Led

1
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

(LED)
Sept. 26, 2007
Sooseok
Xia
Lakshminarayanan
Fang
EE 226 LED group

Outline
2
 Sooseok
 Introduction
 Nitride Based LED Technology
 Xia
 White LED Technology
 Chromaticity and Color Rendering
 Lakshminarayanan
 LED Basics & Ongoing Research & Applications
 White LED Market Analysis and Patent related Issue
 Fang
 Competitors for White Light Technology
 OLED and Quantum dots based LED Technology
EE 226 – LED Group

Introduction
3
 Background
 LED is a semiconductor diode that emits
narrow spectrum light when electrically
biased in forward direction. It is a form of
Electroluminescence (EL)
 Advantage over conventional bulb
 High luminescence efficiency
 Quick response time
 Long lifetime

Comparison
4
between light bulb and LED
Light bulb LED
Power consumption
RED 70W 18W
YELLOW 70W 20W
GREEN 70W 17W
Replacement Interval 6 ~ 12 month 5 ~ 10 years
Failure mode Sudden total failure (estimated)
Gradual intensity
decrease
Visibility Use color filter, reflects Direct
sunlight
Cost
Maintenance Expensive Cheap
Manufacturing Cheap Expensive
Luminous Efficacy 10 ~ 85lm/W 100 lm/w
(lm/w)
Light Emission process
5
 Recombination of electron in conduction

band with hole in valence band releases
photon energy of well-defined frequency
electron
Ec
Eph = hv
h: Planck’s constant (6.626x10-34 J-s)
Forward biased v: wave frequency
e.g) GaN: 360nm
hole Ev
k k (momentum)
0

Light Emission Process
6
Forward biased

White LED Technology
7
 Nitride-based Semiconductor material

 GalliumNitride (GaN)
 Indium Gallium Nitride (InGaN)
 Leading White LED

 Cree: 131 lm/w @ 20mA
 Nichia: 138 lm/w @ 20mA
 Prof. Satoshi Kamiyama: 130 lm/w
 White LED generation

 Mix of RGB LEDs
 Blue LED and Phosphors or YAG phosphor

White LED generation
8
Phosphor Down- Color Mixing

LEDs conversion
One BLUE or Three RGB LEDs
Purple LED
Cost Cheap Expensive

Property of Nitride-based
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semiconductor compound
 GaN compounds
 Hexagonal crystal system
 Wurtzite crystal structure
 Direct bandgap material
 Semiconductor in which the bottom of the
conduction band and the top of the valence band
occur at the momentum k=0
 Advantage:
 Excellent hardness
 High thermal conductivity
 High melting temperature

Issues of Nitride-based LED
10
[1]
 Large lattice constant mismatch
between GaN and Sapphire substrate
Crystallinity is improved with buffer layer !

Issues of Nitride-based LED
11
[2]
 High quality low resistivity p-type GaN
film for higher quantum efficiency
Nitrogen and Hydrogen
TF-MOCVD
(Two Flow-Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) Resistivity vs. Annealing temperature

Structure of Blue LED
12
Refractive index
C ⋅ ∆n ⋅ d
Γ ≅1− e
Γ : Confinement factor
∆n : difference in refractive index
d : thickness of active layer
InGaAlP based LED GaN based LED

Research topic and Trend
13
 LED structure moves to Single Quantum

Well (SQW) and Multiple Quantum Well
(MQW) from Double Heterojunction (DH)

Challenges on Nitride-based
14
LED
 Lifetime
 Efficiency
 High output power
 Simulation
 Ultra Violet LED (UV-LED)
 White LED
 Other researches on LED industry

Lifetime
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 Definition
 Operationtime in hours for light output to
reach 70% of its initial value
 10,000 hours are required for commercial
products
 Major factor for effecting lifetime
 Heat at the p-n junction
 Packaging for better heat dissipation is crucial

Junction temperature
16
 Temperature measurement
 T-point method
 Externallocation on package
 Easy access for measurement
Example of T-points for two different types of LEDs

(left: Barracuda package; Right: Hemispherical encapsulant package

Experiment results
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Life output vs. Time & Different ambient temperature Lifetime vs. T-point temperature
Thermal management
becomes an important issue!
Different samples vs. Time

