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contributions
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Revision techniques 4 The heart. energy and exercise so
How to use this Revision Guide 5
Homeostasis 52
Health, exercise and sport 54
Question types in GCE Biology 6
Topic 7 checklist 56
Unit 4: The Natural Environment and Species
ResultsPlus: Build Better Answers 57
Survival
Practice questions 58
Topic 5: On the wild side 8
Topic 8: Grey matter 60
Photosynthesis | 8
Responding to the environment 60
Photosynthesis 2 10
Neurones and nerve impulses 62
Energy transfer, abundance and distribution 12
Vision 65
Investigating numbers and distribution 14
The structure of the human brain 66
Speciation and evolution 16
Brain development 67
Greenhouse gases and the carbon cycle 18
Learning and habituation 69
Impacts of global warming 20
Effects of imbalances in brain chemicals 70
Topic 5 checklist 22
Uses of genetic modification 72
ResultsPlus: Build Better Answers 23
Topic 8 checklist 74
Practice questions 24
ResultsPlus: Build Better Answers 75
Topic 6: Infection, immunity and forensics 26
Practice questions 76
Decay and decomposition 26
Unit 5 specimen paper 78
DNA profiling 28
Unit 5 comprehension practice 82
DNA and protein synthesis 30
Unit 6: Practical Biology and Investigative Skills 84
Infectious diseases and the immune response 32
Getting started with your investigation 84
Infection, prevention and control 34
Planning 85
Topic 6 checklist 36
Planning- trial investigations 86
ResultsPlus: Build Better Answers 37
Observing and recording 87
Practice questions 38
Dealing with data 88
Unit 4 specimen paper 40
Interpreting and evaluating 89
Unit 5: Exercise and Coordination
Answers to in-text questions 90
Topic 7: Run for your life 44
Answers to practice questions 95
Muscles and movement 44
Answers to specimen paper questions 99
L Energy and the role o= ATP in respiration 46
Index 102
Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain 48
L
.
I

l
l
Check the spec.
If you use resources from
elsewhere, make sure they cover
the right content at the right level.
Getting started can be the hardest part of revision, but don't leave it too late. Revise
little and often I Don't spend too lon
g
on any one section, but revisit it several times,
and if there is something you don't understand, ask your teacher for help.
Just reading through your notes is not enough. Take an active approach using some of
the revision techniques suggested below.
Active I

works best when

Test yourself
Make sure you don't end up just copying out your notes in full. Use some of these
techniques to produce condensed notes.
Tables and lists to present information concisely
Index cards to record the most important points for each section
Flow charts to identify steps in a process
Dia
g
1 ams to present information visually
Spider diagrams, mind maps and concept maps to show the links between ideas
Mnemonics to heir you remember lists
Glossaries to make sure you know clear definitions of key terms
Include page references to your notes or textbook. Use colour and hi
g
hlightin
g
to pick
out key terms.
Using a variety of approaches will prevent your revision beco-ing boring and will
make more of the ideas stick. Here are some methods to try.
Explain ideas to a partner and ask each other questions.
Make a podcast and play it back to yourself.
Use PowerPoint to make interactive notes and tests.
Search the internet for animations, tests and tutorials that you can use
Work in a group to create and use games and quizzes.
Once you have revised a topic, you need to check that you can remember and apply
what you have learnt.
Use the questions from your textbook and this revision
g
uide.
Get someone to test you on key points.
Try some past exam questions.
I
I
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I
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~
Welcome to your Edexcel A2 Biology Revision Guide, perfect whether you're
studying Salters Nuffield Advanced Biology (the orange book), or the 'concept-led'
approach to Edexcel Biology (the green book).
This unique guide provides you with tailored support, written by senior examiners.
They draw on real 'ResultsPius' exam data from past A-level exams, and have used this
to identify common pitfalls that have caught out other students, and areas on which
to focus your revision. As you work your way through the topics, look out for the
following features throughout the text.
ResultsPlus Examiner's Tip
These sections help you perform to your best in the exam by highlighting key
terms and information, analysing the questions you may be asked, and showing
how to approach answering them. All of this is based on data from real-life A-level
students!
Resuli:sPius Watch Out
The examiners have looked back at data from previous exams to find the common
pitfalls and mistakes made by students- and guide you on how to avoid repeating
them in your exam.
Quick Questions
Use these questions as a quick recap to test your knowledge as you progress.
Thinking Task
These sections provide further research or analysis tasks to develop your
understanding and help you revise.
Worked Example
The examiners guide you through complex equations and concepts, providing step
by-step guidance on how to tackle exam questions.
Each topic also ends with:
-opic Checklist
This summarises what you should know for this topic, which specification point
each checkpoint covers and where in the guide you can revise it. Use it to record
your progress as you revise.
ResultsPius Build Better Answers
Here you will find sample exam questions with exemplar answers, examiner tips
and a commentary comparing both a basic and an excellent response; so you can
see how to get the highest marks.
:actice Questions
Exam-style questions, including multiple-choice, offer plenty of practice ahead of
the exam.
Both Unit 4 and Unit ' conclude with a Specimen Paper to test your learning. These
are not intended as timed, full-length papers, but provide a range of exam-style
practice questions covering the range of content likely to be encountered within
the exam.
The final unit consists of advice and support on research skills, giving guidance on
Practical Assessment to help you write better individual investigations.
Answers to all the in-text questions, as well as detailed, mark-by-mark answers to the
specimen papers, can be found at the back of the book.
We hope you find this guide invaluable. Best of luck I
COOL2
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Control
Organism
Repeat
Measure
Same
-Are you investigating simply with I without a particular factor?
What range of values are you looking atl
-Are you using organisms of the same sex I age 1 size I species?
-Take readings more than once and average
-What are you measuring? How will you measure this? What units?
-Which variable(s) are you keeping constant?
Other HSW questions may concentrate on ethical issues surrounding topics such as
gene therapy or GM foods.
r1CQCcOr O\ _|QH5
The graph below shows the results of a survey in America, on the incidence of heart
disease in adults aged 1 8 and older.
Using the information in the graph, describe how the 1ncidence of heart disease is
affected by age and gender.
(3)
soo

