E302/1/1 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

OBJECTIVES

General Objective

: To understand the concept of telephony system, the types of the telephone exchanges and the switching concept.

Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to: explain the need of the telephony networking system. sketch the telephone network for local exchange and telephone network hierarchy. define PSTN and MTX telephone exchange. explain switching concept including matrix switching, step by step, common controller and SPC. draw the SPC block diagram and to understand the advantages and disadvantages of the system.

E302/1/2 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

INPUT

1.0

Introduction

We use telephony system in our everyday life. The equipment involves telephone sets at home, the internet, e-mails, our mobile phones and telefaxes. Telephony system makes our life much more easier.

The Telephony Communication Principle There are 3 main parts as shown in figure 1.1 a) Transmitting transducer b) Receiving transducer
c)

One pair wire system

E302/1/3 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Conversation Energy Produces the conversation energy again

Transmitting Transducer

Transmitting Transducer

Receiving Transducer

Receiving Transducer

Figure 1.1 Telephony Communication Principle 1.1 The Telephone The telephone is one of the simplest devices we have in our house. It is so very simple because the telephone connection to our house has not changed in nearly a century. The telephone only contains three parts and they are all simple as shown in figure 1.2.

A switch to connect and disconnect the phone from the network. This switch is generally called the hook switch. It connects when you lift the handset.

A speaker - It is generally in a small size, 8-ohm speaker of some sort. A microphone - In the past, telephone microphones have been as simple as carbon granules compressed between two thin metal plates. Sound waves from our voice compress and decompress the granules, changing the resistance of the granules and modulating the current flowing through the microphone.

E302/1/4 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Figure 1.2 1.2 Telephone Bandwidth

Parts of the telephone set.

In order to allow more long-distance calls to be transmitted, the frequencies transmitted are limited to a bandwidth of about 3000 hertz. All of the frequencies in our voice below 400 hertz and above 3,400 hertz are eliminated. That's why someone's voice on a phone has a distinctive sound. 1.3 Digital Telephone The digital button is the latest technique of dialing. It uses the button to give signal for every one digit. The diagram in figure 1.3 shows the Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF) type of dialing. The button on the phone is connected to a set of oscillators which produces a pair of tone on the local line whenever a button is being pressed. The tone will be detected at the main distributor and the digit will be confirmed. The detector circuits in the main distributor will confirm the tone within 33ms.

E302/1/5 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

697Hz
1 2 3

770Hz
4 5 6

852H z

941
* 0 #

Hz

1209Hz Figure 1.3 Progress Tones

1336Hz

1477Hz

Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF)

The various types of tones generated by the exchange to guide the users are : Dial Tone (DT). This is a 33 c/s continuous note and is applied to the line after the subscriber has lifted his handset and the switching equipment has allocated him an available outlet for this call to proceed. There would have been a physical limit on the number of calls an exchange could handle so if all equipment was already in use, the subscriber would not get a dial tone. Busy Tone (BT). A higher pitched note of 400 c/s interrupts to give a cadence of 0.75 seconds on, 0.75 seconds off. Busy tone indicates either that the called subscriber is already off-hook (busy) or that the route to the called subscriber is congested. In later systems, a slightly different cadence was introduced in order to distinguish between these two scenarios. A busy tone is made up of a 480-hertz and a 620-hertz tone, with a cycle of one and a half second on and one and a half second off.

E302/1/6 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Number Unobtainable Tone (NUT). Identical pitch to the busy tone but continuous. This tone is used to indicate that a number is out of service, faulty or that a spare line has been dialed. Ring Tone (RT). A tone of 133c/s which interrupts in the same cadence as the ring current which rings the telephone bell at the called party's end : 0.4 seconds on, 0.2 seconds off.

E302/1/7 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Telephony System surely makes my job easier. Yahoo !!!

Example 1.1 Do you know the humans voice frequency ? Solution to Example 1.1 The answer is between 300 3400 Hz.

E302/1/8 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Activity 1A

TEST OUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT! 1.1 State THREE main parts of the telephone system and draw the block diagram. 1.2 List and explain FOUR types of the telephone supervisory (progress) tones .