Efficiency
18
 To increase in the scattering and diffraction

of the generated photons
 Increasing light collecting from the LED chip
with less power loss
 Increasing the extraction number of photons
that trapped inside LED chip
 Surface roughening
 GaN growth on a patterned sapphire substrate
 Integration of 2-D photonic crystal patterns
 Forming V-shape pits on surface that originate from
low temperature growth conditions of topmost p-
GaN contact layer (EQE~30%)

Improvement inside LED
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chip
 GaN growth on a patterned sapphire
63% improvement
substrate
14.1% improvement
under 20mA current
PSS on C-plane Output power vs. Current

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chip
 GaN growth on a patterned sapphire
substrate
The SiO2 film with hole-patterns of 3µm diameter and 3µm spacing was deposited onto
the sapphire substrate by PECVD method and defined by standard photolithography to serve
as a wet-etching mask. The sapphire substrate was then etched using an H3PO4-based solution
at an etching temperature at 300oC. The sapphire etching rate is about 1µm/min.
16.4% quantum efficiency improvement

under 20mA current !!
PSS on {1102}R-plane

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chip
 Forming V-shape pits on surface
V-shaped pits on p-type GaN contact
30% quantum efficiency improvement

under 20mA current for 465nm output wavelength !!
Topview SEM image of LED

High output power
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 Multi-chip method is common for high bright LED

 Thermal management at high power level is crucial
 New substrate material is needed
 Si
 Low cost
 Large-sized wafer
 Multifunction integration on same Si chip
 GaN grow on Si is still challenge
 Large lattice constant mismatch (16.9%)
 Large thermal expansion coefficient mismatch
(57%)
 SiC
 High cost

Si-substrate based LED
23
Achieve high output power

Emitted light is absorbed by Si-substrate
Under high injection current (>800mA)
Output power at high injection current

is not saturated due to high thermal conductivity
(1.5W/cm-K)
Output power vs. Injected current with Si/Sapphire substrate

Improve electrode contact
24
 The poor conductivity of p-GaN limits

LED performance due to current
crowding effect
 Thin Ni-Au layer
 Highly transparent (> 80%) indium-tin-
oxide (ITO) layer

Packaging for high output
25
power
Package of typical high power LED
Package of low power LED
Osram Golden Dragon Luxeon Power LED

Ultra Violet-LED (UV-LED)
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 AlGaN compound
 Ultra large bandgap property
 Emission wavelength can be down to 250nm
 Application
 Biological-agent sensing
 Air and water purification
 Biomedical diagnosis
 To excite UV phosphor to generate white light
 Limitation
 Self heating
 High operation voltage
 Low radiative efficiency
 Poor electrical conductivity
 Temperature dependency

Simulation Software
27
 Simulator of Light Emitters based on
Nitride Semiconductors (SiLENSe)
 Covers
 DH, SQW, and MQW structure
 Standard LED structure, I-V curve, emission
spectrum, internal light emission efficiency,
temperature effect
 Doesn’t cover yet
 Many effects
 Many-body effects on InGaN AlInGaN QWs
 Boundary effects on the optical properties of InGaN
MQWs
 Surface band-bending effects on the optical properties
of InGaN MQWs

Researches in LED industry
28
 Fabrication of high efficient LED

 Fabrication of high quality p-type GaN
film
 Achieving same performance without
Phosphor powder

29
 Thank You !
 Continue on second session

by Xia

White Light Technology
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Generate White Light (GWL) Based

on
 Chromaticity diagram
 Color Rendering Index (CRI)
 Two Method to (GWL) Based On LED
 Multi-Color (RGB) LED Based
 Phosphor Based
 Current Researches in Phosphors
EE 226 – LED Group 30

Chromaticity Diagram
31
 White Region
λ= 700 nm (R), λ = 555 nm (G), and λ =
460 nm (B)
 Generate White Light (WL) theory
 Combination of R, G and B can generate
WL
 Quality WL Depend On
 Intensity & how strong excited RGB
 Planckian locus
 Color T
 T ↑ Color glow from R → Y → W
Combination of R, G and B can generate
WL
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Chromaticity Diagram
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Color Rendering Index (CRI)
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 Important characterization of light

 Light source not render true color
 Measure a tested light source
 Givehow different tested light source
with reference light source
 CRI > 85

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(a) High – CRI Source (b) Low – CRI Source

Chromaticity difference result from
reference and test light source
36

CRI of Some Sample Light
Source
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Two Method to Generate WL Based on
LED
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 3 type white light LED