400

: -
g 300
C 0
.o
(o
g zoo


_
:_ '
C 100
18-44 4S-64 6S-74 7S and over
Key
_ female
male
You almost always get one mark for stating the general trend-in this case that the
incidence of heart rate increases, with increasing age, for both genders. You can then
concentrate on individual aspects of the data. In this case, what stands out most is that
females have a lower incidence of heart disease than males, except in the 18-44 age
group. You may also comment that the difference between the incidence in males and
females is largest in the 65-74 age group.
Finally, there is always one mark for manipulation of data. Note that this must
be manipulation -you don't get marks for reading off the graph and stating the
numbers, you have to do something with them!
=CrOO QUC5?O5
In the A2 units (Topic and Topic 5) you will come across questions with larger
numbers of marks, perhaps up to 6 or 7 marks in the question.
Questions in these units are designed to be synoptic-in other words, they are
designed for you to show knowledge gained in earlier units. Bear this in mind when
you answer the question: try to include relevant knowledge from your AS course when
answering these questions.
Remember, too, that if the question is worth 6 marks, you need to make six
creditworthy points. Think about the points that you will make and put them together
in a logical sequence when you write your answer. On longer quest1ons, the examiners
will be looking at your QWC (Quality of Written Communication) as well as the
answer you g1ve.
Unit 4: The Natural Environment and Species Survival

-_P sr
c ewe"
. c-V I . r, `
In Topic 7, Run for your life, you will
meet a very similar substance to
NAOP, called NAD. It too accepts
electrons but try not mix up the two.
Photosynthesis involves the r,.duction of carbon dioxid (CC_to carbohydrate_
These carbohydrates can be used to provide egy in respiration (see Toprc 7 T he
hydrogen for this process comes from the spl itting of water by light, the waste oxygen
being released into the atmosphere .
This can be summarised like this:
ZH20 from the soil
/
4H
02
;co, f<Om <h "m"Ph'"
Z('H20)
Diagram showing the main steps in photosynthesis. Light energy splits
strong bonds in water to give hydrogen and oxgen (which is released
to the armosphere)_ The hydrogen is stored in a fuel (glucose) by
reducing carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.
If you imagine the above happening three times, you have C6H1206, which is glucose
(and a number of other sugars, see Topic || AS).
So, the overall equation is:
The splitting of water by light is called photolysis. T he energy for this step is first
trapped by a pigment molecule called chlorophyll.
The overall process is achieved in two linked stages called the light-dependent
reactions and the light-independent reactions.
light-dependent
reactions
reduced NADP
light-independent
reactions
Summar of photosynthesis showing the linked light-dependent reactions (in which water is split
and ATP and reduced NADP are made). and the light-independent reacti ons (in which the energy
from ATP and reducing power from reduced NADP are used to make sugar).
Green Book 5.1 Orange Book 5.2
Topic 5: On the wild side
D6 @DTOC{CiOCT /CI||:
In this process, a pair of electrons from chlorophyll is boosted to a higher energy level
by the light energy it has trapped. Here they are accepted by an electron acceptor
and then passed along a ch:n of carriers. Energy released is used to convert ADP
and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP This process is called photophosphorylation
(the light-driven addition of phosphate) The electrons then enter another chlorophyll
molecule. The electrons eventually pass to NADP with the hydrogen from water
to form reduced NADP. The ATP and reduced NADP are then used in the light
independent reactions to make carbohydrate from carbon dioxide.
Key
-" flow of electrons in non-cyclic
photophosphorylation
- y flow of electrons in cyclic photophosphorylation
increasing
energy
level
light
chains of electron carriers
NADP
+ 2H+
.
f
reduced
NADP
Diagram showing light-dependent reactions. Photosystems PSI and PSI/ are the two special chlorophyll
molecules which can release their electrons when struck by light
Q1 Name the substance which provides reducing power (electrons) and
the one which supplies energy for the light-independent reactions of
photosynthesis.
Q2 What is:
a reduction
b oxidation 7
H '
Eminer tip

You will not be expected to recall
details of photosystems but you
may be expected to understand
their roles if they are part of an
exam question.
*!
H
-
"
. ,.
Eminer tip
:
: :
Never try to answer a question witl
just a diagram, always include sam
explanation of what is going on.
Q1 The diagram shows the results
of an experiment in which air
containing isotopes 1802 and
water containing H2160 was
bubbled through a suspension
of algae.
'On0n!rllOn
CrOxyg0n
l50!O[0!!
1h<v!0
Oerk liht d8rk
L

C
?
JD Z0 3 AD 'U
1imelUI
Say how these data support the ide
that the oxygen given off by plants i
photosynthesis comes from water.
Green Book 5.1 Orange Book 5.2
Un|1 4.The Natural uv|!0luu'and Species `u|v|vo
The light-dependent reactions make ATP and reduced NADP which are then used in
the l i ght-i ndependent reactions (Calvi n cycle). The reduced NADP proviO.s reducing
power ,e. ecIrons or hydrogen) and the ATP provides the energy for the process of
maki ng carbon di oxi de i nto carbohydrate.
The key steps in the Calvin cycle are shown in 'he diagram.
1 Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon
compound ca'led ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBISCO), the
? The 6-carbon compound formed is unstable and
immediately breaks down into two 3-carbon molecules,
glycerate 3-phosphate (GP).
J This 3-carbon compound is
reduced to form a 3-carbon
sugar phosphate called
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
(GALP). The hydrogen for the
reduction comes from the
most abundant enzyme in the world.
b 1en out of every 12
GALPs are involved in
the recreation of RuBP.
The ten GALP molecules
rearrange to form six
5-carbon compounds;
then phosphorylation
using ATP forms RuBP.
6ADP
Outline of the Calvin cycle.
TF
L
6RuBP (SC) 12GP (3C)
(10GALP)
12GALP

(3C)

o
6ATP ,, ,zo~t|;
o
!
glucose (6C)
(hexose)
reduced NADP from the light
dependent reactions. ATP from
the light-dependent reactions
provides the energy required
for the reaction.
12ADP + 12P;
4Two out of ever y 12 GALPs formed
a icvocd in ecationa
6-carbon sugar (hexose) which can be
converted to other organic compounds,
for example amino acids or lipids.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) provi des energy for chemi cal reactions in the cell.