Telephony system makes the world becomes smaller through the usage of the internet. This wont be achieved without the advancement in telephony technology.

E302/1/9 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Feedback To Activity 1A

1.1

There are 3 main parts as shown in figure 1.1 a) Transmitting transducer b) Receiving transducer
c)

One pair wire system

Transmitting Transducer

Conversation Conversation Energy Energy Produces Produces the conversation the conversation energy again energy again

Transmitting Transducer

Receiving Transducer

Receiving Transducer

Figure 1.1 1.2

Telephony Communication Principle

The various types of tones generated by the exchange to guide the users are : Dial Tone (DT). This is a 33 c/s continuous note and is applied to the line after the subscriber has lifted his handset and the switching equipment has allocated him an available outlet for this call to proceed. There would have been a physical limit on the number of calls an exchange could handle so if all equipment was already in use, the subscriber would not get a dial tone. Busy Tone (BT). A higher pitched note of 400 c/s interrupts to give a cadence of 0.75 seconds on, 0.75 seconds off. Busy tone indicates either that the called subscriber is already off-hook (busy) or that the route to the called subscriber is

E302/1/10 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

congested. In later systems, a slightly different cadence was introduced in order to distinguish between these two scenarios. A busy tone is made up of a 480-hertz and a 620-hertz tone, with a cycle of one and a half second on and one and a half second off. Number Unobtainable Tone (NUT). Identical pitch to the busy tone but continuous. This tone is used to indicate that a number is out of service, faulty or that a spare line has been dialed. Ring Tone (RT). A tone of 133c/s which interrupts in the same cadence as the ring current which rings the telephone bell at the called party's end : 0.4 seconds on, 0.2 seconds off.

E302/1/11 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

INPUT

1.4

The Telephone Exchange The telephone exchange is the place where all the telephone lines are connected so that the communication using the humans voice could be achieved. The device in the exchange will act as a switch which contacts whenever it is directed.

1.4.1

The Telephone Connection Between Two Subscribers. The connection process is shown in figure 1.3. 1. When Subscriber A picks up the telephone set, Local Exchange will detect a call request signal from Subscriber A..

2.

Local Exchange will send a dial tone to Subscriber A. 3. Subscriber A starts to dial the numbers. The numbers received will be tested by the Local Exchange.

4.

If the numbers are valid, Local Exchange will test whether the line is available or not.

5.

If the line is available, Local Exchange will do the connection. Local Exchange will send a ringing tone to Subscriber A and the signal to ring the Subscriber Bs telephone. Subscriber B will pick up the telephone set, thus making the dialing tone stop.

E302/1/12 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

6.

If either one of the subscribers hangs up the phone , communication will be disconnected and the Local Exchange will clear the line.

SA SUBSCRIBER A

LOCAL EXCHANGE

2 3 5

SUBSCRIBER

Figure 1.3

Telephone communication between subscribers

1.5

Telephone Network For Local Exchange The telephone network starts from the house. A pair of copper wires runs from a box at the road to a box at our house. Figure 1.4 shows the connection from the exchange to the customers house. From there, the pair of wires is connected to the phone jack in our house. Along the road runs a thick cable packed with 100 or more copper pairs. Depending on where we are located, this thick cable will run directly to the phone company's switch in our area or district and it will run to a box that acts as a digital concentrator (cabinet) The concentrator digitizes the voice at a sample rate of 8,000 samples per second and 8-bit resolution. It then combines the voice with dozens of others and sends them

E302/1/13 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

all down a single wire (usually a coax cable) to the phone company office. Either way, the line connects into a line card at the switch so we can hear the dial tone when we pick up our phone.
Upper Cable Exchange Cabinet IB Cable

DP Box House

Connection

Man - hole

Underground Cable

Figure 1.4

The Connection from the Exchange to the Customer House

Main Distribution Frame (MDF) The Main Distribution Frame is situated at the telephone exchange. It is used to connect the customer (phone user) with the main switching system after passing through the cabinet. It comprises of all the customers and data which are situated in one area or district. The duties of MDF : a) To test the phone line. b) To execute the jumper process. c) To check the problem phone line. d) To cut the phone line manually. e) To connect the phone line manually. Cabinet The cabinet is a place to distribute lines to the DP Box before reaching a customers house as portrayed in figure 1.5. Generally, the cabinet is the end for the main cable where it starts at the Main Distribution Frame and passes through the cabinet.