 RGB LEDS
 B LED + Y Phosphor
 UV LED + RGB Phosphor
 2 categories
 Usecombination of 3 discrete RGB LEDS
 Employees phosphor coating LED
EE 226 – LED Group EE226 - LED GROUP 38

Method I: Multi-color (RGB) LED Based ⇒
WL
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Generate WL Theory
 R + G + B = WL
 NOT Phosphors Coating
 RGB LED has most light output efficiency and

offers specific white point control
 Theory CRI > 95
 Reality Trouble Problem
 Complicate control, high cost and power
dissipation compare with phosphor based
EE 226 – LED Group EE226 - LED GROUP 39

(a) Color mixing of three primary colors.
(b) Additive color mixing using LEDs.
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Type 1: RGB LED ⇒ WL
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Method II: Phosphor Based ⇒ WL
LED
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 Principle:
B LED combined w/ coated Y phosphor
technique ⇒ WL LED
 Process:
 Bluelight emitted from LED chip is
absorbed by the phosphor, then re-
emitted as yellow phosphorescence
 Phosphor based white LED spectrum
have 2 emission bands.

Type 2: B LED + Y Phosphor ⇒
WL
43

Introduce Bond Wire & LED Chip
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Phosphor Based White LED
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Phosphor-based White LED
Spectrum
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Method II Continue
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 Phosphor Based Characterized
 Only one chip, simplest to implement.
 Compact size, long lifetime, low power.
 Efficient < RED LED
 Problem: CRI < 80

 Reason:
 Phosphor lacks enough red emission.

Improve CRI Method
48
 Solve to Improve CRI:

 Enhanced a red phosphor introduced in
package
 Employ the UV LED technique
 UVLED is very similar to B LED combined
w/ Y phosphor technique
 UV LED ⇒ WL LED Principle:
 UVLight is absorbed by RGB phosphors
and output WL

Type 3: UV LED + RGB Phosphor ⇒
WL
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Summary method II to generate WL based on
LED
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Current Researches in
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Phosphors
 B LED combines w/ phosphor

technique is the most common
method to generate WL
 Violate patent and get sued
 Research the phosphor material on
inorganic nano-structure material

LED Basics & Ongoing Research & Applications
52
 LED Basics: 4 efficiency type

 based on fundamental optical properties
 Concept:
1) Internal Efficiency:
 Quantum efficiency
 Count photons & electrons/S
η
= #p emitted from active region/S
internal
#e
injected into LED /S
Four Efficiency Type Continue
53
2) Extraction Efficiency:

ηextraction = #p emitted into free space/S
#p emitted from active
region/S
3) External Efficiency:
 ηexternal = #p emitted into free space/S
#e injected into LED/S
= ηinternal * ηextraction
4) Power Efficiency:
 Quantity efficiency
EE  ηpower
226 – LED= P
Group 53
Reasons: Extraction Inefficiency
54
 Points:
 Escape problem is main reason for
extraction inefficiency
 Emission of photons has internal
reflection occurs at air interface
 Trapped light:
 Get internal reflection at every incidence
angle range φi > φC called trapped light

Photons at trapped light range can not escape
55

The Light Escape Cone
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Definition of the escape cone by the critical

angle φC or by area element dA or by whole
area

Light Escape in LEDs
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½ [1 - (1 - φC2/2)] = ¼ φC2

Pescape ≅
Psource
φC = critical angle of total internal reflection

 Problem: only small fraction of light can escape from
semiconductor
2
Pescape 1 nair
= 2
Psource 4 ns
58
 Thank You !
 Continue on third session

by Lakshminarayanan

Ways to improve efficiency:
59
 Structures
 Encapsulation
 Packaging
 Thickness of active layer
Performance of light-emitting diodes is defined to the great extent by two

figures of merit, namely internal quantum efficiency of the active region and
light extraction efficiency. While the former quantity reflects the quality of an
epitaxially grown structure and normally lies in the range 20-90%, the latter
strongly depends on particular design and can be as low as 2%.

Different shapes of LED’s
60

Effect of encapsulation:
61
Encapsulation increases the performance of an LED. A

semiconductor coated with an encapsulant is typically
epoxy or PMMA or silicone and the refractive index is
reduced between the semiconductor and the free space .
The epoxy acts as a buffer to change the refractive index

from the high value in the semiconductor to a intermediate
value in the epoxy and gradually to a low value in the air.
Packaging:
 Electrical path
 optical path
 thermal path.

