thi con ny
chuyn cho BFS cc b m rng.
n khi 1 lng b nh M0 li c dng ht, cc trng thi
mi trong Open li c tip tc xem nh cc nt con ca nt
c chn trn.
Nu vic m rng bng BFS tht bi, ta quay lui li v chn
nt con tt th 2 ca tp Open trc , ri li tip tc
chuyn cho BFS m rng.
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 3:
CC CHIN LC TM KIM LAI
Cch 4: c gi l tm kim theo giai on:
Thay v lu trong b nh ton b cy tm kim c sinh ra bi
BFS, ta ch gi li cy con c trin vng nht.
Khi lng b nh M0 c dng ht, ta nh du 1 tp con cc
trng thi tt nht trong Open (c gi tr hm f thp nht) gi
li; nhng ng i tt nht qua nhng trng thi ny cng c
ghi nh; phn cn li ca cy b loi b.
Sau BFS li tip tc c dng cho ti khi 1 lng b nh M0
li c dng ht v c th.
Chin lc ny c th c xem l s lai ghp gia BFS vo L,
trong L loi b tt c ch gi li trng thi tt nht cn tm
kim theo giai on gi li 1 tp cc phng n tt nht.
TRI THC
L thnh phn thit yu ca 1 h thng
TTNT.
xy dng cc h thng TTNT, cn
tm cc phng php:
Biu din tri thc
Vn dng tri thc gii quyt vn
B sung tri thc: pht hin tri thc t cc
thng tin sn c.
TRI THC
D liu:
Cc con s, ch ci, hnh nh, m thanh m my tnh c th
tip nhn v x l.
Thng khng c ngha i vi con ngi.
Thng tin:
L nhng g con ngi c th cm nhn c 1 cch trc tip
thng qua cc gic quan, hoc gin tip thng qua cc phng
tin k thut nh tivi, radio,
L quan h gia cc d liu. Cc d liu c sp xp theo 1
th t hoc c tp hp li theo 1 quan h no s cha
ng thng tin.
Lun c 1 ngha nht nh i vi con ngi
V lng d liu thng nhiu hn thng tin
Tri thc: l quan h gia cc d liu c ch ra 1 cch
r rng.

TRI THC
Trong ton hc:
Cc con s 1, 1, 3, 5, 2, 8, 13 l d liu.
t theo trt t 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 cho ta
1 mi lin h.
Mi lin h c biu din bng cng thc Un
= Un-1 + Un-2, v y l tri thc.
TRI THC
Trong vt l:
Bng v s o in tr R, hiu in th U v cng dng
in I:






Nu tch ri cc con s trn ra th chng ch l nhng d
liu khng c ngha.
t chng vo 1 bng nh trn cho ta 1 s lin h.
Mi lin h ny c ch ra bng cng thc I = U/R. Cng
thc ny l tri thc.
I U R
5 10 2
2.5 20 8
4 12 3
7.3 14.6 2
TRI THC
Trong cuc sng:
T nhng quan st v cc hin tng
nng, ma, rm v chun chun bay, con
ngi rt ra 1 nhn xt:
Chun chun bay thp th ma
Bay cao th nng, bay va th rm
Li nhn xt trn l tri thc.
Nh vy Tri thc l s kt tinh hoc s
c ng ca D liu.
TRI THC

Mc
tru tng
Tri thc
Thng tin
D liu
S lng
TRI THC
Tri thc s kin: l cc khng nh v 1 s kin hay
khi nim no . Cc nh lut vt l, ton hc,
thng c xp vo loi ny.
Tri thc th tc: din t phng php, cc bc cn
tin hnh, trnh t gii quyt 1 vn . Thut
ton, thut gii thuc dng ny.
Tri thc m t: cho bit 1 i tng, s kin, vn ,
khi nim, c thy, cm nhn, cu to nh th
no (v d: con ngi c 2 chn, 2 mt, )
Tri thc heuristic: l dng tri thc cm tnh. Thng
c dng c lng, phng on v thng c hnh
thnh thng qua kinh nghim.
TRI THC
Tr tu cn phi c tri thc.
Tri thc khng quyt nh s thng
minh nhng l yu t c bn cu thnh
tr thng minh.
Biu din tri thc: cc phng php
a tri thc vo my tnh.
BIU DIN TRI THC
Thut ton mt phng php biu din tri
thc:
Tt c cc chng trnh my tnh u c tri thc:
tri thc ca lp trnh vin c chuyn thnh cc
cu lnh.
cc chng trnh truyn thng:
Tri thc cng, ngha l khng th thm hay sa i
mt khi chng trnh c bin dch.
iu chnh: sa li m ngun ri bin dch li.
Lm gim kh nng ng dng chng trnh.
Cn c cch no ngi dng t a tri thc
vo cho chng trnh 1 cch d dng v thut li.
BIU DIN TRI THC
Lm mm ha cc tri thc c biu
din trong my tnh:
Chng trnh my tnh = m lnh + d
liu.
M lnh = phn cng ca chng trnh.
D liu = phn mm: c th c thay
i bi ngi dng.
Mm ha = biu din cc loi tri thc
bng cc cu trc d liu m my tnh c
th x l c.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Bi ton 1: Cho 2 bnh rng X, Y c th tch
ln lt l Vx v Vy. Hy dng 2 bnh ny
ong ra z lt nc, vi z min(Vx,Vy).
Nu s dng thut ton thng thng cho
bi ton trn, thng ch gii c 1 s
trng hp c th.
Nu dng phng php gii quyt vn
bng cch chuyn giao tri thc cho my tnh,
bi ton c th c gii 1 cch tng qut.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Vi Vx=5, Vy=7 v z=4, c th lm nh sau:
Mc y bnh 7
Trt ht qua bnh 5 cho n khi bnh 5 y
ht nc trong bnh 5
ht nc cn li t bnh 7 sang bnh 5
Mc y bnh 7
Trt ht qua bnh 5 cho n khi bnh 5 y
Phn cn li trong bnh 7 l s nc cn
Tuy nhin, vi nhng s liu khc ta li phi
my m li t u tm ra quy trnh
nc.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Trng hp tng qut:
Gi s Vx < Vy
Gi lng nc cha trong bnh X l x
(0x Vx), lng nc cha trong bnh Y
l y (0 y Vy)
iu kin kt thc ca bi ton l x=z hoc
y=z
iu kin u ca bi ton x=0 v y=0
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Khi my m tm li gii cho 1 trng hp c
th, ta c th rt ra 1 s kinh nghim nh: khi
bnh ln y m bnh nh cha y th nc
t bnh ln sang bnh nh cho n khi n y,