E302/1/14 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Connection from the cabinet to the main distributor normally uses the lead cable of different sizes where each of it has 200 pairs and to be distributed to about 20 DP Box. From the cabinet to the DP Box, it uses the plastic cable. In the cabinet, there are 1800 pairs of terminals.

Figure 1.5 Cabinet The Cabinets functions are as follows : a. To save the usage of cable and replacing cable would be easier. b. To avoid the joint to be opened and this would save cost and time. c. To act as a place to perform maintenance checking. d. To upgrade the arrangement of lines. Distribution Point Box (DP) The DP Boxs function is to make maintenance work and underground cabling easier. Usually, the DP Box has 10 pairs but only 8 pairs are used and the others kept for testing work from DP Box to the main distributor. Upper Cable The upper cable is used to make connection with the customers using the DP Box. The two wire cable normally is used.

E302/1/15 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Underground Cable The underground cable is connected to the cabinet from the DP through man-holes. The underground cable will end at the telephone exchange.

1.6

The National Telephone Network Hierarchy MSC

ZSC DSC DSC DSC

ZSC DSC

LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

LE

Figure 1.6 The Telephone Network Hierarchy MSC Main Switching Center ( for international call ) ZSC Zone Switching Center ( for call between states in Malaysia ) DSC District Switching Center ( for call between different districts ) LE Local Exchange S Phone User / Subscriber The National Telephone Network Hierarchy is the network that links all the exchanges in one country.

E302/1/16 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Example 1.2 What does DTMF stand for ? Solution to Example 1.2 DTMF (Dual-tone Multi frequency) is a type of dialing system which uses a pair of audio tone to create signals representing the numbers to be dialed. It is also named as Touch Tone.

E302/1/17 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Activity 1B

TEST OUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT!

1.3

Sketch and explain the connection from the exchange to the customer s house.

1.4

Describe with the aid of a suitable diagram the route of your call if you want to make a call from your polytechnic to another polytechnic nearest to you.

E302/1/18 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Feedback To Activity 1B

1.3

The telephone network starts from the house. A pair of copper wires runs from a box at the road to a box at our house. Figure 1.4 shows the connection from the exchange to the customers house. From there, the pair of wires is connected to the phone jack in our house. Along the road runs a thick cable packed with 100 or more copper pairs. Depending on where we are located, this thick cable will run directly to the phone company's switch in our area or district and it will run to a box that acts as a digital concentrator (cabinet) The concentrator digitizes the voice at a sample rate of 8,000 samples per second and 8-bit resolution. It then combines the voice with dozens of others and sends them all down a single wire (usually a coax cable) to the phone company office. Either way, the line connects into a line card at the switch so we can hear the dial tone when we pick up our phone.
Upper Cable Exchange Cabinet IB Cable DP Box

House

Connection Figure 1.4

Man - hole

Underground Cable

The Connection from the Exchange to the Customer House

E302/1/19 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

1.4 If you are at Politeknik Ungku Omar and you want to call a friend at Politeknik Seberang Perai, the route of the call would be as follows:

INPUT

Do you wonder how the telephone exchange works?

1.7

Switching Concept Switch is used to provide a path for the call. The switch performs three main functions to process a call: a) To identify the subscribers location b) To set up the communication path c) To supervise the call By using the jack position, the customers occupying the switchboard can be easily identified. With the introduction of electromechanical switches, customers are given

E302/1/20 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

telephone numbers. The customer's cable pair is terminated and cross-connected to the office equipment at the main distributing frame. Office equipment terminated on the MDF represents a physical location in the switch and a specific telephone number.