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Thermal packages
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The thermal path has a heat

sink that could be silver , Al, Cu,
which directs heat away to a
large area PCB that will
dissipate the heat and thus,
LED will not reach a high
temperature. Shown below are
images of some general
package and special packages.

Thickness of active layer
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Total efficiency is the product of internal efficiency and extraction efficiency.
However, light extraction efficiency is self-dependent on internal quantum
efficiency due to inevitable reabsorption of some of the light. In thin LEDs
reabsorption effect is less severe. Fig. shows extraction efficiency vs. LED
chip height. For high IQE, LED should be thin film, but for lower IQE a thick
field is better because light escapes more readily from edges.

Ongoing areas of research
65
 Current research activities include enhancements in
structures,efficiency,pakaging, material to gain maximum benefits of
LED technology.
 Applied field and research activity includes replacing traditional

fluorescent lights in refrigerators with prototype led lighting system
.Investigating the properties of phosphor to improve the white LED
performance.
 Due to the mismatch between the refractive index of the epoxy and
that of the die, less than 35% of light generated within most LED dies
escapes the LED package as visible light. Recent studies on ultraviolet
(UV) LED technology, as well as advances in quantum dot (QD)
technology, have the potential to increase LED efficiency. QDs
efficiently convert UV light into any wavelength of visible light based
on the size of the dot. The research carried by LRC investigates the
effects of temperature on the epoxy-QD and epoxy-phosphor
encapsulants along with refractive index properties of LED epoxy
mixed with varying concentrations of down-conversion materials (QDs
and YAG:Ce phosphor).
Market analysis
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case study – traffic signals:
Life time:

67
Cost:
Currently, the major barrier for LED system to replace traditional light is its
initial cost. The cost of LED system is way much higher than traditional light
source .
A 12” red LED signal can range from $60 to $125, and a 12” green LED
module costs $160 to $250. Amber LED signals typically cost about $75
each.
However, it only costs about $2 to $2.50 for a traditional light bulb.

Considering a typical four-way intersection, it will cost around three
thousand more on the setup fee to replace the light bulbs with LED light
source. At this time, it is estimated that about 10% of the traffic signals in
the nation are LED traffic signals.