Be careful when discussing NADP,

what it is and what it does.
NADP has electrons/hydrogen
added to it in the light-dependent
reactions of photosynthesis. It
becomes reduced NAOP.
NADP and ADP are not related in
photosynthesis and do different
things. One does not get converted
into the other.
Diagram showing some of the
fates of the glucose made in
photosynthesis.
When energy is needed, phosphate is removed from the ATP to give ADP and a
phosphate. The energy is released when the phosphate forms bonds with water. In the
photosynthesi s l i ght-dependent realions, ATP i s made usi ng energy from l i ght.
ATP ADP Pi ~ energy
I n photosynthesis, the ATP made is used as a source of energy i n the l | gh!i ndepende`l
reactions. ATP is also used widel y in organi sms as a way of t|a|sferring energy. It is an
intermediate between energy-producing reacti ons and those that need energy.
Some of the glucose made in the Calvi n cycle is used by the plant in respi r'i on. The
rest is used to synthesise all the molecules on whi ch the plant relies, for example other
simpl e sugars, polysaccharides, ami no aci ds, l | pi ds and nucleic aci ds.
DUCIC
CICS
LD0
:ut
Green Book '.1 Orange Book '7
.
'
l
|
Topic b. On '8WU|u8


-
Where UOes phc1cyn1hess huppe?
In all eukaryotic cells there are memorane-bound structures cal l ed organel les. These
are the sites of speci al ised processes withi n the cell. For photosynthesis, plant cells
have a structure called the chloroplast. The di agram shows the functions which each
part carries out.
Thylakoid membranes- a_S.of
interconnected flattened fluid-filled
sa Proteins, including photosynthetic
pigmets andelectron carriersare
-
embedded in the membranes and are
involved in the light- dependent reactions.
J|A loop - chloroplasts
contain genes for some
of their proteins.
Stroma- the fluid surrounding
the thylakol e:branes.
~
Contains al'the enzymes rt eeded
to carry out the light-independent
reactions of photosynthesis.
Thyla koid space
-
fluid within
the thylakoid membc>
contains enzymes for photolysis.
Starch grain -stores
the product of
photosynthesis.
Granum - a stack of

thylakoids joined to
A smooth outer membrane - which
is freely per meable to molecules
such as L0_ a0 |_0.
one another. Grana
(plural) resemble
stacks of coins.
Asmooth inner membrane -which contains many transporter
molecules. These are membrane proteins which regulate the
passage of subst ances in and out of the chloroplast. These
subs|anccsinclude sugars and proteins synthesised in the
cytoplasm of the cell but used within the chloroplast.
0
1 There are two steps where ATP is used in the Calvi n cycle. Where are they?
02
Whereabouts i n the Calvi n cycle is RUBISCO used and what does it do?
03
Copy and complete the tabl e of chloroplast functions below by suggesti ng,
for each structure wi thi n the chloroplast, the features that are adapted for
these functi ons.

thylakoid membrane
thylakoid space
oIUH
sroma
outer membrane
inner membrane

r

R

li ght CEEHUEH |ECIOHS

photolysis of vdE
!
[lOvlOCS 3 SlC for lighdepeIdent reactlOns
li ght lnUE[CnCEnt re3CtioHs
fully permeable
[0H0dDCto many substances vll HEE0 to
EHEor IEdvE IECOICrCpl aSI
Much of what is discussed lnthis
topic can be summarised in the
form of diagrams or flowcharts.
But just reproducing such a
diagram in an examination will
rarely lead to full marks. Unless
the diagram is supported by some
text it WlI not demonstrate your
understandi ng of the topic. If you
have a good memory and have
remembered, for example, the
Calvin cycle diagram accurately,
use this as a 03S/5for your answer,
not your answer!
. . +..
1 Look at the diagram of the Calvi
cycle on page u.Wor k out hoV
many carbon atoms are involver
at each stage (RuBP, LU_,GP,
GALP, glucose).
Ie8u
B
oo
k 5
.
1 Orange bUUk '.z
|
Uni t 4: The Natural Environment and Species Survival
Always double check that you have
copied numbers down correctly
and always do a rough calculation
with rounded numbers to get a
rough idea of the likely answer. Here
-what is J000/25O00?Well J/2!is
about J/21which is
1
/8, which is
about !2%
Plants make glucose in photosynthesis. Thi s can be turned into other molecules
i ncl udi ng starch, cellulose, proteins and fats. Thi s bi omass is food for both humans
and every other li vi ng thi ng on Earth, i ncludi ng the plants themselves.
The rate at whi ch energy is i ncorporated i nto organi c mole::ul es i n the plants i n
photosynthesis is called gross pri mary productivity (GPP). Plants use some of the
organi c molecul es in respi rati on (see Topi c /) I f we fi nd out the fi gure for GPP and
take away the amount of energy used i n respi rati on |), what is left is the rate at
which energy is transferred into new pl ant bi omass that ca1 be eaten by herbivores or
decomposers. This is called n et pri mary productivity (NPP). Al l of these variables are
measured i n energy uni ts (ki l ojoules) per square metre per year (kJ m-
2
year
1
) fixed in
photosynthesis or used in respiration.
The relati onshi p between GPP NPP and | is:
NPP ~ GPP- R
LDerggIIBDSGI
Herbivores eat pl ants. The energy i n the food is transferred from the primary producers
(pl ants) to the herbivores. They use much of the energy in respiration for movement
in the body. Some energy is lost as heat to the envi ronment. The rest i s available for
other ani mal s or decomposers. This can al l be summarised in an energy flow diagram.
2O0OO

1
`C

C
M
.