Nhng kinh nghim trn c th c biu din
bng cc lut (tri thc m ta chuyn giao cho
my tnh) sau:
(L1) Nu bnh X y th ht nc trong bnh X i
(L2) Nu bnh Y rng th y nc vo bnh Y
(L3) Nu bnh X khng y v bnh Y khng rng th
trt nc t bnh Y sang bnh X cho n khi bnh X
y hoc bnh Y ht nc.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Cch gii tng qut:
Xt ln lt cc lut trn, lut no tha
mn s c p dng.
Sau khi p dng 1 lut, tip tc xt cc
lut k tip, nu ht lut th quay tr li
lut u tin.
Qu trnh tip din cho n khi t c
iu kin kt thc ca bi ton.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Chng trnh:
x=0; y=0;
While ((x!=z) && (y!=z)) {
If (x==Vx) x=0;
If (y==0) y=Vy;
If (y>0) {
k = (Vx x<y) ? Vx x : y; //k=min(Vx x,y)
x=x+k;
y=y-k;
}
}
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Vi Vx=3, Vy=4 v z=2, cc bc thc hin
nh sau:
Ban u: x=0, y=0
L2: x=0, y=4
L3: x=3, y=1
L1: x=0, y=1
L3: x=1, y=0
L2: x=1, y=4
L3: x=3, y=2
Bi ton ong nc ch c li gii khi s nc
cn ong l bi s ca c s chung ln nht
ca th tch 2 bnh: z = n x USCLN(Vx,Vy).
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Ba lut c ci t trong chng trnh c
gi l c s tri thc.
Cch thc tm kim li gii bng cch duyt
tun t v p dng tng lut c gi l
ng c suy din.
Nh vy: ta khng a ra 1 trnh t gii
quyt vn c th, m ch a ra cc quy
tc chung chung (di dng cc lut), my
tnh s da vo (p dng cc lut) t
xy dng 1 quy trnh gii quyt bi ton.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH
Chng trnh truyn thng c cu
thnh t d liu v thut ton.
Chng trnh tr tu nhn to c cu
thnh t c s tri thc (knowledge base)
v ng c suy din (inference engine):
C s tri thc: l tp hp cc tri thc lin
quan n vn m chng trnh gii quyt
ng c suy din: l phng php vn dng
tri thc trong c s tri thc gii quyt vn
.
CHUYN GIAO TRI THC CHO
MY TNH






C s tri thc l 1 dng d liu c bit
ng c suy din l 1 dng thut ton c bit
D LIU D LIU C S TRI THC
THUT
TON
NG C
SUY DIN
CU TRC CA CHNG
TRNH TTNT












C s tri thc cng gp phi nhng vn tng t nh CSDL khc
nh trng lp, tha, mu thun. Do , bn cnh biu din tri thc,
ta cn c cc phng php loi b nhng tri thc trng lp, tha
hoc mu thun. Vic ny c thc hin trong qu trnh ghi nhn tri
thc vo h thng.
NGI DNG
H THNG GIAO TIP NGI DNG
H THNG THU NHN
& TI U TRI THC
NG C
SUY DIN
C S TRI THC
CC PHNG PHP BIU
DIN TRI THC
Logic mnh
L kiu biu din tri thc n gin nht.
Mnh : l 1 khng nh, 1 pht biu m
gi tr ch c th l ng hoc sai, v d:
Mi loi c c th sng trn b l sai
1+1=2 l ng
C nhng mnh lun ng, nhng cng c
nhng mnh m gi tr ca chng ph
thuc vo thi gian, khng gian v nhiu yu
t khc.
LOGIC MNH
Mnh c k hiu bng cc ch ci latinh
nh a, b, c,
C 3 php tnh ni c bn to ra nhng
mnh mi t nhng mnh c s l
php hi (), giao () v ph nh ().
C ch suy din: a b = a b
Modus Ponens: Nu a v a b ng th b ng.
Modus Tollens: Nu a b ng v b sai th a sai.
LOGIC V T
Xem xt 2 cu sau y:
Socrates l 1 nh trit hc
Plato l 1 nh trit hc
Trong logic mnh 2 cu trn c xem nh
2 mnh khng lin quan g n nhau, k
hiu l p v q.
Trong logic v t, 2 cu trn c th c biu
din chung bng v t Phil(a), khng nh rng
i tng c i din bng a l 1 nh trit
hc. Nh vy, nu a l Socrates, Phil(a) l
mnh p; nu a l Plato, Phil(a) l mnh
q.
LOGIC V T
Cho php suy lun da trn cc thuc tnh
chung ca nhiu i tng bng vic dng cc
bin v lng t:
Cu iu kin nu x l 1 nh trit hc th x cng l
1 hc gi c biu din bng:
Phil(x) Schol(x)
Khng nh Vi mi x, nu x l 1 nh trit hc th x
cng l 1 hc gi c biu din bng:
x(Phil(x) Schol(x))
Khng nh Tn ti ngi lc no cng kh di
c biu din bng:
-x(Person(x) y(Time(y) Fool(y)))
LOGIC V T
Tri thc: x l b ca y nu y l anh hoc em ca 1
ngi con ca x c th c biu din bng:
B(x,y) = -z(B(x,z) (Anh(y,z) Anh(z,y))
T cc mnh c s a = B(An,Bnh);
b=Anh(T,Bnh) ta c c=B(An,T) c gi tr ng,
ngha l An l b ca T.
Nu ch s dng logic mnh ta s khng tm c
mi lin h no gia a, b v c bng cc php ni
mnh , v , do khng tnh c gi tr ca
mnh c.
Ngn ng lp trnh logic PROLOG s dng cu trc
ca logic v t.
THUT GII CHO LOGIC
MNH
Trong ton hc ni chung v logic mnh
ni ring, mt vn kh quan trng l
chng minh tnh ng n ca php suy din
a b.
Vi 2 php suy lun c bn l modus ponens
v modus tollens cng vi cc php bin i
hnh thc, ta c th chng minh c php
suy din a b.
Tuy nhin, thao tc bin i hnh thc rt kh
ci t trn my tnh.
THUT GII 1
B1: Pht biu li gi thit v kt lun ca vn
theo dng chun sau:
GT1, GT2, , GTn KL1, KL2, , KLm
trong cc mnh GTi v KLi l cc mnh
c xy dng t cc bin mnh c s
v cc php ni: , v .
B2: Chuyn v v chuyn du cc GTi v
KLi c dng ph nh. V d:


, ( ), , ,
, , , ,
p q r s g p r s p
p q p r p s r s g
v . v
v v .
THUT GII 1
B3: Nu GTi c php th thay th n
bng du ,. Nu KLi c php th
thay th n bng du ,. V d:


, ( )
, , , ,
p q r p s q s
p q r p s q s
. . v v
v
THUT GII 1
B4: Nu GTi c php th tch lm 2
dng con. Nu KLi c php th tch
thnh hai dng con. V d:

,
,
,
p p q q
p p q
p q q
v

THUT GII 1
B5: Mt dng c chng minh nu tn
ti chung 1 mnh c 2 pha. V d:
c c/m do c cng q



c c/m do c cng p

, p q q
,
,
p p q
p p q


THUT GII 1
B6: Xc nh vn c c chng
minh hay khng nh sau:
Nu 1 dng khng cn php ni c 2 v
v c 2 v khng c chung 1 bin mnh
, th dng khng c c/m.
Mt vn c c/m nu tt c cc dng
dn xut t dng chun ban u u c
c/m.
CHNG MINH PHN CHNG
Cn chng minh php suy lun a b l
ng.
Gi s b sai, ngha l b ng.
Chng minh a ng v b ng s dn
n mu thun.