Conclusion:
As a new generation light source, LED has a lot benefits that make it a
much better choice for indoor and outdoor light source. The two most
EEimportant
226 – LED Group of LED are its energy consumption and its
advantages
indurations. However, the cost is main factor to slow down the pace of LED
to take over the whole light source market
HAITZ LAW
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Like Moore’s law to semiconductor industry, Haitz Law typically states
that the light output and efficacy of LEDs roughly doubles every 18 to
24 months, and that the future LED performance will likely follow a
trend similar to that of the past 30 years. So far, though the growth of
LED efficiency seems a little bit faster than Haitz Law’s expectation,
the development of LED is still follow this statement. Most of the
market reports right now did Unit: Million
their USD
prediction based on Haitz Law
Current LED market trend
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Illumination /light source market
69
Actually, to replace the indoor light source is the final destination that
all LED manufactures try to accomplish.
The global market size of HB LED at 2005 is about 5 billion USD while the global
illumination market is around 130 billion USD.
The market of HB LED is very small right now but that also means how big the
potential market is once the LED overcomes the barrier and occupies all the light
source market.
Efficiency
Traditional light bulbs take around 27% of illumination market at 2005.
That’s a big market with amount around forty billion USD. The
efficiency of HB LED in the market right now is around twenty to thirty
lumens per Watt. It’s already higher than the efficiency of traditional
light bulbs, eight to ten lumens per Watts. Then why the LED doesn’t
take over light bulb’s market? The reason is the efficiency to cost rate
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Cost
In 2005, it’s around 0.2 USD/lm. The cost is expected to keep going
down to reach 0.02 USD/lm at 2007. However, it has to be further
reduced to around 0.01 USD/lm to really be applied in illumination
market. This probably will be accomplished at around 2008 or 2009.
To achieve this low cost, the main difficulty is the LED package.
Though the package technology is already mature now, it still needs to
be refined to find the better material and process to further reduce the
cost.
Conclusion
White LED has a huge potential market in indoor light source
market. However, it still limited by the insufficient efficiency,
higher setup cost and energy cost. The development of device
and package technology will decide when LED could really
dominate the light source market.
LEDs and COLORs
71
 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) — red and infrared
 Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) — green
 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) — high-brightness
orange-red, orange, yellow, and green
 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) — red, orange-red, orange, and
yellow
 Gallium phosphide (GaP) — red, yellow and green
 Gallium nitride (GaN) — green, pure green (or emerald green), and
blue also white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier)
 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) — near ultraviolet, bluish-green and
blue
 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate — blue
 Silicon (Si) as substrate — blue (under development)
 Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate — blue
 Zinc selenide (ZnSe) — blue
 Diamond (C) — ultraviolet
 Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN),
aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) — near to far ultraviolet
EE(down to 210 nm
226 – LED Group[8]
Failure modes
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 The mechanism of degradation of the active region, where the radiative
recombination occurs, involves nucleation and growth of dislocations this requires a
presence of an existing defect in the crystal and is accelerated by heat, high current
density, and emitted light. Gallium arsenide and aluminum gallium arsenide are more
susceptible to this mechanism than gallium arsenide phosphide and indium phosphide
.Due to different properties of the active regions, gallium nitride and indium gallium
nitride are virtually insensitive to this kind of defect; however, high current density can
cause electro migration of atoms out of the active regions, leading to emergence of
dislocations and point defects, acting as nonradiative recombination centers and
producing heat instead of light.
 White LEDs often use one or more phosphors. The phosphors tend to degrade with
heat and age, losing efficiency and causing changes in the produced light color. Pink
LEDs often use an organic phosphor formulation which may degrade after just a few
hours of operation causing a major shift in output color.
 Sudden failures are most often caused by thermal stresses. When the epoxy resin
used in packaging reaches its glass transition temperature, it starts rapidly
expanding, causing mechanical stresses on the semiconductor and the bonded
contact, weakening it or even tearing it off. Conversely, very low temperatures can
cause cracking of the packaging.

Led applications
73
 Motorcycle and Bicycle lights
 Toys and recreational sporting goods, such as the Flashlight
 Railroad crossing signals
 Continuity indicators
 Flashlights, including some mechanically powered models.
 Emergency vehicle lighting
 Elevator Push Button Lighting
 Thin, lightweight message displays at airports and railway stations and as
destination displays for trains, buses, trams and ferries.
 Red or yellow LEDs are used in indicator and alphanumeric displays in
environments where night vision must be retained: aircraft cockpits,
submarine and ship bridges, astronomy observatories, and in the field, e.g.
night time animal watching and military field use.
 In optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications.

 In dot matrix arrangements for displaying messages.
 Glow lights, as a more expensive but longer lasting and reusable
alternative to Glow sticks.
 Grow lights composed of LEDs are more efficient, both because LEDs
EE 226 – LED
produce moreGroup
lumens per watt than other alternatives, and also because
they can be tuned to the specific wavelengths plants can make the most
Illumination applications
74
 Size of illuminated field is usually comparatively small and Vision systems or
smart camera are quite expensive, so cost of LEDs is usually a minor concern,
compared to signaling applications.
 LED elements tend to be small and can be placed with high density over flat or
even shaped substrates (PCBs etc) so that bright and homogeneous sources can
be designed which direct light from tightly controlled directions on inspected
parts.
 LEDs can be easily strobed (in the microsecond range and below) and
synchronized; their power also has reached high enough levels that sufficiently
high intensity can be obtained, allowing well lit images even with very short
light pulses: this is often used in order to obtain crisp and sharp "still" images of
fast moving parts.
 LEDs come in several different colors and wavelengths, easily allowing to use
the best color for each application, where different color may provide better
visibility of features of interest. Having a precisely known spectrum allows
tightly matched filters to be used to separate informative bandwidth or to
reduce disturbing effect of ambient light.
 LEDs usually operate at comparatively low working temperatures, simplifying

heat management and dissipation, therefore allowing plastic lenses, filters and
EE 226 – LED
diffusers to beGroup
used. Waterproof units can also easily be designed, allowing for
use in harsh or wet environments (food, beverage, oil industries).
Trends in LED design
75
Continually, while LED’s become brighter and cheaper; new colors and applications for LED’s are
appearing in so many markets we truly believe LED’s will challenge every conventional light source
during our lifetime .
LED manufacturers are driven by volume demand. Virtually any product that requires a status
indicator can potentially use an LED.
The success of LED’s lies in their longevity, energy efficiency, durability, low maintenance cost, and
compact size. LED’s last up to 100,000 hours, compared to 1,000 hours for incandescent bulbs,
which fail unexpectedly .

