SOLHYCARB

WIS Report about design, construction and calibration of a 10 kW beam down optical system and about construction of prototype reactor SR10 Workpackage 3: Design and construction of Prototype and Pilot Solar Reactors Deliverable D3.1: Report about design, construction and calibration of a 10 kW beam down optical system, SR5 and SR10 constructed

1. Introduction The design, construction and calibration of a 10 kW beam down optical system and the design and construction of reactor SR10 are two main complementary sub-tasks in the development of the Prototype scale 10 kW solar reactor system. The following is a sequential description of the work performed recently at WIS on each of these two sub-tasks.

2. Design, construction and calibration of a 10 kW beam down optical system 2.1. Design and construction of the 10 kW beam down optical system

A convenient method for attainment of very high solar concentration, as is required for performance of chemical reactions at quite elevated temperatures, is by subjecting the solar radiation concentrated by a heliostat to a second stage of concentration. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate schematically this concentration method. It was first applied in our laboratory in 1994, during our work on hydrogen production by solar thermal water splitting. The rays concentrated by a heliostat were deflected by a 70 cm 120 cm plane deflector D' into the vertical direction towards the highly concentrating secondary paraboloid mirror C' ( 63 cm 17.5 cm f.d). The reactor R was located with its axis coincident with the axis of symmetry of C' and with its quartz window located near the focal plane of C' (Fig. 3). Due to the relatively small diameter of the secondary concentrator C', most of the solar radiation reflected by the heliostat was spilled around it. Originally, it collected solar radiation into the reactor at a rate of up to 3 kW, and since we were unable to remove dust that accumulated on its front-coated surface, its solar power output dropped sharply with time. With that optical system, we were able to heat steam close to 2000C [1].

Figure 1. Heliostat secondary concentrator optical system

Figure 2. Close-up of part of Figure 1. 63 cm 17.5 cm f.d. secondary concentrator

Figure 3. The STWS test loop on floor 7 4

During 2000, we acquired an old 154 cm 64 cm paraboloid glass mirror (Zeiss 1944), which was installed on floor 7 of the WIS solar tower. It served our PhD student R. Bertocchi during the work on his thesis on "Solar Radiation to Thermal Energy Conversion in a Non-Isothermal Particle Laden Gas Flow at Very High Temperatures" [2]. A copper calorimeter with internally milled flow channels was used by Dr. Bertocchi to measure incident solar power on an aperture. By attaching the calorimeter to the rear of the base of a reactor window, the net solar power entering the reactor cavity was measured. The experimental data obtained with a clean window at solar intensities in the range 650 < Isun < 1000 W/m2 were correlated by the equation P(kW) = 2.208 + 0.01466 Isun (1)

According to this result, the net power entering into the reactor cavity at a solar intensity of 850 W/m2 is P = 10.2 kW (2)

In 2002, we were able to acquire an additional identical mirror, to be used in the frame of our Solar Thermal Methane Splitting (STMS) project. This mirror C was also installed on floor 7 of the solar tower, replacing the small secondary concentrator C'. The optical layout is similar to the one used with concentrator C'. It is illustrated schematically in Figure 4. An appropriately enlarged plane water-cooled deflector D with dimensions 120 cm 220 cm was constructed. It replaced the old deflector D'. All the structural components necessary for the installation of secondary concentrator C, plane deflector D and reactor R have been constructed and assembled in the test loop. An octagonal stainless steel structure (Fig. 5) serves as a supporting frame for secondary concentrator C, which rests freely on its upper surface. The frame and mirror assembly was transported by vertical and horizontal translations to its final position on top of a 4 meter high steel structure, using an elevator and two monorail hoists (Figs. 6 and 7). The plane deflector D and the XYZ table which supports the solar reactor R were also attached to the high steel structure, with provision of adequate degrees of freedom to enable alignment of the optical system so as to render the image of the heliostat to a predetermined position on a plane normal to the reactor axis of symmetry. The components of the enhanced optical system are rather bulky and heavy. The 155 cm secondary concentrator and the new plane deflector weigh more than 100 kg each. The solar reactor is still not that heavy, but it might gain in weight soon, as a result of changes in geometry and size. They are too heavy to be handled manually in the process of test loop assembly.