CHNG MINH PHN CHNG
Gi s cn chng minh
GT1, , GTn KL1, , KLm
l ng, trong GTi v KLj c xy dng
t cc mnh c s s dng cc php ton
, v .
B1: Nu GTi c php th thay bng du ,;
Nu KLj c php th thay bng du ,
B2: Chuyn i pht biu chun ban u
thnh danh sch cc mnh :
{GT1, , GTn, KL1, , KLm}

CHNG MINH PHN CHNG
B3: Nu trong danh sch mnh B2 c 2 mnh
i ngu (a v a) th bi ton c chng minh.
Ngc li, chuyn sang bc B4.
B4: Xy dng 1 mnh mi bng cch chn mt cp
mnh trong d/s mnh bc B3. Nu 2 mnh
ny c cc mnh i ngu th cc mnh i ngu
c loi b.
V d: 2 mnh p q, r s q c nhp thnh p q
r s q = p r s.
B5: Thay 2 mnh va chn trong d/s bng mnh
mi.
V d: {p q, r s q, w r, s q} {p r s, w r, s
q}
CHNG MINH PHN CHNG
B6: Nu khng xy dng c thm
mnh mi v trong d/s mnh khng
c 2 mnh no i ngu th vn
khng c chng minh.
V d: Cn chng minh:
p q, q r, r s, u s p, u
B2: {p q, q r, r s, u s, p,
u}, cha c mnh i ngu.

CHNG MINH PHN CHNG
B4:
Chn 2 mnh u tin (c 2 mnh i ngu), ta
c (p q) (q r) = p r. D/s mnh thnh
{p r, r s, u s, p, u}. Vn cha c mnh
i ngu.
Chn p r v r s ta c p r r s = p s.
D/s thnh {p s, u s, p, u}, vn cha c i
ngu.
Chn p s v u s ta c p s u s = p
u. D/s thnh {p u, p, u}, vn cha c i ngu.
Chn p u v p, ta c p u p = u. D/s thnh
{u, u}, c 2 mnh i ngu nn biu thc c
c/m.
LUT DN XUT (LUT SINH)
Phng php biu din tri thc bng lut
sinh c pht minh bi Newell v Simon.
y l kiu biu din tri thc c cu trc.
Tri thc c th biu din bng 1 cp iu
kin hnh ng: NU iu kin xy ra
TH hnh ng s c thi hnh.
Lut sinh c p dng rng ri trong
nhiu h thng tr tu nhn to.
LUT SINH
Mt cch tng qut, lut sinh c dng:
P1 P2 Pn Q
Trong logic v t: Pi, Q l nhng biu thc
logic
Trong ngn ng lp trnh: mi lut sinh l
1 cu lnh:
IF (P1 AND P2 AND AND Pn) THEN Q
LUT SINH
Biu din lut sinh: c 2 thnh phn
chnh:
Tp cc s kin F (Facts)
F = {f1, f2, , fn}
Tp cc lut sinh R (Rules) p dng trn cc
s kin
f1 f2 fi q
Trong , cc fi v q u thuc F
LUT SINH
V d: cho 1 c s tri thc c xc nh nh
sau:
Cc s kin: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K
Cc lut sinh:
R1: A E
R2: B D
R3: H A
R4: E G C
R5: E K B
R6: D E K C
R7: G K F A
LUT SINH
C ch suy lun:
Suy din tin: xut pht t 1 s s kin ban u, xc
nh cc s kin c th c sinh ra t chng.
V d: S kin ban u H, K
R3: H A {A, H, K}
R1: A E {A, E, H, K}
R5: E K B {A, B, E, H, K}
R2: B D {A, B, D, E, H, K}
R6: D E K C {A, B, C, D, E, H, K}
LUT SINH
Suy din li: xut pht t 1 s s kin ban u,
xc nh cc s kin sinh ra nhng s kin
ny.
V d: Tp s kin
cng l hng hoc hot ng bnh thng
Cp mn hnh l lng hoc khng
n cng l tt hoc sng
m thanh c cng l c hoc khng
n mn hnh xanh hoc chp
Khng s dng c my tnh.
in vo my tnh c hoc khng
LUT SINH
Tp cc lut:
R1: NU ( cng l hng) hoc (cp mn hnh
lng) TH (khng s dng c my tnh)
R2: NU (in vo my l c) v ((m thanh c
cng l khng) hoc (n cng l tt)) TH
( cng l hng)
R3: NU (in vo my l c) v (n mn hnh
l chp ) TH (cp mn hnh l lng)
Xc nh nguyn nhn gy ra s kin
khng s dng c my tnh?
LUT SINH
Cu trc th AND/OR:











Khng s dng
c my tnh
cng hng Cp mn hnh lng
m thanh c
cng l khng
in vo
my l c
n cng
l tt
n mn hnh
chp
OR
AND AND
OR
LUT SINH
xc nh nguyn nhn my tnh khng
s dng c:
H thng ln lt i vo cc nhnh kim
tra cc iu kin.
Nu 1 gi tr cn xc nh khng th suy ra t
bt c lut no, h thng s yu cu ngi
dng nhp vo. V d bit my tnh c vo
in hay khng, h thng s hi Bn thy
my tnh c in hay khng (kim tra n
ngun?(C/K).
TI U LUT
Tp cc lut trong 1 c s tri thc c th trng
lp hoc mu thun cn phi ti u.
Rt gn bn phi:
Do A . B A hin nhin ng, nn
A . B A . C tng ng vi A . B C.
Quy tc:
Loi b cc s kin v bn phi nu chng xut hin
bn v tri.
Nu sau khi rt gn v phi tr nn rng th lut tr thnh
hin nhin.
Loi b nhng lut hin nhin ra khi c s tri thc.
TI U LUT
Rt gn bn tri:
Xt cc lut:
(1): A . B C
(2): A X
(3): X C
Do (1) c th c thay th bi lut A C
m khng lm nh hng n tt c cc kt
lun, nn B l d tha v c th c loi b.
TI U LUT
Phn r v kt hp lut:
Lut A v B C tng ng vi: A C v B
C.
C th loi b hon ton cc lut c php v.
Lut tha:
Trong tp lut {AB, BC, AC} th AC l
tha v c th suy t 2 lut u.