totalsunlght:7.1 X 106
lightabsorbed
by plants:
4.5106
trapped in glucose= 4090
producers
food
2920
primary
consumers
storage
584O
153J0

food
700
secondary
consumers
- detrius
15000
15000
decompo>

|/C/gyflow through the trophic levels of a

forest ecosystem. Ln|/:|im-2 year
|1 ||cjoo/es
From this di agram we can calculate the efficiency of energy flow from one trophi c
level to the next, for example from producers to primary consumers. Fi rst we have to
fi nd out how much energy i s avail able to pri mary consumers:
energy trapped- energy plants use net primary
(GPP) i n respiration ,|) productivity (NPP)
44 090 20 000 24 090 kJ m-
2
year-
1
The transfer efficiency from producers to primary consumers is the amount transferred
to the primary consumers, 2920 kJ m-
2
year-
1
di vi ded by the amount potenti al ly
avai l abl e to them (24 090 kJ m-
2
year-
1
). `Othe answer i s:
efficiency of transfer " _` 100 12.12%
Energy transfer efficiencies between trophi c levels vary greatly in di fferent ecosystems. A
rul e-of-thumb 10% is often quoted, but you wi ll fi nd values that differ widely from thi s.
Green Book './ Orange d00k '7
`.
1Op|6 b. 'ul VIC side
. 9
D?51rllu1lCD =DU luiUD<e
lI c !cDlcl c S]S O\]IS c S]!!! niche Cl!JIC D IV!OIJ!lcI
OClOIS (biotic cC abioti< factors) cC l Vc l!cl l! S]S \SS l!
c0Ilcl 'lOOC, SIl!, SlS, lCI_ lJS l} '! CSl!D\lOI 'V!! l! c)
c!C c0\Cc 'DOV |c!)c! Cl!JIC D l!S O!ClIO!S 'cI_S !l!S
OCIlOISc l!!lO! IcC lO !cI_SICSl!0\lOIcCc0\Cc
Primary succession Du]]S VI c!c!c V! S CVOC O!I! S lI!Sl colonised
0S]IS ,\S\cIII!cCcI_c O! 0c!!O)l!cl c!O] II l! !cIS
OICl!O!S !S c! cIIC pioneer species !cIl!lD V!O!JIl Ic Vc
lcl JcS Il c \IS\l0I!OJlO! l!J, 0\l S\lc0!lO! VS]S lO SlcDIIS!
`! IV S]S O1lI!{Icl!XSl!_ S]S A SIIIc! {IOSS O\!S lJ cC
c_c!, l!IO\_! Slc_S rOV cS seres, \!lI c Slc0I OJJ\!!l S !c!C '!Slc0I
VOOC!cIC O! XcJ{I l!SC 0\l !V OS OllScJS]IS_IOV lO!IIlD
_c{ 1SS climax community l!l!SUSSOSlcIlSVl! IVI_l!_Sc!cC
]ISIl, lO! Xc!{I!_!c7I_ SlO]]C c !cCOV, V! lDI DcJ VOOCcC,
lSScIICSO!Cc!S\SSO'
ise the area and this allows the
eveoonenrof tall trees. The grazers which might
the tree seedlings are discouraged by the often spiny
shrubs. Woodland is the climax community. I n the UI
the woodland is usually oak, ash and pine.
embryo dunes
ust behind the pioneers comes

couch grass which can build

dunes by trapping sand. It has
long sand-binding roots and
faster when buried.
building dunes fixed dunes
Marram grass nexrarea.
This plant can resist water loss by having
stomata on the inner surface of its leaves
which can roll up in dry weather. It also
faster when buried.
Succession in a sand dune system.
wide variety of species now coloni
some. of them nitrogen fixers which
improve the levels of this important
nutrient in the soil. All add more
organic matter, improving water
holding capacity too.
Q1 |V!Ill! \clOI NPP GPP- | Il!JS O! |, I |
Q2 VDcl Sc
J Here is another exanple of part of an energy flow diagram:
energy fixed in photosynthesis
!d ` 10
4
kJ m-2year-1
energy in new biomass of
primary consumers
0.1 X 10
4
kJ m-2year-1
respiration
Energy |!Ovfrom producers to consumers in a grassland
1 ` !
Calculate the efficiency of transfer from producers to consumers.
Biodiversity increases as
succession progresses, but at the
end it may go down again, as just a
few species dominate the climax.
OII buuK .z Oiange doJ
Unit 4: The Natural |hv|!ul08l! lu Species Survival
voodlnd woodIandece
How can we jlII investigate where O_cIS!S live (distribution) and how many
there are (abundance)? The answer depends on what kind of habitat we are ! and
what we want to find out. A core practical is to carry out such an investigation.
If there appears to be a change across the area, a transect is the preferred method. If
two areas appeared di fferent and we wanted to compare them, we could take random
samples within each C I n both cases we would use a piece of equi pment called a
quadrat to estimate JOuOOJD.C.
openarea
Left: - transect with quadrats u:ed to investigate distribution and abundance of plant species on a woodland edge.
Right: Quadrats used to investigate distribution and abundance of plant species in grazed and ungrazed areas.
Candidates often confuse the idea
of a !|30S00!with the idea of a
qu30|3l. Make sure you do not mix
them up.
In your answers try to make sure
you talk about practical methods
you have actual experience of,
and an appropriate method for the
organism being discussed. Your
method should aim to produce valid
and reliable data.
Green HOOk 5.2
In ei ther case, the usual methods to Sl!cl abundance VO\IC be:
Either count the i ndi vi dual s in a quadrat this is not easily done with many plants,
such as grasses, but quite possible with organi sms such as l i mpets.
Clfind the percentage cover of each species thi s i s the most common method
with plants. These estimates are best made usi ng a quadrat that i s divided up i nto
smal l er squares and counti ng the number of squares or part squares occupi ed by
each species ! turn_ If, as S usual , there are 100 squares ! the quadrat then the
number of squares and part squares covered make up the percentage cover for
that pl ant.
A di fferent method involves the use of a point quadrat, in which pi ns are lowered
systematically on to the vegetation, any 'hits' on the pi ns bei ng recorded. These hits
are added together to give percentage cover using the equation:
O
hits
Yocover=
h t
. x100
1 s ~ m1sses
Orange HOuK 5.1
w
1Op| cb. h l\lU SUE
' O!C! lO ISVI C\lOIS 0O\llD Ol!0\lO C 0\C ]ll6! O\ DV6
1O\C I ! !0llO\I SluC,|__ ,OU v|ll O IC lO l6S\!6 I\!0! O!
lO!