1.8

Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN) Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN) is the world's collection of

interconnected voice-oriented public telephone networks. The PSTN consists of a digital backbone of switched circuits together with the analog local loop wiring still found in many residences. The PSTN provides the most popular basis for creating wide area networks (WANs) through both leased lines and dial-up lines between local and remote networks. PSTN is often used in wide area networking and because of its ubiquitous nature local loop connections exist almost everywhere in the world. In relation to the Internet, the PSTN actually furnishes much of the Internet's longdistance infrastructure. Because Internet service providers ISPs pay the long-distance providers for access to their infrastructure and share the circuits among many users through packet-switching, Internet users avoid having to pay usage tolls to anyone other than their ISPs. The process of signal transmission needs switching network such as concentrator, distributor, expander and multiplexer. Combination of all these networks will form a complete PSTN. Concentrator Figure 1.7 shows the concentrator concept in PSTN network.The concentrator unit is controlled directly by the local exchange. All the subscribers can be connected simultaneously at different channels. This will reduce the cost of installation and maintenance.

E302/1/21 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Distributor Distributor

Concentrator Subscribers

Figure 1.7

The traffic concentration in PSTN network.

Distributor Distributor is a network in the middle of the concentrator and the expander as shown in figure 1.8. This unit will connect thousands of subsribers in stages . For example, for every 1000 incoming lines, it will allow 100 outgoings to the distributor at one time.

Concentrator

Incoming channel
Local line 1

Expander

Outgoing channel
Local line 1

Distributor
Local line 1000 Local line 1000

Figure 1.8 Figure 1.8

PSTN Switching Network PSTN Switching Network

E302/1/22 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Expander This unit will expand the actual number of lines giong into the concentrator. The switching process for the expander and the concentrator relies on the number of lines being activated simultaneously. Multiplexer The function of the unit is to send signals from multiple sources through the single channel as potrayed in figure 1.9. This will reduce the number of lines needed. Some of the multiplexing techniques that are widely used are the Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). Demultiplexing is the technique used to regain the input signals at the receiver.

DEMUX

MUX

Information signal 1 Information signal 2

Information signal 1 Information signal 2

Informations igna l 10 are THREE types of switching : The Crossbar Switch, Step by step Generally, there
Switch and Stored Program Control (SPC). 1.9.1 Crossbar Switch (Matrix) It consists of a vertical and horizontal lines. Switches are needed to connect the combination of both lines. The number of crossing can be found with the method by multiplying the input and output of channel and total them up. The

Figure 1.9 Figure 1.9 1.9

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing Techniques Multiplexing and Demultiplexing Techniques Types Of Switching

Inform

E302/1/23 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

number of crossing will be the multiplication of the number of input and output channels. For figure 1.10, the number of crossing is 16. To connect input channel 2 and the output channel 4, the d switch will be activated. This will allow subscriber input 2 and output 4 to communicate. 1 1 2 2 Input Input 3 3 4 4 a a e e ii m m 1 1 b b ff jj n n 2 2 c c g g k k o o 3 3 d d h h ll p p 4 4

Figure 1.10 Figure 1.10 1.9.2 Step-by-Step Switch

Output Output The Matrix Switching The Matrix Switching

Almon Strowger invented the first "automatic" switch in 1890. It was the step by step electromechanical switch. It was first installed in 1892. The name Step-by-Step came from the way the path is set up step-by step as each digit was dialed as shown in figure 1.11. The fundamental process was that telephone calls progressed through switches in steps, each step being made in response to the dialing of a digit. The problems of the Step-by-Step switch were: Power : Required a large amount of electricity to move switch components for call processing Floor Space: Major switch components were made of brass, copper and magnets which were so heavy that required steel reinforcement in the floors where they were installed

E302/1/24 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

High Maintenance: The large number of moving parts in this switch required constant dusting and oiling to ensure connections could be made inside the switch Noise: The contacts were chattering as a physical path is set up through the switch for call processing.

Figure 1.11 Figure 1.11

The Selector Switch The Selector Switch

1.9.3

Stored Program Control (SPC) The Stored Program Control (SPC) is a method of switching using computer to process a call automatically. The computer will operate based on a certain program which can be changed whenever it is needed. Figure 1.12 shows the block diagram of the SPC system.