Figure 4. Close-up of part of Figure 1. 155 cm 64.1 cm f.d. secondary concentrator

Figure 5. Stainless steel frame for secondary concentrator

Figure 6. Framed mirror deposited on mirror base

Figure 7. Erection of the supporting structure for the big mirror (a) 9

A straightforward method to solve this problem would be to construct a monorail hoist that should enable pickup of each component at a fixed delivery location and its transportation to its predetermined final position in the loop. Application of this method would dictate the temporal sequence of installation of components. The plane deflector would have to be installed first, then the solar reactor and finally, on top of them, the secondary concentrator. This is a stringent requirement for the assembly of an R&D test loop. Any temporary removal of the reactor from the test loop would necessitate the prior removal of the big secondary concentrator, with the risk of spoiling it. We decided therefore to adopt a more flexible method of test loop assembly. The circa 20 m-long installed monorail hoist is devoted exclusively to the transportation of the secondary concentrator from the elevator platform across the 7th floor room to the top of the test loop location. A short (4 m) auxiliary monorail hoist was designed to enable hoisting and installation of the solar reactor and plane deflector without necessitating disassembly of the concentrator. The secondary monorail can be installed just below the big concentrator, leading in a direction perpendicular to the main monorail direction. In order (e.g.) to install the plane deflector in its planned position in the test loop, it is transferred with a carriage along the laboratory floor to the secondary monorail pickup point, from which it is lifted and translated by the secondary monorail to its destination point. The secondary monorail hoist was designed so as to be easily installed or dismantled by a single technician in a matter of half an hour. It is installed in the test loop only when needed. Before solar tests, it is dismantled, in order not to be in the way of the incoming solar radiation. The dismantling operation of the secondary monorail from the test loop supporting structure is illustrated in the sequence of Figures 8 to 11. The 120 cm 220 cm plane deflector has been fabricated. The deflector and reactor were installed in their planned locations underneath the big secondary concentrator without having to remove it from its final position, by using the short auxiliary monorail hoist. Figures 12 to 14 depict these assembled pieces of equipment. Figure 12 is a picture of the plane deflector and the reactor installed underneath the secondary concentrator. Figure 13 is a side view of assembled plane deflector, reactor and big secondary concentrator aligned along a vertical axis. The short monorail hoist which enabled us to install the deflector and the reactor in the test loop without disturbing the secondary concentrator from its location was dismantled before this picture was taken. It is seen in Figure 14 in its resting place on the balcony surrounding the big concentrator.

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Figure 8

Figures 8 to 11. Consecutive steps in dismantling the secondary monorail from the test loop supporting structure

11

Figure 9

12

Figure 10

13

Figure 11

14

Figure 12. Plane deflector and solar reactor installed underneath secondary concentrator

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Figure 13. Side view of the assembled plane deflector, the reactor and the big secondary concentrator

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Figure 14. The dismantled monorail hoist deposited on its resting place near the big concentrator

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2.2.

Calibration of optical system

During our work with the small secondary concentrator ( 63 cm 17.5 cm f.d) we used to focus the concentrated radiation on the reactor window by the following simple process of trial and error: A metal disc was placed on the external face of the reactor window, the axis of symmetry of the disc coinciding with the axis of the reactor (Figure 15). The disc was exposed for a short time interval to the radiation concentrated by the secondary mirror. The deviations X and Y of the center of the hot spot from the center of the disc were measured with a caliper and the location of the reactor on the XYZ table was corrected accordingly. This procedure was repeated until the deviations X and Y became negligible. Figure 16 illustrates three discs exposed in sequence to radiation, following the procedure described above. This method of focusing radiation on target was satisfactory with the small secondary concentrator. When the 154 cm 64.1 cm f.d. concentrator replaced the smaller concentrator, this operation became rather bulky, and it yielded vague results. Figure 17 shows the imprint of the hot spot left on a metal disc exposed to radiation concentrated by the big secondary concentrator. It is hard to determine the exact location of the point of highest solar concentration in Fig. 17. We switched therefore to the following alternative method of calibration of an optical system composed of a heliostat H, a plane deflector D, a secondary concentrator C and a reactor R equipped with a window W. In its final adjusted condition, the optical system must fulfill the following conditions: A.1. A.2. A.3. A.4. The axes of symmetry of the secondary concentrator and of the reactor must point into the vertical direction. The two axes of symmetry must coincide. The common axis of symmetry should intercept the deflector surface at its central point. A vertical laser beam striking the deflector surface at its central point A should be deflected into a direction passing through the central point B of the horizontal shaft of heliostat H.