Also, because there is no filament or gas heating prior to ignition, LED’s illuminate quicker than
conventional lamps and use up to 90 per cent less energy.
With the introduction of bright AlInGaP chip technology in the1990s, red and
amber LED’s began replacing incandescent bulbs in new automotive taillight
assemblies. And InGaN blue and green LED production ramped-up through the
end of the 1990s due in large part to the demand for traffic signal green LED’s.

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Moreover, in term of security, LEDs have fast reaction time: LEDs light up
around 250 milliseconds quicker than bulbs. Therefore, at 100 km/h speed, that
means a gain in braking distance of 7 meters. HBLEDs have large market
opportunities for front lighting for cars as the HBLEDs performance will increase,
fewer chips will be necessary (less than 15 should be necessary in 2009 for all
functions). The cost objective for auto (10$/klm) will be reached in 2010 for a
wide diffusion of HBLEDs in front lighting. However, HBLEDs should be
implemented before this date (around 2007) on high-end cars.
Today a high-end car can have up to 200 LEDs and this figure is
expected to grow in the future: it could be up to 800 LEDs in 2009. The
market for HB-LEDs for front light is just starting. We forecast that the
market for automotive external lighting will be 40% of the total HBLED
automotive market in 2009. Regarding the white LEDs market, it will
be shared by 5 major players: Lumileds, Osram, Nichia, Toyoda Gosei
and Cree. Moreover, the recent interest for HUDs (Head-Up Displays)
in cars should also benefit from the HBLEDs technology. HBLEDs are
today bright enough to be used as a backlight on a FPD instead of
bulbs.
Advanced led applications
77
Light-emitting diode (LED) technology has provided medicine with a
new tool capable of delivering light deep into tissues of the body, at
wavelengths which are biologically optimal for cancer treatment,
wound healing and other clinical applications. The clinical use in
therapeutic applications as well as in laboratory work of LED’s is given
in view of low intensity laser irradiation effects in biomedicine.
High Flux surface mount (SMT) LED’s make three-dimensional RCL

(Rear Combination Lamp) solutions possible. But what is the most
suitable mounting substrate for the LED’s Considerations should allow
stylists as much freedom as possible while meeting performance
requirements. Multiple options are available including Flexible Printed
Circuit bonded to Aluminum, Printed Circuit Board (FR4) and Insulated
Metal Substrates.

Projection of LED for the future
78
According to projections from Sandia National Laboratories, the energy-saving benefits

of LED lighting would be impressive: If the technology can be improved so that half of all
lighting is solid-state by 2025, it will cut worldwide power use by 120 gigawatts, saving
$100 billion a year and reducing carbon dioxide emissions from power plants by 350
megatons a year.
Moreover, lighting experts say, semiconductor LED’s and organic light-emitting diodes
(OLED’s) would change the way people think about lighting their homes. Rather than
static fixtures holding single-color bulbs, solid-state lighting will be more flexible .
Researchers are pursuing two tracks for increasing the light output of LEDs. One is to
improve the internal quantum efficiency -- the percentage of electricity that gets turned
into photons; the other is to boost the external quantum efficiency -- the percentage of
photons that get out of the LED and into the world.
"Silicon for electronics is like carbon for organic chemistry," says Moungi Bawendi,
professor of chemistry at MIT and an expert on semiconductor nanomaterials. "It's
sand--you can't get better than that, so you certainly have a cost advantage if you can
base [an LED semiconductor] on silicon."

79
 Thank You !
 Continue on third session

by Fang

Competitors for white light
80
technology
 Organic Light Emitting Diode

(OLED )
 Quantum Dots based Light

Emitting Diode (QDLED)

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Organic Light Emitting

Diode (OLED )

Organic Light Emitting
82
Diode (OLED)
 An OLED is a special type of light emitting diode wherein
the emissive layer consists of a thin film of organic
compounds.