Memory To store the users activities status in the form of software.. Control Director The program that controls and directs the whole system. File To store the information. DTMF/decodec To decode the signal produced during the dialing process. Scanner To detect the telephone status (on/off hook) and signal from the line. Driver

E302/1/25 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

To on and off the switch. To allow the tones signal to pass through. Central Processing Unit (CPU) To control and execute the program. Tone Generator / Ringer To generate the tones.

Line Saluran
#1 #2

Unit

Switching
#1

Unit

#M Tone Generator DTMF/ Decadic

#n

Scanner
1 2 n

Driver

Ringer

CPU

Memory

Control Director

File

Figure 1.12 Figure 1.12

SPC Switching Block Diagram. SPC Switching Block Diagram.

E302/1/26 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

SPC Exchange Switching Process

i.
ii.

If caller A picks up the telephone set (off hook) , the line will be activated and this will be automatically detected by the scanner. The scanner will identify the location and condition of caller A and inform the CPU.

iii. iv. v.
vi.

Once the feedback is received, the CPU will check the status of A and store it in the memory. The CPU will then connect A and the switching section via the driver. The dial tone will be sent from the generator to A. When A starts dialing, the dial tone will be stopped by the DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) . The frequency representing the dialed number will be stored in the memory.

vii.
viii.

The CPU will identify types of call and the destination. The driver will drive the switching equipment to create a between A and B. path

ix.
x.

The CPU will instruct the ringer to produce the ringing tone for receiver B. The ringing tone will be sent to caller A simultaneously. When B picks up the set, the scanner will detect the answering signal and send it to the CPU. The CPU will direct the ringer to stop the ringing tone and starts the timer .

xi.

After the communication, if anyone of the users hangs up, the scanner will detect the stop signal and send it to the CPU.

xii.

The CPU will store the users bill.

E302/1/27 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

The Advantages of the SPC a) b) The monitoring and maintenance will be easier by inspecting The signaling from the exchange can be operated more the program. efficiently. Any increase in the number of lines will not need the upgrading of the signaling equipment. c) The maintenance cost is low and the speed is faster.

The Disadvantages of the SPC. a) b) Any single minor breakdown will cease the operation of the Will need proper air-conditioned room. exchange.

E302/1/28 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Example 1.3 Elaborate what is meant by the Public Switching Telephone Network (PSTN) Solution to Example 1.3

PSTN (Public Switching Telephone Network) is the world's collection of interconnected voice-oriented public telephone networks. The PSTN consists of a digital backbone of switched circuits together with the analog local loop wiring still found in many residences. The PSTN provides the most popular basis for creating wide area networks (WANs) through both leased lines and dial-up lines between local and remote networks. PSTN is often used in wide area networking because its ubiquitous nature local loop connections exist almost everywhere in the world.

E302/1/29 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Activity 1C

TEST OUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT INPUT! 1.5 True or false. The PSTN provides the most popular basis for creating wide area networks (WANs) through both leased lines and dial-up lines between local and remote networks. 1.6 1.7 State THREE types of telephone switching and mention the main differences between them. Define THREE functions of the switch in the telephone exchange.

E302/1/30 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Feedback To Activity 1C

1.5 1.6

True Matrix (electromechanical), Step by Step (auto electromechanical) and Stored Program Control (fully computerized).

1.7

a) Identify the subscribers location b) Set up the communication path c) Supervise the call

E302/1/31 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

KEY FACTS

1.

In the older telephone, the use of a rotary dialing mechanism produces what is known as pulse dialing.

2.

For the newer telephone, it uses a dialing system known as touchtone. It is also referred to as the dual tone multi frequency (DTMF). 3. Do you know that telephones are connected directly by twisted-pair cable to a local exchange. Each exchange (identified by the first three digits of a phone number) can serve up to 10000 lines.

E302/1/32 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

SELF-ASSESSMENT

You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment given on the next page. If you face any problems, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck. Question 1-1 a. What is the name of the building or facility to which every telephone is connected? Question 1-2 a. Briefly define the terms MDF, DTMF and MSC.
b. c.