In order to fulfill the above conditions, we performed the following sequence of operations: B.1. We checked with a water filled plastic leveling tube that the secondary concentrator rests on its supporting structure in a horizontal position. The deviation from horizontal was less 1 rad. than 1500

B.2.

A metal beam was attached temporarily to the octagonal structure that supports permanently the secondary concentrator. A cylindrical hole was drilled through the mid-point of the beam, the axis of symmetry of this hole coinciding with the axis of symmetry of the concentrator. The quartz window and the reactor exit tube were removed from the reactor. A plummet was dropped from the vertical hole in the middle of a removable horizontal beam through the opened reactor cavity. Thus we were able to verify that axes of symmetry of C and R are vertical lines. The reactor position was adjusted on the XYZ table by X and Y translations, so as to bring the axes of symmetry of C and R to coincide. The central point A on the surface of deflector D was designated by a marker. The position of deflector D was then adjusted by translations in the X and Y directions until the vertical line defined by the plummet passed through point A.

B.3.

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B.4.

Now the orientation of deflector D had to be varied by rotations around a vertical and a horizontal axis, so as to cause a vertical beam of light striking the deflector D at point A to be deflected towards heliostat H, as stipulated by condition A.4 above. This was achieved by repeating step B.4 after sunset. The plummet was removed from the vertical hole and a laser pointer replaced it. The collimated vertical laser beam was intercepted by deflector D at point A. The curtain in the North wall on floor 7 of the solar tower was opened to let the reflected laser light propagate outside the tower. The spot where the laser beam reaches the ground was easily spotted in the darkness of night. The orientation of deflector D was changed until the laser spot fell on the marked central point B on heliostat H.

3. Construction of reactor SR10 3.1. Our basic guidelines in the design of STMS test reactors

1. The reactor window will be protected from contact with incandescent Carbon Black (CB) particles by maintaining a confined tornado flow configuration inside the reaction chamber. 2. The pressure inside the reaction chamber will be slightly above 1 atg in order to be able to discharge the reaction products from the reaction chamber without the use of a vacuum pump. 3. The maximum pressure inside the reaction chamber will be within such limits as to prevent reactor window shattering due to excessive pressure difference across the window under STMS test conditions. 4. The reactor will be designed for operation at a maximum temperature of up to 2000C. This desideratum is dictated by the fact that valuable CB nano tubes are expected to be produced by STMS at such high temperatures. 5. The maximum gas flowrates through the reaction chamber will be determined by the thermal energy rate available to power the STMS reaction. 6. The reactor window surface temperature will be maintained well below the maximum quartz working temperature.

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Figure 15. Metal disc used for adjustment of location of secondary concentrator focal spot

Figure 16. Three stages in the process of correction of concentrated radiation focusing

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Figure 17. Imprint of the hot spot left on a metal disc exposed to radiation concentrated by the big secondary concentrator

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3.2.

Early versions of STMS test reactors

Some early versions of STMS test reactors used in our laboratory M2a, M4f, D2 and D3 were discussed in references [3] and [4]. Reactor C3, which was described during the SOLHYCARB kick off meeting in Brussels (March 2006), is illustrated in Figures 18, 19, 20 and 21. This design is closest to our up-to-date reactor version. Reactor C3 was designed to solve simultaneously some problems connected directly with the tornado flow configuration and with structural and materials problems anticipated in testing at elevated temperatures. Cross sections of reactor C3 are shown in Figures 19 and 20. The cavity contour of reactor C3 is modeled after that of reactor D3. Based on the experience gained from the performance of reactor D3, reactor C3 was equipped with the two entries for injection of tertiary flows F3,1 and F3,2 into the reactor. Out of the five powder injection ducts present in reactor D3, only ducts d2 and d3 proved to be of practical value. They were incorporated in the design of reactor C3. In order to ensure close tolerances of the narrow passages for the main flow F1 (Methane), the secondary flow F2 and the tertiary flows F3,1 and F3,2, these passages are defined in reactor C3 as gaps between fine coaxial metal elements, which fit closely together. The ample spaces between these metal elements were filled with contoured sheets of high quality alumina-insulating board (Zircar SALI). Concentrated solar radiation supplied by the optical system enters into the reactor cavity through a 0.4-cm thick polished quartz window. The aperture for admission of radiation into the reactor cavity had initially a diameter of 3.8 cm. The maximum concentration of solar energy reached at the focal plane of the secondary concentrator was close to 5000 suns. The radiation reflected by the secondary concentrator was contained within a cone with an 84.3 half angle. Since the external surface of the stainless steel flange that forms the ceiling of the reactor cavity was a cone with a half angle of 72, part of the radiation reflected by the secondary concentrator impinged upon this flange. In order to protect the flange from overheating, it was cooled by water flown in a circular duct along the periphery of the flange. The products of reaction were discharged from the reactor cavity to the quenching chamber through a vertical tube, which extends about 20 cm into the water-spraying zone (Fig. 20). All the CB powder was thus wetted and entrained by water to the filtration section. The gas phase could be safely extracted from the quenching chamber through an exit port located well above the waterspraying region, free of entrained powder. The pressure, pr, in the reactor cavity during test operation is slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure. The small pressure difference
p = pr patm