Types of OLEDs
83
 Passive-matrix OLED
 Active-matrix OLED
 Transparent OLED
 Top-emitting OLED
 Foldable OLED
 White OLED

Passive-matrix OLED
84
(PMOLED)
 The anode strips are arranged
perpendicular to the cathode
strips
 External circuitry applies
current to selected strips of
anode and cathode,
determining which pixels get
turned on and which pixels
remain off.
 consume more power than
other types of OLED, mainly
due to the power needed for
the external circuitry
 PMOLEDs are most efficient for
text and icons and are best
suited for small screens : cell
phones, PDAs and MP3 players

Active-matrix OLED
85
(AMOLED)
 full layers of cathode,
organic molecules and
anode, but the anode layer
overlays a thin film
transistor (TFT) array
that forms a matrix.
 The TFT array itself is the
circuitry that determines
which pixels get turned on
to form an image.
 efficient for large displays
 best uses are computer
monitors, large screen TVs
and electronic signs or
billboards.

Transparent OLED
86
 have only transparent

components (substrate,
cathode and anode) and,
when turned off, are up to
85 percent as transparent
as their substrate.
 When turned on, it allows
light to pass in both
directions.
 can be either active- or
passive-matrix.
 This technology can be used
for heads-up displays.

Top-emitting OLED
87
 have a substrate that is

either opaque or
reflective.
 best suited to active-
matrix design.
 Manufacturers may use
top-emitting OLED
displays in smart cards.

Foldable OLED
88
 Foldable OLEDs have substrates made of very flexible

metallic foils or plastics.
 Foldable OLEDs are very lightweight and durable.
Their use in devices such as cell phones and PDAs can
reduce breakage, a major cause for return or repair.
 Potentially, foldable OLED displays can be sewn into
fabrics for "smart" clothing, such as outdoor survival
clothing with an integrated computer chip, cell phone,
GPS receiver and OLED display sewn into it.

White OLED
89
 White OLEDs emit white light that is brighter, more

uniform and more energy efficient than that emitted
by fluorescent lights.
 White OLEDs also have the true-color qualities of
incandescent lighting.
 Because OLEDs can be made in large sheets, they can
replace fluorescent lights that are currently used in
homes and buildings.
 Their use could potentially reduce energy costs for
lighting.

Advantages of OLED
90
 (1) A large advantage of OLED is they can be made at low temperature. This allows for plastics,
which in turn allow for flexible and thinner displays. It is also a reduction in weight.
 (2) As OLED pixels in a display can be made very small, they allow for high resolution displays.
 (3) Their response time is much faster then LCD pixel.
 (4) As they generate light themselves, it eliminates the need for a backlight. This means that they
draw far less power and when powered from a battery can operate longer on the same charge.
 (5) They are brighter and more efficient than LEDs.
 (6) They offer great potential for lighting applications ranging from general purpose illumination to
small flat panel displays found in mobile phones and digital music players.
 (7) They have the ability to tune the light emission to any desired color.
 (8) They are current-driven devices, where brightness can be varied over a very wide dynamic
range and they operate uniformly without flicker.
 (9) They can be deposited on any substrate such as glass, ceramics, metal, thin plastic sheets,
fabrics and therefore, can be fabricated in any shape and design.
 (10) Since OLED can be printed onto any suitable substrate, they can have a significantly lower
cost than LCD or plasma displays.

(11) The viewing angle possible with OLED is greater because OLED pixels directly emit light.

Disadvantages of OLED
91
 (1) The biggest problem is the limited lifetime of the organic materials.
Particularly, blue OLEDs typically have lifetimes of around 5000 hours.
 (2) The intrusion of water into displays can damage or destroy the organic
materials. Therefore, improved sealing processes are important for practical
manufacturing and may limit the duration of more flexible displays.
 (3) Commercial development of the technology is also restrained by patents
held by firms.
 (4) As they are made with organic material, they are susceptible to heat. All
the energy which is not emitted in the form of light is converted to heat,
degrading the organic layer.
 (5) Because efficiency of OLED is not yet very high, higher current is needed
to make the OLED emit the desired amount of light. This also results in more
heat, which slowly destroys the LED.
 (6) When large displays are made, the lifetime also drops.