..


eneq, |npu! U.e a l|qh! ne!e
na!e |nIOna!|On aLOU! a|nlall anO !enpeta!Ue can Le
OL!a|neO On pULl|s|eO .Ouce.

!OpOq
aph, 1OpOqap||cal .uve,. nea.Ue !le .|ape OI !he 'and
:Urve,Oi. level||nq eOu|pnen! can Le U.eO -!|e
.|nple.! ne\hOO Lenq !O U.e ranqnq pOle. and
c||nOne!e.
'
Ox,qen ava|aL|'!, U.e an O,qen prOLe
ed,p||c IJc!O.

pH U.e a pH pOLe O sO|l pH !

n:neial. !aOenei. Ie.! ||!. can !e.! !le leve. O! |npOi!an!
nu!en!. .uch a. n|!a!e, phO.pla!e anO pO!a..Un
,NFK)
vaIe 'O|l .anple can Le veq|ed, O|eO .Ov, |n an Oven
anO eve|qheO !O q|ve !he na.. O! va!e
Oqar|c na!!e 1|e d, sO|l sanple can Le veq|eO, LUn! |n a cuciL|e
anO eve|qheO n, Oqanc na!!er |. LUn! O!!. vlcl
accOUnI. !O an, O:!!eence n na..

.O|l !e!Ure 'O|l !ex\ue cha!. can Le U.eO \O a..e.. I !|e .O|l |.
na|nl, cla, .|lI O .and
Q1 |X]IVDl C]DI!lO! l: !C _IV |||CCXl]IS
Q2 cX]IlD lIQ Ol l VOICS
CD l!ISCl q\C!l
Q
3
'DOOS D0ll yO\ ! !lI! VlD IC l| three 0IOl IC three
0Ol !lO!SV! |iQh OO!|OlCISl!0\lO C 0\CC O! I
O!_Sl ! l
1 The !a.|e shows the data obtained n a study of a sand-dune system.
z 3 ' 6
20 80 250 500 650 1800
0.4 0 ' 0.9 2.8 6.4 z..
8 16 / z
FloI the data in this table | a suitable form on one sheet of ,a,c+ |cctil, a, patterns and
comment on them.
=
!l d00K ..z Orange ;,+
Unit 4: lC NclUII Environment c!O `|CcIES JdlVV
\void wlting phrases like 'survival
1f the fittest' and 'struggle for
:xistence'. They will get you no
narks without proper explanation.
The theory of VO\lIO! IS c0O\l !OV c!O V!y O!c!S!S !cV !c!_O OVI l!
What cl\c!y Dc!_CS allele frequency 'lD IclIV !\y ' 'c ]clI\Ic cI!I
in c ]O]\IclO) NeUrise !O! c!CO! Dc_CS ! the |l/ wDih makes \]
_S (gene mutati ons) cJC Icl VcIclO! VIlD!! l!]O]\IclO! ' c _
'\lclIO !cS cQ|cICO_l S ClCO \]O! 0yl!t lO| ]re:sUlCs | hC ev rO_!j
|3.|3|:2|-cO| /[c([c|2CnO||.

>pCc.31tc
If l!CcS ]\l forward c0OvC were cII lDcl VcS lVOVCC, species VO\IO Dc!_ 0\l
lD! VO\C be no !V S]CS ' O!C! for c new S]S lO lO!J, ]c!l O1c XSlI!_
]O]\IclOJ\Sl 0O! reproductively isolated !lu 3Oe+ This \:\cIIy
Dc]]!S when c bcI| e comes between two or !OIC]clS of !7.Sl]O]\clO!
'VI lIlC natural election !cy c\Sl!Cl!I!l ]!l of lDC]O]\clIO to
CDc lO S\! c! C7lll!l DCy Cc! !O 'O!_CIlC0CCO lO]IOC\ fertile
O|]! c!C lDIS !cKS l!J lVO O! more different S]S
|3OI3 i$OI3ton
tEm|OaI $oI 3t|oU
mE!3Uc3I !oI3tIon
|E|3vlOUl3 ISolation
Q3ElC SOI3IO!

OjIo US OUjy C|-|

w
3DIoS the +-~+
so CO not meet to DIEEC
.
`jElES EXS In the same 3lE3 DU! 3IE 3CiIv 'Ol

lEjlOCUCIOH 3 CIElE! times.

The reproductive O:Q3S HOIOHQE ' OQEI-l

|OjUI3!O!S do not lEjO!U to each other's

IEjlOCUCVE CisjIays
ale and fE

mE gametes from two |OjUI3

OUS 3I-

UjIy ICj

iIE V

chr

|yOIIO s!EIIity |E3IIy individuals jlOCUCEO lOI |E atiQ of tVO
|yLlC inviability
Of!EElt sjEiES cannot themselves |EjIOUUE ,EQ
| UUIE)
'CVIUU3IS jOCUCEC from the o!Q O two different
SjEES 3E 'OIe3t|y 3!U CO UOSUIVVE

'!C! Book '~ Orange Book ;

1Op| cb. Ul le wild side
4~
NGW GVOGDCG
Darwin's theory was very controversi al in its day and still is for some people. There are
now new types of evidence supporting the theory avai l abl e to us:
The DNA molecule i s the same in al l organisms. Thi s supports Darwin's idea of
descent from a common ancestor.