is determined by the exit gas flowrate and the geometric dimensions of the gas exit tube.

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Figure 18. Seeded STMS test setup

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Figure 19. Cross section of C3 reaction chamber

24

Figure 20. Cross section of reactor C3

25

Figure 21. Components of reactor C3

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The mixture of water and powder flowed by gravity from the quenching chamber to the filter and the filtered water was discharged to the atmosphere through a U-tube. The U-tube exit section was located somewhat below the filter exit section, in order to avoid flooding of the filter compartment. The height of the U-tube was large enough to provide a permanent water seal of the filter. Escape of gas to the atmosphere through the filter compartment was thus avoided.
3.3. Design of secondary concentrator reactor window configuration for Prototype SR10

The 63 cm-17.5 cm f.d. high concentration paraboloid mirror used during the first phase of the STMS, SR test program was a fine tool, which helped us to realize that a quartz window can be shattered not only by coming into contact with a powder while it is exposed to concentrated radiation. Even in the absence of powder within the reaction chamber there are certain limits to the local radiation flux intensity I to which a quartz disc can be exposed without damage. The 155 cm-64 cm f.d. secondary concentrator presently installed in our optical system will collect about five times more solar energy than the small worn out concentrator that served us in the past. We must mobilize any available technical means in order to prevent the possibility of reactor window damage due to overheating.
3.3.1. Alleviation of the window overheating problem by distancing the window from the secondary concentrator focal plane

Figure 22 is a schematic representation of the paths of extreme rays reflected by the 155 cm 64.1 cm f.d. secondary concentrator AB. The rhombus with diagonal CD represents the region of maximum concentration of solar radiation produced by the concentrator at a given insolation (the hot spot) (CD 6.0 cm). Figure 23 illustrates a secondary concentrator reactor configuration, in which the reactor axis of symmetry coincides with the concentrator axis, and the upper surface of the quartz window coincides with the diagonal CD of the hot spot. From past experience it is plausible to assume that for an 800 W/m2 insolation, the temperature in the central region of the window will surpass 1250 K, leading to window destruction. One could improve the configuration shown in Figure 23 by moving the reactor along its axis of symmetry towards the concentrator, thus displacing the upper surface of the window to a position EF (Figs. 22 and 24), where the concentration is sufficiently reduced (Improvement A). But there is a heavy penalty connected with this solution. All the rays reflected at points on arc GH of the concentrator are received by the reactor, but part of the rays reflected at points along AG and along HB are spilled outside window EF. These rays represent a loss of energy and they also increase the cooling load necessary to protect the external reactor structure from overheating. Improvement B to our problem is a variant of improvement A, in which the reactor is placed in the same location relative to the concentrator, but the window aperture is increased to some degree. Part of the spilled rays in improvement A are now received by the reactor, at the penalty of an increased loss of energy by radiation from the reactor cavity to the outside atmosphere through an increased window area. Improvement B can be applied advantageously by optimizing the window area so as to reach a maximum net energy saving. Following a third improvement, the quartz window is separated from the reactor aperture (Improvement C, Figs. 22 and 25). Here the reactor aperture is located along the diagonal of the 27

concentrator hot spot whereas the quartz window is placed at a location IJ, closer to the concentrator. In this configuration, all the rays reflected by the concentrator can be received by the reactor while the window is not exposed to excessive concentration of solar energy. The penalty in this case is a considerably enlarged window size and the need to provide tornado flow conditions in the frustum volume between reactor window and aperture. A reactor windowsecondary concentrator configuration following improvement C was applied recently by Bertocchi, in order to heat inert gases to very high temperatures by concentrated solar radiation [2]. Bertocchi applied an optical system similar to ours for concentration of solar radiation, with an identical secondary concentrator. The distance between the window front surface and the secondary concentrator focal plane was d = 38 mm (Fig. 25). The quartz window surface temperature was measured by an IR scanner. For an insolation I = 918 W/m2 the maximum temperature detected at the center of the window was 1100 K, safely below the operational temperature limit for fused quartz.