TI U LUT
Thut ton ti u lut:
B1: Rt gn v phi:
Vi mi lut r trong tp lut R
Vi mi s kin A e V phi(r)
Nu A e V tri(r) th loi A ra khi V phi(r).
Nu V phi(r) l rng th R = R \{r}.
B2: Phn r lut
Vi mi lut r: X1 v X2 v v Xn Y:
Vi mi i t 1 n n: R = R {XiY}
R = R \ {r}.
TI U LUT
B3: Loi b lut tha
Vi mi lut r:
Nu V phi(r) e Bao ng(V tri(r), R\{r})
th R = R \ {r}.
B4: Rt gn v tri:
Vi mi lut dn r: A1 . A2 . . An Y
Vi mi Ai, i=1n:
t ri: Xi Y, vi Xi thu c bng cch loi Ai trong V tri(r).
S = (R - {r}) {ri}
Nu Bao ng(Xi,S) = Bao ng(X,R) th loi A khi X.
Bao ng(X,R) l tp tt c cc s kin c th sinh ra t
X bng cch dng cc lut trong R.
BIU DIN BNG LUT
u im:
Lut dng NU TH rt d hiu nn c
th d dng trao i vi ngi dng.
C th d dng xy dng c ch suy lun v
gii thch t cc lut.
Hiu chnh v bo tr h thng d dng.
C th ci tin tch hp cc lut m d
dng.
Cc lut thng t ph thuc vo nhau.
BIU DIN BNG LUT
Nhc im:
Cc tri thc phc tp i lc cn rt nhiu lut sinh
(hng nghn) lm phc tp vic qun tr v nh
hng n tc ca h thng.
Do dng lut sinh thun li hn nn ngi xy dng
h thng thng c biu din tri thc bng lut sinh
d c nhng phng php khc thch hp hn.
C s tri thc ln lm gii hn kh nng tm kim ca
chng trnh iu kin gp kh khn khi suy lun
v nh gi h thng da trn lut sinh.
MNG NG NGHA
L phng php biu din tri thc u tin v
d hiu nht.
Biu din tri thc di dng th, trong
nh l cc i tng (khi nim) cn cc cung
cho bit mi quan h gia cc i tng (khi
nim).
V du:
Gia cc i tng (khi nim) chch che, chim, ht,
cnh v t c 1 s mi quan h sau:
Chch che l 1 loi chim
Chim bit ht
Chim c cnh
Chim lm t
MNG NG NGHA
Cc mi quan h trn c biu din
bng th sau:

Chim
Chch che
T
Ht
Cnh
l
bit
c
lm
MNG NG NGHA
Do mng ng ngha l 1 loi th nn c th
dng nhng thut ton ca th nh tm
ng i ngn nht thc hin c ch suy
lun.
Mng ng ngha khc vi th thng thng:
Trong th thng thng, tt c cc cung ni gia
cc nh u biu din cho cng 1 loi quan h.
Trong v d trn, nu s dng th thng thng,
ta phi dng n 4 loi th cho 4 mi quan h l,
lm, bit v c.
Vic gn ng ngha vo cc cung gip lm gim s
lng th.
MNG NG NGHA
Mng ng ngha c tnh k tha:
Mng ng ngha c s phn cp (lin kt l) nn c
nhiu nh mc nhin c nhng thuc tnh ca nh
khc.
V d: ta c th khng nh cu hi Chch che c
lm t khng? l ng v chch che c lin kt l
vi chim v chim c lin kt lm vi t, suy ra
chch che c lin kt lm vi t.
Tnh k tha cho php thc hin nhiu php suy din
t nhng thng tin c sn trn mng.
MNG NG NGHA
u im:
Linh ng: d dng thm vo mng cc nh
hoc cung mi b sung tri thc.
C tnh trc quan cao nn d hiu.
Cc nh c th k tha cc thuc tnh t cc
nh khc thng qua cc cung loi l c
th to ra cc lin kt ngm gia nhng nh
khng c lin kt trc tip vi nhau.
Hot ng kh t nhin theo cch thc con
ngi ghi nhn thng tin.
MNG NG NGHA
Nhc im:
Vn cha c chun no quy nh gii hn cho cc nh v cung
ca mng c th gn ghp bt k khi nim no cho nh
hoc cung.
Tnh k tha (vn l 1 u im) trn mng s c th dn n
nguy c mu thun trong tri thc do c s khng r rng trong
ng ngha gn cho 1 nt ca mng. V d:






Ta c th kt lun Chim cnh ct bit bay!
Hu nh khng th biu din cc tri thc dng th tc bng
mng ng ngha v cc khi nim v thi gian v trnh t khng
c th hin tng minh trn mng ng ngha.
Chim
Chch che
T
Bay
Cnh
l
bit
c
lm
Chim cnh ct
l
NG DNG CA MNN
VD 1: x l ngn ng t nhin:
Mng ng ngha gip my tnh phn tch c cu trc ca
cu t c th phn no hiu ngha ca cu.
Cu Chu ang c 1 cun sch dy v ci khoi tr c
th c biu din nh sau:







Chu
c Ci
Sch
Dy Khoi tr
ai
ai
nh th no
ci g
nh th no
NG DNG CA MNN
VD 2: gii bi ton tam gic tng qut:
xc nh (xy dng) 1 tam gic cn c 3 yu
t trong phi c yu t cnh.
Vi mi bi ton c th nh Cho 3 cnh ca tam
gic, tnh chiu di cc ng cao ta phi gii 1
ln.
S lng bi ton nh trn l rt nhiu v 1 tam
gic c ti 22 yu t khc nhau.
C 1 chng trnh tng qut c th t ng gii
c tt c (vi ngn!) bi ton kiu nh trn?
NG DNG CA MNN
Theo thng k c khong 200 cng thc lin quan
n cnh v gc ca 1 tam gic.
Trong 1 cng thc lin h gia n yu t ca 1 tam
gic, ta gi nh rng nu bit gi tr ca n-1 yu
t th s tnh c gi tr ca yu t cn li.
gii bi ton tng qut bng MNN, ta phi s
dng khong 200 nh cha cng thc v 22 nh
cha cc yu t ca tam gic.
th cha:
nh cha cng thc (k hiu bng hnh ch nht).
nh cha yu t ca tam gic (k hiu bng hnh trn).
Cung: ch ni t nh hnh trn n nh hnh ch nht cho
bit yu t tam gic xut hin cng thc no.
NG DNG CA MNN
C ch suy din theo thut ton loang nh
sau:
B1: Kch hot nhng nh hnh trn cho ban
u (nhng yu t c gi tr).
B2: Lp li bc sau cho n khi kch hot c
tt c nhng nh ng vi cc yu t cn tnh
hoc khng kch hot c thm bt c nh no
na:
Nu 1 nh hnh ch nht c cung ni vi n nh hnh trn
m trong c n-1 nh c kch hot th kch hot
nh hnh trn cn li (gi tr ca nh hnh trn ny
c tnh thng qua cng thc nh hnh ch nht).
NG DNG CA MNN
VD: cho mng ng ngha sau:











Cho 2 gc o, | v chiu di cnh a ca tam gic.
Tnh chiu di ng cao h
c
?
(4): o + | + - t = 0
o |
(1): a/sino = b/sin| (2): b/sin|=c/sin
a b c
h
c
0 . . 2 / 1 : ) 5 ( = c h S
c
) )( )( ( : ) 3 ( c p b p a p p S =
S
NG DNG CA MNN
B1: cc nh o, | v a ca th c kch hot.
B2: Cng thc (1) c kch hot (v o, | v a c
kch hot), cnh b c tnh v nh b c kch
hot.
B3: CT (4) c kch hot (v o, | c kch
hot), gc c tnh v nh c kch hot.
B4: CT (2) c kch hot, cnh c c tnh v nh
c c kch hot.
B5: CT (3) c kch hot, din tch S c tnh v
nh S c kch hot.
B6: CT (5) c kch hot. T CT (5) tnh c h
c
v
nh h
c
c kch hot.
NG DNG CA MNN
Ci t mng ng ngha dng mng hai chiu A:
Ct: ng vi cng thc (nh hnh ch nht).
Dng: ng vi mi yu t ca tam gic (nh hnh trn).
Phn t A[i,j] = -1 nu trong cng thc ng vi ct j c yu
t ng vi dng i. Ngc li A[i,j] = 0.
Vic kch hot 1 nh hnh trn c thc hin bng
cch t gi tr ca ton dng ng vi yu t thuc
nh bng 1.
kim tra 1 cng thc c n-1 yu t hay
cha, ta ly hiu gia tng s c gi tr bng 1 v
tng s c gi tr -1 trn ct ng vi cng thc .
Nu kt qu l n th cng thc c n yu t.
NG DNG CA MNN
Ban u:











(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o -1 0 0 -1 0
| -1 -1 0 -1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a -1 0 -1 0 0
b -1 -1 -1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Khi u: cc nh o, | v a c kch hot








(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b -1 -1 -1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Trn ct (1), hiu (1+1+1 (-1))=4 nn dng b
c kch hot.







(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 -1 0 -1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Trn ct (4), hiu (1+1 (-1))=3 nn dng
c kch hot.







(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 -1 -1 0 -1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Trn ct (2), hiu (1+1+1 (-1))=4 nn dng c
c kch hot.







(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 1 1 0 1
S 0 0 -1 0 -1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Trn ct (3), hiu (1+1+1 (-1))=4 nn dng S
c kch hot.







(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 1 1 0 1
S 0 0 1 0 1
h
c
0 0 0 0 -1
NG DNG CA MNN
Trn ct (5), hiu (1+1 (-1))=3 nn dng h
c

c kch hot.







(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
o 1 0 0 1 0
| 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
a 1 0 1 0 0
b 1 1 1 0 0
c 0 1 1 0 1
S 0 0 1 0 1
h
c
0 0 0 0 1
NG DNG CA MNN
Vi 1 cht sa i, chng trnh c th a ra cch
gii ti u (s dng nhng cng thc n gin nht).
Cch suy din trong bi ton l tm kim theo chiu
rng.
Khi t n kt qu c th c nhiu cch khc nhau.
chn c gii php ti u ta cn nh ngha
phc tp ca 1 cng thc:
Da trn s lng php nhn, chia, cng, tr, tnh cn, sin,
cos trong cng thc.
Cc php tnh cn, sin, cos c phc tp cao nht, ri n
nhn, chia, cui cng l cng, tr.
Ci tin phng php suy din bng cch dng A*
vi c lng h =0 chn ng i ti u.
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
L 1 cu trc d liu cha ng tt c nhng
tri thc lin quan n 1 i tng c th.
Frame c lin quan n lp trnh hng i
tng.
ng gi ton b 1 i tng, 1 tnh hung
hoc c 1 vn phc tp thnh 1 thc th
duy nht c cu trc.
Mt frame bao hm 1 khi lng tng i
ln tri thc v 1 i tng, s kin, v tr, tnh
hung hoc nhng yu t khc.
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Mi frame m t 1 i tng, gm 2 thnh phn c bn:
Slot: l 1 thuc tnh c t ca i tng.
Facet: Mi slot c th cha 1 hoc nhiu facet (facet cn c
gi l slot con) c t 1 s thng tin hoc th tc lin quan n
thuc tnh c m t bi slot.
Loi Facet thng gp:
Value (gi tr): cho bit gi tr ca thuc tnh (v d xanh, ,
tm, vng nu slot l mu xe).
Default (gi tr mc nh): l gi tr s c t ng s dng nu
slot l rng (ngha l chng c c t no!).
Range (min gi tr): cho bit slot c th nhn nhng loi gi tr
g (s nguyn, s thc, ch ci ).
If added: m t 1 hnh ng s c thi hnh khi 1 gi tr trong
slot c thm vo (hoc c hiu chnh).
If needed: c s dng khi slot khng c gi tr no. Facet m
t 1 hm tnh ra gi tr ca slot.
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Frame XE HI:
Thuc lp: phng tin vn chuyn.
Tn nh sn xut: Audi
Quc gia: c
Model: 5000 Turbo
Loi xe: Sedan
Trng lng: 3300
S ca: 4 (default)
Hp s: 3 s t ng
S bnh: 4 (default)
My (tham chiu n frame MY)
Kiu: In-line, overhead cam
S xy lanh: 5
Kh nng tng tc
0-60: 10.4 giy
dm: 17.1 giy
Frame MY:
Xy lanh: 3.19 inch
T l nn: 3.4 inch
Xng: TurboCharger
M lc: 140
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Tnh k tha:
Mt h thng TTNT thng s dng nhiu frame c
lin kt vi nhau.
Frame c tnh phn cp cho php k tha cc thuc
tnh (tnh cht) gia cc frame.
nh (gc) trn cng c mc tru tng cao nht.
Frame nm mc thp hn c th k tha tt c cc
tnh cht ca nhng frame mc cao hn cng
nhnh.
Frame mc cng cao th mc tng qut cng cao.
Frame cha cung cp nhng m t tng qut v thc
th. Thng thng, frame cha bao gm cc nh ngha
ca thuc tnh. Cc frame con cha gi tr thc s ca
cc thuc tnh ny.
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Cu trc phn cp ca cc loi hnh hc c bn:










i tng
Tam gic T gic Hnh trn
Cn Vung
u Vung cn
Thang Bnh hnh
Thoi Ch nht
Hnh vung
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Biu din cc i tng hnh hc bng frame:
Kiu d liu c bn:
Area: numeric; //din tch
Height: numeric; //chiu cao
Perimeter: numeric; // chu vi
Side: numeric; //cnh
Diagonal: numeric; //ng cho
Radius: numeric; //bn knh
Angle: numeric; //gc
Diameter: numeric; //ng knh
Pi: (value: numeric = 3.14159) //s Pi
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Frame: CIRCLE //Hnh trn
r: Radius;
s: Area;
p: Perimeter;
d: Diameter;
d=2*r;
s=Pi*r
2
;
p=2*Pi*r;
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Frame: RECTANGLE //Hnh ch nht
b
1
: Side;
b
2
: Side;
s: Area;
p: Perimeter;
d: Diagonal;
s=b
1
*b
2
;
p=2*(b
1
+b
2
);
d
2
=b
1
2
+ b
2
2
;
Frame: SQUARE //Hnh vung
L: RECTANGLE
b
1
=b
2
;
BIU DIN TT BNG FRAME
Chng trnh tnh din tch phn bi en:
VAR x, s: numeric; k: SQUARE; c: CIRCLE;
BEGIN
<Nhp x>;
k.b1 = x;
c.r = x/2;
s = k.s - c.s
END
x
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
L cch biu din tri thc tng t nh frame nhng thay
v c t 1 i tng n m t 1 chui cc s kin.
S dng 1 dy cc slot cha thng tin v con ngi, i
tng v hnh ng lin quan n chui s kin.
Nhn chung, 1 script thng bao gm cc thnh phn sau:
Entry condition (iu kin vo): nhng tnh hung hoc iu kin
cn tha mn trc khi cc s kin trong script din ra.
Role (din vin): nhng ngi lin quan trong script.
Prop (tc t): nhng i tng c s dng trong chui s kin.
Scene (tnh hung): chui s kin thc s din ra.
Result (kt qu): trng thi ca cc Role sau khi script thc
hin.
Track (phin bn): m t 1 bin th (hoc trng hp c bit) c
th xy ra trong on script.
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
Script nh hng
Phin bn: Nh hng bn thc n nhanh
Din vin: Khch hng
Ngi phc v
Tc t: Bn phc v
Ch ngi
Khay ng thc n
Thc n
Tin
Gia v: mui, tng, t, tiu,
iu kin vo: Khch hng i
Khch hng c tin tr
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
Tnh hung 1: Vo nh hng
Khch xe vo bi
Khch i vo nh hng
Khch xp hng i phc v
Khch c thc n v quyt nh gi mn n
Tnh hung 2: Gi mn n
Khch ku mn n vi ngi phc v
Ngi phc v t thc n ln khay v a ha n
tnh tin cho khch.
Khch tr tin cho ngi phc v
Tnh hung 3: Khch dng mn n
Khch ly thm gia v
Khch cm khay n 1 bn cn trng ngi n
Khch n thc n
Tnh hung 3A (ty chn): Khch mua thc n em v
Khch mang thc n v nh
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
Tnh hung 4: Ra v
Khch thu dn bn
Khch b rc vo thng rc
Khch ra khi nh hng
Khch li xe i
Kt qu:
Khch khng cn i
Khch cn t tin hn ban u
Khch hng vui v*
Khch hng bc mnh*
Khch hng qu no.
* Ty chn.
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
Hu dng trong vic d on iu g s xy ra
trong nhng tnh hung xc nh.
Script cho php my tnh d on c vic g
s xy ra, xy ra i vi ai v vo thi im
no trong nhng tnh hung cha din ra.
Nu my tnh kch hot 1 script, ngi dng c
th t cu hi v h thng c th suy lun
c nhng cu tr li chnh xc.
Script l 1 dng biu din tri thc tng i
hu dng, cho php m t chnh xc nhng
tnh hung chun m con ngi vn thc
hin mi ngy hoc nm bt chnh xc.
BIU DIN TT BNG SCRIPT
ci t script trong my tnh, ngi ta
thng dng ngn ng LISP lu tr cc tri
thc di dng hnh thc.
Sau khi ci t xong script, ngi dng c
th t cu hi v con ngi hoc iu kin c
lin quan trong script. H thng s tin hnh
thao tc tm kim hoc so snh mu tm cu
tr li.
Chng hn, nu ngi dng t cu hi Khi
vo nh hng, khch hng lm g trc tin?.
H thng s tm trong Tnh hung 1 v a ra
cu tr li Khch xe vo bi.
PHI HP NHIU CCH BIU
DIN TRI THC
Mc tiu ca BDTT:
a tri thc vo my tnh
Truy xut tri thc
Suy lun da trn tri thc c
Khi chn phng php biu din, cn phi cn
nhc nhng yu t sau:
Tnh t nhin, ng b v d hiu
Mc tru tng ca tri thc: c khai bo c
th hay nhng vo h thng di dng m th tc
Tnh n th v linh ng ca c s tri thc: cho
php d dng b sung tri thc, mc ph thuc
gia cc tri thc.
Hiu qu ca vic truy xut tri thc v cc php suy
lun.
PHI HP NHIU CCH BDTT
Bng so snh:














Phng
php
u im Nhc im
Lut
sinh
C php n gin, d
hiu, din dch n
gin, tnh n th cao,
linh ng (d iu
chnh)
Kh theo di s phn cp, khng hiu
qu trong nhng h thng ln, khng
biu din c mi loi tri thc, yu
trong vic biu din tri thc dng m
t, c cu trc.
Mng
ng
ngha
D theo di s phn
cp, linh ng
Ng ngha gn lin vi mi nh c th
nhp nhng, kh x l ngoi l, kh lp
trnh.
PHI HP NHIU CCH BDTT
Bng so snh:














Phng
php
u im Nhc im
Frame C sc mnh din t tt, d ci t
cc thuc tnh cho cc slot cng nh
cc mi lin h, d dng to ra cc
th tc chuyn bit ha, d a vo
cc thng tin mc nh v d pht
hin cc gi tr b thiu.
Kh lp trnh, kh suy
din, thiu phn mm h
tr.
Logic
hnh
thc
C ch suy din chnh xc (c
chng minh bi ton hc)
Tch ri vic biu din
v x l, khng hiu qu
vi lng d liu ln
(qu chm khi c s d
liu ln).
PHI HP NHIU CCH BDTT
Hin nay cha c kiu BDTT no ph hp vi
mi loi tri thc.
Khi lm vic vi nhiu ngun tri thc (khc
loi, khc tnh cht), nhiu lc ta phi hy sinh
tnh ng b bng cch s dng nhiu kiu
BDTT.
Trong nhng h nh vy ta cn c th dch
1 tri thc t kiu biu din ny sang kiu
biu din khc.
Kt hp gia lut sinh v frame
Lut sinh khng hiu qu trong nhiu ng dng, c bit l trong cc
tc v nh ngha, m t cc i tng hoc mi lin kt tnh gia
cc i tng.
Nhng yu im ca lut sinh li l u im ca frame.
C nhiu h thng to ra 1 kiu biu din lai gia lut sinh v
frame v c u im ca c 2 cch biu din.
Frame cung cp 1 ngn ng cu trc hiu qu c t nhng i
tng xut hin trong lut
Frame ng vai tr nh 1 lp h tr cho thao tc suy din c bn
trn nhng i tng m khng cn phi tng tc 1 cch tng
minh trong cc lut.
Kh nng phn lp ca frame cn c dng phn hoch, to ch
mc v sp xp cc lut sinh trong h thng.
Cho php to ra cc lut so mu nhm tng tc tm kim ca h
thng. Cho php to ra cc biu din phc tp hn rt nhiu so vi
vic ch dng frame.
Kt hp gia lut sinh v frame












Suy lun khng chc chn l k thut suy lun da trn cc k c
th mu thun hoc khng chc chn.
CC K THUT CA LUT SINH
Cc lut
Suy lun li
Suy lun tin