DNA and proteins contai n a record of genetic changes that have occurred by
random mutations over time, i ndicati ng gradual change wi thi n and between
species. By studyi ng DNA (genomics) and proteins ,pro:eomlcs)l!5 changes can
be i denti fi ed. Compari ng the DNA or ami no aci d sequences in different 5{I5 can
show how cl osely I8lD 5]5 are i n evolutionary terms. The more si mil ar the
sequence, the more closely IIclO the species.
Assessi ng the >(--O of mutation in DNA has shown thatspecies !cV evolved over
vast periods of ti me, as Darwin thought.
q IOB ID@ GVOCOLC
Any new evidence must be careful l y studied before it can be accepted. The scientific
process has three key aspects whi ch try to ensure reliability and validity:

dedicated scientific journals

peer review
scientific conferences
There are thousands of scientific journal s publ i shed worldwide. Any research carried
out must be publ i shed i n at Ic5l O Ol these so that it can be read by other
scientists. However, 0lU it V gets to thi s stage it has to undergo a jIO55 CcIIC
peer review. The edi tor of the ]OUIcI sends a potential paper to two O three Ol!
scientists in the same area of work. They generally ask:
' 5 the paper valid? (Are the conclusions 0c5 on good methods and are the data
reliable?)

'5 the paper significant? (The paper must make a useful addition to the existi ng
body C!scientific <nCwcO

c.)
Is the paper original? (Or has someone else already done the same work?)
Onl y if the other scientists agree that the paper is all these things can i t be publ i shed.
Conferences al l ow scientists to set out their ideas i n front of other people who work
in the same fi el d. The suggestions can be assessed but there is no need to go through
the peer review process.
Q1 What must occur for S]IclOI to take pl ace?
Q2 Why is 8uI/|v0of the l'll5l not IOU! for evol uti on lODc{]I
1 William Wil berforce was a fiew
critic of Charles Darwin. He
used the argument that no new
species had ever been seen to
arise. Even in dogs, where eros
breeding had been prevented
for many generations, the
different breeds were still able
to reproduce with each other, i.E
they were the same species.
Why does this !0show that
Darwin's theory is incorrect?
Green buuK- r3ng8 bUO
Uni t 4: The Natural Environment and Species Survival
400
J60
J0
340
320
[ 300
O
280
>
260
E
C
_ 240
'220
There are a number of key questions to be aSked
Are |L_ lev8lr|sing and is there global warming?
Does o|e cause the other7
How bad wi l l it get and can we do anythin_ to combat it?
To answer these questions we need !C |CC at evidence from many different sources.
V/hu S 1he CVGenC ?Or glOUal WmmnQ`

temperature Longterm data sets allow changes in temperature to be analysed e.g. the
records Central England Temperature series has records from 1ib to the present.
tree rings Studying the size of tree rings is C6C ODUIOCDIODOOgy. If the climate is
warmer and wetter then the rings are wider. We can look at tree ring widths
__over d years into the past and can tell a lot about the climate from them.
pollen data Pollen grains are preserved in peat bogs. By sampling at different levels in the
peat we are sampling at different ages. Analysis of the pollen can tell us which
plants were growiH_ and so what the climate was like when the peat was
formed.
ice cores
2007level
2.5
0
-2.S
-5.0
-7.S
-10.0
Air trapped in ice when it was formed thousands of years ago can be analysed.
This gives us information about temperatures and '!_ levels in the past.
It seems that we are in a warm period of the cai!> his!ory_ but is !is
caused by isi ng C_ levels?
Carbon dioxiue ifl the atmosphere i s known as a greenhouse gas. I t al lows
radiation to reach the Earth from the Sun. Some of this energy is trapped
by CL_ and the Earth warms up. This i s the greenhouse efect. Other
gases al so have thi s effect. for exampl e methane.
solar radiation
(visible and
ultraviolet)
160 120 80 40 0
Age/1 000 years before present
Changes in temperature and CL
concentrations over the past IUUJUCJ/.
Remember that just because there
is a correlation it does not mean
that one thing causes the other
to happen. They may both be
fluctuating in stfor some other
reason.
Some infrared
emitted by the
Earth's surface
escapes and cools
down the Earth.
Some infrared
is absorbed by
greenhouse gases,
warming the
troposphere.
i nfrared radiation
from the Earth
Most solar radiation
is absorbed by the
Earth's surface,
which warms up.
Inputs and outputs of Cn6/gy: the Earth's atmosphere.
Green Book '3 Orange Book b.,5.4, 5.5
1O]6 b. On the wild side
The data support the theory of gl obal warming betng ' Jsed by humans, due l argel y
to CL_and methane emissions. So, the next question is, how bad wil l it get?
fOHQUIGI mOUeDg
Any attempt to predict climate change in the future must rely on very complex
computer model s to extrapolate from what we know to what might happen. These
model s get better al l the time but they are l i mi ted by lack of computi ng powe
-
r,
-
sufficient data and_knovyledge of how the climate functions. Some factors such as
carbon dioxide emi ssi ons or changes i n i ce cover are ery hard to predict.
DBI CBD DG UCDe?
Science is tel l ing us about a possible future problem, but it can al so help to solve it.
This is because we al ready have an understandi ng of the cycling of carbon in nature.
Plants take i n CO_i n photosynthesis, and trees store a
lot of CO as they gain size. Deforestation is thought
to be an important cause of O_increase in the air.
The large-scale planting of new trees could reduce the
amount of CO_in the atmosphere.
One way of reducing C02 levels would be to grow plants
to use as fuel. They would only release the CO_they had
just taken in and so would be carbon neutral. However.
chopping down rainforest to grow palms for oil releases
more CO_than it takes in. and using corn to make ethanol
for biofuel deprives people of food.
!'C.3:O!.y.|0|!3|./
carocn
compounds
in plants
feeding carbon
^^ compounds
in animals
' carbon compounds