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Figure 22. Schematic representation of the path of extreme rays reflected by a secondary concentrator

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Figure 23. Secondary concentrator reactor configuration with reactor window placed at the concentrator focal spot (The basic configuration)

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Figure 24. First improvement to the basic configuration

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Figure 25. Third improvement to the basic configuration

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3.3.2. Cooling the reactor window by gas flow

Establishment of a tornado flow configuration in the reaction chamber has a slight effect of window cooling. In this flow configuration the auxiliary gas is introduced radially into the reaction chamber along the window periphery, usually at room temperature. It flows along the inner surface of the window as a thin layer of fluid. The cooling effect of this stream upon the window is rather limited because the flowrate of the auxiliary stream is very small. Yet it is possible to extract heat from the quartz window at a more significant rate by blowing jets of cooling gas on the exterior surface of the reactor window. The following elementary experiment was undertaken in order to enable a judicious design of reactor window cooling by gas jets directed to the external surface of the window. A thin layer of talc is spread over the horizontal surface of a polished metal plate. A jet of air leaving the flattened end of a round copper tube is directed at an angle towards the plate surface. Talc powder is swept away completely from a well defined area of the plate (Fig. 26). The following parameters have an influence on the shape and size of the area S from which talc powder is removed by the jet action: F w h H jet flowrate tube diameter width of flattened tube exit section breadth of flattened tube exit section angle between jet axis and horizontal plate surface height of jet exit above plate surface

The thoroughly cleaned area S resembles half of an elongated ellipse with semi-axes a and b. The length a and width 2b of the plate area swept thoroughly by the air jet were determined by experiment. The jet inclination angle was not varied during the experiments because it is dictated by the optics of our available secondary concentrator, = 30. The internal width of the rectangular jet exit section of the flattened copper tube was also kept constant, h = 0.5 mm. In a first series of experiments, the height of the jet exit section above the horizontal plate was kept constant, H = 30 mm. Three tube diameters were used to generate the air jet in this test series, '', '' and ''. During each test, the air flowrate was varied in the range 5-25 L/M. The values of the parameters a and 2b that describe approximately the plate area swept by the jet are shown in Table 1. All the remaining tests were performed with a constant copper tube diameter, d = ''. The height of the jet exit section above the horizontal plate H was varied within the range 1 30 mm. During each test the jet flowrate was varied within the range 10-50 L/M. The results of these tests are shown in Table 2. We chose tentatively the jet characterized by the parameters H = 10 mm d = '' h = 0.5 mm = 30 F = 50 L/M 33

as the building block for external cooling of the reactor quartz window by air jets. approximate plate area swept by this typical jet is illustrated in Figure 27.

The

The diameter of the new reactor window surface exposed to the outer atmosphere is 200 mm. It is cooled by an array of three typical air jets disposed symmetrically around the rim of the window, as shown in Figure 28. These jets overlap partly. Together they cover completely the exposed quartz window area that has to be cooled. A flow of 150 L/M is supplied to a circular manifold installed above the window, from which the flow is distributed to the three jets, as illustrated in Figures 29 and 30. Figure 31 illustrates talc powder removal from the surface of a 200 mm quartz window during the first 4 seconds of airflow for a total airflow 60 FAIR 150 L/M It is hoped that by the simultaneous application of the two methods described above we will succeed to bring down the maximum temperature on the window surface during the impending STMS tests far below 1250 K. We shall then be able to reduce the jet flowrates and/or the distance between the reactor aperture and the focal plane of the secondary concentrator in a judicious way.