Cc lut so mu
Demon
Suy lun khng chc chn
Cc k thut v rng buc

i tng
Tha k v chuyn bit ha
Cc c ch truyn thng ip
FRAME (K THUT HNG I TNG)
Kt hp gia lut sinh v frame
V d: Cho trc 1 s cht ha hc. Hy xy dng chui
cc phn ng ha hc iu ch 1 s cht ha hc
khc.
y l 1 ng dng t nhin ca BDTT di dng lut.
Chng hn, ta c cc phng trnh phn ng:
Na + Cl
2
NaCl
Fe + Cl
2
FeCl
2
Cu + Cl
2
CuCl
2
Cl
2
+ H
2
O HCl + HClO
MnO
2
+ 4HCl MnCl
2
+ Cl
2
+ H
2
O

Nh vy nu xem cht ha hc l 1 s kin v 1 phng
trnh phn ng l 1 lut sinh th bi ton iu ch cht
ha hc tr thnh bi ton suy din tin.
Kt hp gia lut sinh v frame
Tuy nhin, s lng cc phn ng l rt
ln nn ta khng th xy dng cc lut
da trn cc phn ng c th m phi s
dng cc phn ng tng qut hn nh:
Axit + Baz Mui + Nc
Trong ha hc cng c nhiu phn ng
c bit khng th tng qut c nn ta
phi xem phn ng nh l 1 lut ring.
Kt hp gia lut sinh v frame
m t c cc phn ng tng qut nh trn, ta s
dng cc frame m t cc cht ha hc.
V d: c t acid sulfuric:









FRAME: ACID
Tn: xc nh bi frame con
Cu to
#1: H
2
#2: l 1 gc acid
FRAME: ACID SULFURIC
Tn: Acid Sulfuric
Cu to
#1: H
2
#2: gc acid SO
4
L: ACID
FRAME: GC ACID SO
4
Cu to
#1: SO
4
M U V HC MY
Trong nhng chng trc, ta tm hiu
cch thc chuyn giao tri thc 1 cch trc
tip cho my tnh. n y, my tnh vn
cn th ng.
Hc my (machine learning) l cc phng
php gip my tnh c th ch ng rt ra
c tri thc bng cch quan st cc d
liu do con ngi cung cp.
HC MY
C nhiu thut ton hc my khc nhau.
Hc theo trng hp:
H thng c cung cp 1 s trng hp mu.
Da trn tp mu ny, h thng s tin hnh
phn tch v rt ra cc quy lut (biu din
bng lut sinh).
Sau , h thng s da trn cc lut ny
nh gi cc trng hp khc (thng
khng ging cc trng hp mu).
HC THEO TRNG HP
D liu cung cp cho h thng l 1 nh x f:
f:P R
gn mi p e P vi 1 lp r e R.
Tp P thng nh (v hu hn) so vi tp tt c
cc trng hp cn quan tm P (PcP).
nh x f c gi l tp mu.
Mc tiu: xy dng nh x f sao cho c th gn
mi p e P vi 1 lp r e R; f phi bo ton f,
ngha l: peP th f(p)f(p).
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Bi ton: xy dng quy lut c th kt
lun 1 ngi nh th no th khi i tm bin
s b chy nng.
Thuc tnh mc tiu l chy nng; tp R
gm 2 phn t {chy nng, khng chy
nng}.
Quan st da trn 4 thuc tnh dn xut
sau: chiu cao (cao, trung bnh, thp), mu
tc (vng, nu, ), cn nng (nh, trung
bnh, nng), dng kem (c, khng).
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Tp P gm nhng ngi trong bng di y:









Tn Tc Chiu cao Cn nng C dng kem? Kt qu
Sarah Vng T.Bnh Nh Khng Chy
Dana Vng Cao T. Bnh C Khng
Alex Nu Thp T.Bnh C Khng
Annie Vng Thp T.Bnh Khng Chy
Emilie T.Bnh Nng Khng Chy
Peter Nu Cao Nng Khng Khng
John Nu T.Bnh Nng Khng Khng
Kartie Vng Thp Nh C Khng
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Phn hoch tp P thnh cc tp Pi sao
cho tt c cc phn t trong tng tp Pi
u c chung thuc tnh mc tiu ri eR.
ng vi mi Pi, xy dng lut Li :
GTi ri
trong GTi c hnh thnh bng
cch kt hp cc thuc tnh dn xut.
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Phn hoch tp P thnh cc tp Pi sao
cho tt c cc phn t trong tng tp Pi
u c chung thuc tnh mc tiu ri eR.
ng vi mi Pi, xy dng lut Li :
GTi ri
trong GTi c hnh thnh bng
cch kt hp cc thuc tnh dn xut.
XY DNG CY NH DANH
C 2 cch phn hoch n gin nht:
Cho mi ngi vo 1 phn hoch ring, tng
cng c 8 phn hoch.
Phn lm 2 tp: 1 gm nhng ngi chy
nng v 1 gm nhng ngi khng chy
nng.
Tuy nhin, c 2 cch u khng gii
quyt c bi ton.
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Phn hoch theo thuc
tnh u tin - mu tc, ta
c 3 lp khc nhau:
Pvng = {Sarah, Dana,
Annie, Kartie}
Pnu = {Alex,Peter,John}
P = {Emile}
Tn nhng ngi b chy nng
c gch chn.
Ta dng s cy m
t bc phn hoch

Mu tc
Sarah
Dana
Annie
Kartie
Alex
Peter
John
Emile
vng
nu

XY DNG CY NH DANH
Ta thy rng phn hoch Pnu
v P tha mn iu kin c
chung thuc tnh mc tiu
(Pnu cha ton ngi khng
chy nng, P cha ton ngi
chy nng).
Do Pvng cn ln ln ngi
chy nng v khng chy nng,
ta tip tc phn hoch n.
Theo thuc tnh chiu cao,
Pvng c phn thnh 3 tp
con: Pvng, thp = {Annie,
Kartie}, Pvng,T.Bnh =
{Sarah}, Pvng,cao = {Dana}
Mu tc
Sarah
Dana
Annie
Kartie
Alex
Peter
John
Emile
vng
nu