.
in decomposers

o0
dead organic foss\\\sa
\'
matter
carbonate
It is clear that there are a n umber of i nputs and outputs to and from the atmospheri c
reservoir of C_ Unti l recently, the two have l argel y been in balance but now i t i s cl ear
that there is extra C_ bei ng added to the atmosphere by human acti vity. Looking at
the cycle it can be seen that there are a number of ways we could i ntervene to offset
this.
Reforestation will increase the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere due to
an increase in photosynthesis.
The increase in the use of biofuels as opposed to fossil fuels could al so hel p
because the CL_released in burni ng the fuel wi l l onl y have been recently fixed in
photosynthesis; their use is therefore carbon neutral .
Q1 List |J!eesources of evidence that can be used to investigate cl i mate
change.
Q2 What is the l i kel y advantage, in terms of the greenhouse effect, of using
bi ofuels? Suggest one disadvantage.
It is well worth learning the carbon
cycle because you can work out
such lot from it.
1 Sketch the carbon cycle and use
it to explain how human activitv
has caused a build-up of 08I00
dioxide i n the atmosphere.
Identify the processes that
methods to reduce 8U05'5
carbon dioxide would U" U e-::
Green Book '' Orange Book :. +.
UD|1 4`The Natural Environment and Species Survival
Global warmi ng wi l l i mpact on the cl i mate in many ways. In Britain a rise i n
temperature mi ght mean warmer. wetter winters. Rainfall patterns are also l i kel y to
be effected. This mi ght mean an increase in the risk of flooding in some areas. I n
other areas the risk mi ght be drought. Fi nal l y, the seasonal cycles may change so that
seasons are different in length and i ntensity. All of this will affect plants and ani mals in
three main ways:
Changes to species distribution
As the average temperature rises,
species in the south of the K
may withdraw northward and
those restricted to places further
north may extend southward.
Also. species which cannot live
in these areas now may move in
(alien species) and out-compete
native species, rendering them
extinct i n the area.
Global warming
Rising temperatures.
changing rainfall patterns,
changes to seasonal cycles
Changes to development
In many reptiles. the
temperature affects the sex of
young that hatch from eggs, so
warming could cause a change
in sex ratios i n these species.
Possible ef of global warming and cimate change on living things.
Changes to life cycles
Organisms where temperature
is an important trigger for
development may well have their
life cycles disruptec. Insects may
get through their life cycle more
quickly and be ready to feed
before the plants they feed on
are mature.
Research has shown plants
flowering earlier. but by no
means always; i n a sample of
b00analysed some flowered
later.
Temperature affects enzymes and therefore whole organi sms- plants, ani mal s and
microorganisms.
Organisms may grow faster if temperatures rise by a few degrees. However, i f the
temperature rises too hi gh their enzymes wi l l denature and al l reactions will stop.
Green Book 5.3 Orange Book 5.6, 5.8
1O]|c b. On the wild side
r
c
=

C
.

c
0 1
.
? 30 c0
Jeme-ue,
The effect of temperature on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions. The optimum temperature, which
does not always have this value, is indicated by the arrow.
- acf cal 1
e

vgation of 1!e efet' C1

c,eoomei
We can investigate the effect O tI]!alUre on hatchi ng rates i n smal l i nvertebrates
called bri ne shri mps. I n this ]IclcI we want to vary temperature (independent
variable) and see how l clS l! I.!0! O s!!iI]s hatched (dependent variable).
Thr are other V!c0IS V!D I!l cl lD |ale such as sal i!ity, pH cIC l l_hl
IVI ll S i mpo!lant to K] l!S controlled or monitored d\|i n_ lD X]!JI!l
bOth to make the data Vc|D cID lOc! O! lD X]!II!1I c!IIc!S 'l S cISO
poss bIe to study the effect Otemperature on seedI ng growlh rates. '! 0OlD
experiments dalaog!c! 0.SClO!o!lo! the temperature and ISUl reliable
!sUlls.
There is little doubt that gl obal warming is happeni ng, but there are sti l l bi g questions
over what is causing i t and what we shoul d do about it. It i s quite normal for scientists
to disagree but this topic i s also a matter for publi c debate. Non-scientists may not
understand the uncertainty c!C!ctural'y want a clear answer. The people who wi l l
gi ve them thi s are often not the scientists but pol i ti ci ans, economists and other policy
makers. Qui ckl y the debate becomes politi cised and then lD usual i mpassionate
!lDodology of sc.e!c boIs si dl |d.
It SOOI becomes cl ear lDcl Cclc ce b |!trp!ted VlD various hi dden c!CcS
c!C lD! lDS 0COIS lD !VS IclDl!c! the science itself. So, S!lSlSc!
c\sed of beiIg funded by oil companies if they argue agaiIsl lD Slc0ISDC
]OI itccl VV, o! ]ol ili sd they c!_\ for it.
What concl usi ons ]eopIe 'cCD cI OlI coloured by who funded the research 1D
are doi ng, and pressures OOIO!IS c!C ]oi itics.
Q1 What do we mean by an enzyme's optimum temperature?
Q2 Phenology is lD study of seasonal events. Give one event that may be
affected by ri si ng temperature for ani mal s and one for pl ants. _
Q
3
Why VII !CIcSI c0OI COX!C lVl s not jusl be balanced by i ncreased
pholosyIlDess?
Green Book 5.3
This enzyme temperature curve
is not symmetrical; the effects 0l
high temperatures are a sudden
and complete denaturation of the
enzyme, causing the curve to fall
very steeply.
Always consider the ethical
aspects of experiments you do,
especially those involving animals.
There are often questions about
this.
1 List some of the ethical
considerations when
experimenting on hatching
rates in brine shrimps.
UnJ 4`The Natural Environment and Species Survival
"

Photosynthesis Describe chloroplast structure and how this is related L02

1 to their job in photosynthesis_
Describe photosynthesis as the splitting of water, L03

storing of hydrogen in glucose and release of oxygen_
Describe the light-dependent reactions that trap light L04
.
energy by exciting electrons in chlorop1yll, which are

then involved in making ATP and reducing NADP

Photosynthesis Describe ATP manufacture from ADP using energy LOS
.
2 ATP provides energy for biological processes.
Describe the light-independent reactions in which L06

carbon dioxide is reduced, using ATP and reduced
NAD, and the manufacture of polysaccharides and
other molecules.
Energy Calculate net pnmary productivity from the equation: L07

transfer NPP * GPP
-

abundance
Calculate efficiency of energy transfer between L08

and
trophic levels.
'
ecosystems
Explain how biotic and abiotic factors control L010
.
distribution and abundance of organisms.
Explain how the concept of niche explains L012

distribution and abundance of organisms.
Describe succession to a climax community. L013

Investigating Describe an ecological study of a habitat to create L011

numbers and valid, reliable data on abundance and distribution O!
distribution organ1sms and measure a range of abiotic factors.
Speciation Describe the role O! gene mutation and natural L021

and evolution selection in evolution; a change in allele frequency.
Describe the validation of new evidence supporting L023

the theory of evolution.
Explain how reproductive isolation can lead to L022

speciation
Greenhouse Outline possible causes of global warming. L014

gases and the
carbon cycle
Discuss how understanding O! the carbon cycle could L09
.
help reduce atmospheric C02 levels.
Analyse data from various sources to give evidence for
'
L018

global warming.