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Table 1. Influence of air jet geometry and flowrate upon dimensions of plate area swept by the jet

H mm 30

d inch

w mm 5

h mm 0.5

30

30

11

0.5

30

30

17

0.5

30

F L/M 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25

a mm 50 60 75 105 130 30 45 80 80 120 15 45 55 65 90

2b mm 35 65 80 100 130 25 45 80 120 160 15 35 50 65 95

Table 2. Influence of air jet flowrate and of height of jet exit section above plate surface upon dimensions of plate area swept by the jet

H mm 1

d inch

w mm 11

h mm 0.5

30

11

0.5

30

10

11

0.5

30

20

11

0.5

30

30

11

0.5

30

F L/M 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50

a mm 40 80 130 210 290 30 100 130 170 210 20 45 90 105 150 15 50 75 110 150 75 100 210 220

2b mm 10 20 35 60 130 20 55 90 110 160 20 45 90 105 150 15 55 75 110 150 75 100 180 200

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Figure 26. Talc powder swept away by an air jet directed at an angle of 30 to a horizontal polished metal plate

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Figure 27. Approximate plate area swept by a single typical jet at an air flowrate of 50 L/M

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Figure 28. Schematic illustration of the partly overlapping areas on the 200 mm quartz window swept by an array of three typical 50 L/M air jets

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Figure 29. (a) Reactor aperture and window; (b) Triple air jet manifold

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Figure 30. Reactor window and triple air jet manifold assembly

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Figure 31. Talc powder removed from the 200 mm quartz window by an array of three typical air jets. The starting jet transient

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3.4.

Summary of the features of reactor SR10

Figure 32 is a cross section of reactor SR10. Figure 33 is an enlarged detail of part of Figure 32. The geometries of the reaction chamber and of the reaction products quenching chamber of reactor SR10 are almost identical to those of reactor C3. Thus it was possible to reuse most of the metal structure of reactor C3 in the design and construction of reactor SR10. The changes described below had to be made in order to upgrade reactor SR10 to withstand working temperatures up to 2000C and to be able to extract the reaction products from the reaction chamber in a dry condition, as requested by Dr. Grivei (TIMCAL). 1. The quartz window in reactor SR10 was separated from the reaction chamber aperture by translating it 38 mm towards the secondary concentrator. The 100 mm quartz disc that served as a window in reactor C3 was replaced by a 200 mm quartz disc. 2. The pair of enlarged flanges that fasten the window to reactor SR10 are thoroughly watercooled in order to protect the O-rings from overheating. During a routine diagnostics test, reactor SR10 was exposed to concentrated solar radiation. The solar radiation intensity was rather mild, below 750 W/m2. A stream of nitrogen was maintained through the reaction chamber. The Nitrogen flowrate was diminished with time in order to raise the chamber wall temperature. The temperature on the outside surface of the window was measured by an IMPAC Infratherm Pyrometer (IN 5/5 plus). When external air-cooling of the window was actuated with a total cooling airflow of 150 L/M, the temperature on the external surface of the window dropped by approximately 250C. During the above described test, the reaction chamber wall temperature surpassed apparently 1700C. Fig. 34 is a picture of the reaction chamber, taken after removal of the reactor window. Part of the ZIRCAR SALI insulation disappeared, apparently due to erosion or sublimation. 3. In line with the above results, the external air-cooling manifold described above (Fig. 30) was incorporated as a permanent feature of reactor SR10. 4. The ZIRCAR SALI insulation was replaced by ZIRCAR Zirconia Insulating Board Type ZYFB6 (Tmax.working = 2200C). 5. The products of reaction in reactor SR10 will be quenched to a temperature below 1000C by mixture with N2 (instead of water). They will leave the quenching chamber through a 2.5 meter long water-cooled tube to a filtration chamber. 6. The separated gas is discharged to the atmosphere outside the solar tower through an array of 5 water-bubbling check-valves. Samples of gas are diverted to a VARIAN 3900 Gas Chromatograph for analysis.

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Figure 32. Cross section of reactor SR10

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Figure 33. Enlarge detail of Figure 32

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Figure 34. Picture of eroded ZIRCAR SALI insulation

References

[1] Kogan A., Direct solar thermal splitting of water and on-site separation of the products. II. Experimental feasibility study. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 23(2), 89-98, 1998. [2] Bertocchi R., Solar Radiation to Thermal Energy Conversion in a Non-Isothermal Particle Laden Flow at Very High Temperatures. Ph.D. Thesis, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel, Dec 2002. [3] Kogan M. and Kogan A., Production of hydrogen and carbon by solar thermal methane splitting. I. The unseeded reactor. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 28, 1187-1198, 2003. [4] Kogan A., Kogan M. and Barak S., Production of hydrogen and carbon by solar thermal methane splitting. II. Room temperature simulation tests of seeded solar reactor. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 29, 1227-1236, 2004. [5] Kogan A and Kogan M., The tornado flow configuration An effective method for screening of a solar reactor window. Transactions of the ASME, J. Solar Energy Engineering, 124, 206214, 2002.

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