Chiu cao
Annie
Kartie
Sarah Dana
XY DNG CY NH DANH
Qu trnh ny c tip tc cho n khi tt c
cc nt l ca cy khng cn ln ln gia
chy nng v khng chy nng na.
Qua mi bc phn hoch cy phn hoch
ngy cng phnh ra.
Cy c xy dng gi l cy nh danh.
Ta c th c nhiu cy nh danh bng cch
la chn cc th t phn hoch khc nhau
ca cc thuc tnh dn xut. Cch phn
hoch no l tt nht?
THUT TON QUINLAN
Thut ton Quinlan quyt nh thuc tnh phn hoch bng
cch xy dng cc vector c trng:
Vi mi thuc tnh dn xut A, tnh:
V
A
(j) = (T(j,r1), T(j,r2), , T(j,rn))
Trong :
r1, r2, , rn l cc gi tr ca thuc tnh mc tiu.
T(j,ri) = (tng s phn t trong phn hoch c gi tr thuc tnh
dn xut A l j v gi tr thuc tnh mc tiu l ri)/(tng s phn t
trong phn hoch c gi tr ca thuc tnh A l j)
T(j,ri)=1
V
A
(j) c gi l vector n v nu n ch c duy nht 1 thnh phn
c gi tr 1 v nhng thnh phn khc c gi tr 0.
Thuc tnh c nhiu vector n v nht s c chn phn
hoch.
THUT TON QUINLAN
Vi v d trn:
Vtc(vng) = (T(vng, chy nng), T(vng, khng chy
nng)) = (2/4,2/4) = (0.5,0.5)
Vtc(nu) = (0/3,3/3) = (0,1) (vector n v)
Vtc() = (1/1, 0/1) = (1,0) (vector n v)
Vc-cao(Cao) = (0/2,2/2) = (0,1)
Vc-cao(T. Bnh) = (2/3,1/3)
Vc-cao(Thp) = (1/3,2/3)
Vkem(C) = (3/3,0/3) = (1,0)
Vkem(Khng) = (3/5,2/5)
Nh vy thuc tnh mu tc c s vector n v nhiu
nht nn c chn phn hoch.
THUT TON QUINLAN
Sau khi phn hoch theo mu tc, ch c
Pvng cn cha ln ngi chy nng v
khng chy nng.

Tn Tc Chiu cao Cn nng C dng kem? Kt qu
Sarah Vng T.Bnh Nh Khng Chy
Dana Vng Cao T. Bnh C Khng
Annie Vng Thp T.Bnh Khng Chy
Kartie Vng Thp Nh C Khng
THUT TON QUINLAN
Ta tip tc tnh vector c trng i vi cc thuc
tnh cn li.
Vc-cao(Cao) = (0/1,1/1) = (0,1)
Vc-cao(T.B.) = (1/1,0/1) = (1,0)
Vc-cao(Thp) = (1/2,1/2)
Vc-nng(Nh) = (1/2,1/2)
Vc-nng(T.B.) = (1/2,1/2)
Vc-nng(Nng) = (0,0)
Vkem(C) = (0/2,2/2) = (0,1)
Vkem(Khng) = (2/2,0/2) = (1,0)
THUT TON QUINLAN
Hai thuc tnh dng
kem v chiu cao u
c 2 vector n v.
Do s phn hoch
ca thuc tnh dng
kem l t hn nn ta
chn phn hoch
theo thuc tnh ny.
Hnh bn l cy nh
danh cui cng.
Mu tc
Sarah
Dana
Annie
Kartie
Alex
Peter
John
Emile
vng
nu

Dng kem
Dana
Kartie
Sarah
Annie
c
khng
O HN LON
Phng php ny tnh ra o hn lon ca mi thuc
tnh v la chn thuc tnh c o hn lon thp
nht phn hoch.
i vi thuc tnh A:


trong :
b
t
l tng s phn t c trong phn hoch
b
j
l tng s phn t c thuc tnh dn xut A c gi tr j
b
ri
l tng s phn t c thuc tnh dn xut A c gi tr j v
thuc tnh mc tiu c gi tr ri.
2
log
j
ri ri
A
j i
t j j
b
b b
T
b b b
| |
| |
| |
|
= |
|
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
\ .

SINH TP LUT T CY D
ng vi mi nt l, ta i t
nh cho n nt l v sinh
ra 1 lut tng ng.
Vi cy nh danh hnh
bn ta c cc lut sau:
Mu tc vng c dng kem
khng chy nng
Mu tc vng khng dng
kem chy nng
Mu tc nu khng chy
nng
Mu tc chy nng
Mu tc
Sarah
Dana
Annie
Kartie
Alex
Peter
John
Emile
vng
nu

Dng kem
Dana
Kartie
Sarah
Annie
c
khng
TI U TP LUT
Phng php loi b mnh tha
da vo d liu:
Xem xt lut: mu tc vng c dng
kem khng chy nng.
Lp bng Contingency thng k nhng
ngi c dng kem vi mu tc vng
hoc mu khc v c b chy nng hay
khng (bng bn).
Nhn xt: thuc tnh tc vng khng
ng gp g trong vic kt lun khng
chy nng (c 3 ngi c dng kem u
khng chy nng) v do c th c
loi ra khi lut trn.
Ko
chy
nng
Chy
nng
Mu
vng
2 0
Mu
khc
1 0
TI U TP LUT
Quy tc loi b mnh tha:
Xt 1 lut c n mnh phn gi thit sau:
A1 A2 An R
kim tra xem c th loi b mnh Ai c hay
khng, ta xem xt tp P tt c cc phn t tho mn
tt c cc mnh A1, A2, , Ai-1, Ai+1, , An v
lp bng Contingency.
TI U TP LUT
Trong :
E l s phn t trong P tha mn c Ai v R,
F l s phn t tha mn Ai v khng tha R,
G l s phn t khng tha Ai v tha R,
H l s phn t khng tha Ai v khng tha R.
Nu F=H=0 th c th loi b mnh Ai ra khi
lut.
R R
Ai E F
Ai
G H
LUT MC NH
Mt trong nhng cch ti u tp lut l
thay th 1 s lut trong tp lut cho
bng 1 lut mc nh.
Lut mc nh s c dng trong
trng hp khng c bt c lut no
cn li tha mn.
Lut mc nh c dng thay th
cc lut c cng phn kt lun.
LUT MC NH
Xem xt tp lut chy nng sinh ra t v d trc
nh sau:
C dng kem khng chy nng
Mu tc vng khng dng kem chy nng
Mu tc nu khng chy nng
Mu tc chy nng
Lut mc nh ca ta c 2 dng (do ch c ti a 2
kt lun: chy nng v khng):
R1: Nu khng c lut no tha chy nng, hoc
R2: Nu khng c lut no tha khng chy nng
LUT MC NH
Nu ta chn lut mc nh R1, tp lut tr
thnh:
C dng kem khng chy nng
Mu tc nu khng chy nng
Nu khng c lut no tha chy nng
Nu ta chn lut mc nh R2, tp lut tr
thnh:
Mu tc vng khng dng kem chy nng
Mu tc chy nng
Nu khng c lut no tha khng chy nng
LUT MC NH
Quy tc chn lut mc nh:
Chn lut mc nh c th thay th c nhiu
lut nht. Quy tc ny khng dng c cho v d
trn v c 2 lut mc nh u thay th c 2
lut.
Chn lut mc nh c kt lun ph bin nht.
Theo quy tc ny, ta s chn lut R2 v s trng
hp khng chy nng l 5, cn chy nng l 3.
Chn lut mc nh sao cho tng s mnh
phn gi thit ca cc lut m n thay th l
nhiu nht. Vi quy tc ny, ta s chn lut R1 v
tng s mnh ca lut dn n chy nng l 3,
cn tng s mnh ca lut dn n khng
chy nng l 2.