List FOUR possible functions of the cabinet. Explain the process of the telephone connection between two subscribers.

d. What is the difference between the upper cable and the underground cable.

Question 1-3 a.
b.

Explain briefly the disadvantages of a step-by-step exchange. PSTN (Public Switching Telephone Network) is the collection of interconnected voice-oriented public telephone networks. Name the FOUR important switching networks in the PSTN and explain.

c.

1 a b 1 a b c c d Based on the diagram in figure 1.10, name the type of d telephone switching the system. Explain the connection that is involved in order to activate j switch. 2 e ff g h 2 e g h Input Input 3 3 4 4 ii m m 1 1 jj n n 2 2 k k o o 3 3 ll p p 4 4

Figure 1.10 Figure 1.10

Output Output The Matrix Switching The Matrix Switching

E302/1/33 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

d. The Stored Program Control (SPC) is a method of switching using computer to process a call automatically. Name all the empty blocks in figure 1.12.

Line Unit
#1 #2

Switching

Line Unit
#1 #M

#n

1 2

Figure 1.12

E302/1/34 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

Feedback To Self-Assessment

Have you tried the questions????? If YES, check your answers now. Answer 1-1 a. The telephone exchange.

Answer 1-2 a. MDF Main Distribution Frame. DTMF- Dual Tone Multi Frequency MSC Main Switching Center. b. The Cabinets functions are as follows : i. To save the usage of cable and replacing cable would be easier. ii. To avoid the joint to be opened and this would save cost and time. iii. To act as a place to perform maintenance checking. iv. To upgrade the arrangement of lines. c.
1

SA SUBSCRIBER A

LOCAL EXCHANGE

2 3 5

SUBSCRIBER B

1.

When Subscriber A picks up the telephone set, Local Exchange will detect a call request signal from Subscriber A..

E302/1/35 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

2. 3.

Local Exchange will send a dial tone to Subscriber A. Subscriber A starts to dial the numbers. The numbers received will be tested by the Local Exchange.

4.

If the numbers are valid, Local Exchange will test whether the line is available or not.

5.

If the line is available, Local Exchange will do the connection. Local Exchange will send a ringing tone to Subscriber A and the signal to ring the Subscriber Bs telephone. Subscriber B will pick up the telephone set, thus making the dialing tone stop.

6.

If either one of the subscribers hangs up the phone , communication will be disconnected and the Local Exchange will clear the line.

d. Upper Cable :The upper cable is used to make connection with the customers using the DP Box. The two wire cable is normally used. Underground Cable : The underground cable is connected to the cabinet from the DP through man-holes. The underground cable will end at the telephone exchange. Answer 1-3 a. The disadvantages of the Step-by-Step switch were: Power : Required a large amount of electricity to move switch components for call processing Floor Space: Major switch components were made of brass, copper and magnets which were so heavy that required steel reinforcement in the floors where they were installed

E302/1/36 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

High Maintenance: The large number of moving parts in this switch required constant dusting and oiling to ensure connections could be made inside the switch Noise: The contacts were chattering as a physical path was set up through the switch for call processing.

b.

Concentrator: The concentrator unit is controlled directly by the local exchange. All the subscribers can be connected simultaneously at the different channels. This will reduce the cost of installation and maintenance. Distributor : Distributor is a network in the middle of the concentrator and the expander as shown in figure 1.8. This unit will connect thousands of subsribers in stages . Expander : This unit will expand the actual number of lines giong into the concentrator. The switching process for the expander and the concentrator relies on the number of lines being activated simultaneously. Multiplexer : The function of the unit is to send signals from multiple sources through the single channel. This will reduce the number of lines needed. Some of the multiplexing techniques that are widely used are the Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). Demultiplexing is the technique to regain the input signals at the receiver. Combination of all these networks will form a complete PSTN.

c.

To activate j switch, the input channel 3 and output channel 2 must be connected.

E302/1/37 INTRODUCTION TO TELEPHONY NETWORK

d.

Line Unit
#1 #2

Switching

Line Unit
#1

#M Tone Generator DTMF/ Decadic

#n

Scanner
1 2 n

Driver

Ringer

CPU

Memory

Control Director

File