92
Quantum Dots based

Light Emitting Diode
(QDLED)

Quantum Dots based
93
LED
 A quantum dot is a
semiconductor
nanostructure that confines
the motion of conduction
band electrons, valence
band holes, or excitons
(bound pairs of conduction
band electrons and valence
band holes) in all three
spatial directions.
 2 to 10nm (10 to 50 atoms)
in diameter

Quantum Confinement
94
 If the size of a
semiconductor crystal
becomes small enough that
it approaches the size of the
material's Exciton Bohr
Radius, then the electron
energy levels can no
longer be treated as
continuous - they must be
treated as discrete. This
situation of discrete energy
levels is called quantum
confinement.
 meaning that there is a
small and finite
separation between energy
levels
Size Dependent Control
of Bandgap in Quantum
95
Dots  As with bulk semiconductor
material, electrons tend to make
transitions near the edges of the
bandgap.
 However, with quantum dots, the
size of the bandgap is
controlled simply by adjusting the
size of the dot.
 Because the emission frequency
of a dot is dependent on the
bandgap, it is therefore possible
to control the output wavelength
of a dot with extreme precision.
 In effect, it is possible to tune the
bandgap of a dot, and therefore
specify its "color" output
depending on the needs of the
customer.

Quantum Dot Material Systems
96
and Emission Ranges
Quantum
Quantum Dot
Dot Quantum Standard Quantum Dot Example
Emission Range Diameter
Material Dot Type Solvents Applications
Range
System
Research, Solar Cells,

CdSe 465nm - 640nm 1.9nm - 6.7nm Core Toluene
LEDs
Visible Fluorescence
Core- Applications,
CdSe/Zns 490nm - 620nm 2.9nm - 6.1 nm Toluene
Shell Electroluminescence,
LEDs
Core- Deep Red Fluorescence

CdTe/CdS 620nm - 680nm 3.7nm - 4.8nm Toluene
Shell Apps.
Near Infrared Applications,

PbS 850nm - 2100nm 2.3nm - 9.8nm Core Toluene Security Inks, Solar Cells,
IR LEDs
Opto-electronics, Optical
1200nm - Switching, Non-linear
PbSe 4.5nm - 9nm Core Toluene
2340nm Applications, Photonics,
Telecommunications

Advantages of Quantum
97
Dots
 (1) The very first advantage is their small size. Due to this,
they can be tuned to emit at any visible or infrared
wavelength.
 (2) The small size also allows for incredible flexibility.
 (3) Extremely small size allows them to be inserted into any
medium necessary to accommodate any underlying light
emitting source.
 (4) Bandgap can be altered with the addition or subtraction of
just one atom.
 (5) Predetermining the size of QLEDs dots would fix the
emitted photon wavelength at the appropriate customer-
specified color even if it is not naturally occurring.
 (6) They provide with high stability.

Disadvantages of Quantum
98
Dots
 Quantum dots are generally made up of Cd, Se or Pb. These
materials are toxic in nature. They cause environmental
harm. They are more expensive.

99
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1

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

EE 226 LED group

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

 Recombination of electron in conduction

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

 Nitride-based Semiconductor material

 Leading White LED

 White LED generation

EE 226 – LED Group

Phosphor Down- Color Mixing

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

InGaAlP based LED GaN based LED

EE 226 – LED Group

 LED structure moves to Single Quantum

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

Example of T-points for two different types of LEDs

EE 226 – LED Group

Different samples vs. Time

EE 226 – LED Group

 To increase in the scattering and diffraction

EE 226 – LED Group

PSS on C-plane Output power vs. Current

EE 226 – LED Group

16.4% quantum efficiency improvement

EE 226 – LED Group

30% quantum efficiency improvement

Topview SEM image of LED

EE 226 – LED Group

 Multi-chip method is common for high bright LED

EE 226 – LED Group

Achieve high output power

Output power at high injection current

Output power vs. Injected current with Si/Sapphire substrate

EE 226 – LED Group

 The poor conductivity of p-GaN limits

EE 226 – LED Group

Package of typical high power LED

Package of low power LED

Osram Golden Dragon Luxeon Power LED

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

EE 226 – LED Group

 Fabrication of high efficient LED

EE 226 – LED Group

 Continue on second session

EE 226 – LED Group

Generate White Light (GWL) Based

EE 226 – LED Group 30

EE 226 – LED Group 32

EE 226 – LED Group 33

 Important characterization of light

EE 226 – LED Group 34

(a) High – CRI Source (b) Low – CRI Source

EE 226 – LED Group 35

EE 226 – LED Group 36

EE 226 – LED Group 37