Describe the modelling O! trends in glcbal warming L019

and the limitations of this approach.
The effects Describe the effects of global warming on plants and L015

of global animals (distribution, development and life cycles).
warming
Explain the effects O! increasing temperature on L016
.
enzymes in living things.
Describe an investigation O! the effect O! temperature L017

on development of organisms; seedling growth OI
hatching in brine shrimps.
D1scuss how a person's point of view might affect L020
.
the conclusions they reach about actio1s to take on
global warming.
1ot b. uIhCW|l0 Sl0C
1 A transect can be used to study trends in the abundance and distribution of organisms
Describe cnemethod you could use to estimate the abundance of an organism at intervals along a transect line.
l1l
This i s a classic example of the need to read every word i n the question very carefully.
A transect ,rctaquadrat) is used and you need to discuss est|ra|oof di stribution 3|Jabundance of an organism.
A ' | |6woul d be laid out and a quadrat placed
along it. The number of species in each quadrat
would then be counted and recorded down. The
quadrat would then be randomly thrown and the
number of species recorded down again until
the finish.
pam|aar ea;aa;, ' ` _ ` ~ =
" ..

This is quite a typical answer in which there is some truth, but certainly not enough
to gain full marks. The use of a quadrat would gain a mark. although it |Snot the only
device that could be used along the transect line. For example, if estimates of ground
beetle numbers were bei ng made. a pit-fal l trap would be appropriate. The idea that
the quadrat would be placed randomly, by throwing. |Scommonly held to be the way
to use one. || this case random placing is not appropriate. the quadrat should be
placed every half metre (if it i s a half-metre by half-metre quadrat) - in a bel t transect.
or every so often (an interrupted belt transect). Finally, the thing to be estimated i s
not species number but the abundance of an organism. so the appropriate technique
should be discussed for do1ng this. counting for di screte organisms like limpets or
percentage cover for plants which are spreading.
A b5IC u5w8twould mention the quadrat but be unclear as to how to place or use
it for a specific purpose.
An 8XC88u\u5w8lwould describe laying out a line. placing quadrats along it
either every su often or regularly and give full details of how to make accurate counts
within the quadrat or make estimates of percentage cover within it.
Explain how some strains of bacteria have become able to survive treatment with antibiotics.
Muam|atu`
*

~ .
. 1
Note carefully the word 'become' in thi s questi Ln. Many answers discuss the ability of the bacteria to break down the antibiotic, pump it out
of the cell, that they have a waxy coat or the ability to live inside host cells. Such an answer gains no credit at al l .
8aemaaswet _

'

The bacteria genetically mutate to gai n resistance
to the antibiotic. This might be because they now
have a pump which pumps the antibiotic out of
their cells. Some have an enzyme which breaks
down the antibiotic. Some have a resistant
cell wal l.
1h|Sanswer gets one mark for a reasonable statement about genetic mutation in
bacteria which gives them resistance to antibiotics. The rest of the answer is not
relevant to the question asked.
A a5C 8u5w8lwould mention genetic mutation as the origin of resistance or
mention that antibiotics create a selection pressure when misused.
An 8XC88H\05w8lwould mention these points arogo on to discuss how the
selection pressure leads to antibiotic-resistant bacteria being able to reproduce. pass
on the resistance allele and give rise to a population i n which the frequency of this
al l el e is increased.
Un1 4. 1' Natural Environment and Species Survival
1 The di agram below summarises the l ight-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.
Li ght
Product A

electrons
.
!
Chlorophyll . - Electron carriers
...... `
electrons
.
Product b
&&&&&
(a) Gi ve the precise location wi thi n a chloroplast where thi s sequence of reactions
occurs. (2)
(b) Gi ve the names of product A and product B. (2)
[C) Give the name of the process that provides electrons to replace those lost by
chlorophyll. ( 1 )
(d) A chemi cal cal l ed atrazine prevents the flow of electrons to the electron
carriers. Describe and expl ai n the l i kel y effect of atrazine on the production of
carbohydrate in a chl oropl ast (4)
Total marks
(Biology (Sa/ters-Nuffield) Advanced, June 2008)
2 Agrostis tenuis is a grass that grows near ol d copper mi nes in north Wales. Copper
is usually very toxic to pl ants but some Agrostis pl ants cn tolerate copper i n the
soil and grow on waste ti ps from the copper mines.
(a) Suggest a method for measuri ng copper tol erance in a sampl e of Agrostis
o' e: |`.
(b) Sampl es of tolerant and non-tolerant pl ants were grown in three trays of
soil that contained no copper. Tray 1 contained only tolerant plants, Tray :
contained onl y non-tolerant plants and Tray 2 had a mixture of equal numbers
of both types. The total dry mass of the plants in each tray was measured. The
arrangement of the pl ants and the resul ts are summarised below.
Tray 1 Tray 2 Tray 3
All tolerant plants Mixed tolerant and All non-tolerant plants
non-tolerant plants
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
C C C C C C
Total dry mass
of tolerant plants 46
g
12 g
Total dry mass
of non-tolerant
plants 30 g
"'
g
Suggest an explanation for the results obtained in tray 2. (4)
(c) Suggest and expl ai n how t!e abundance of copper-tolerant Agrostis plants
woul d be l i kel y to change if the copper were removed from the soi l on the
mi ne waste ti p.
' '
Total 8 marks
(Jan 2CCb, .4/C| Question ,
`
'
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
1Op| cb. On the wi l d side
j `\' Aver seedl i ngs were planted and kept under controlled conditions for
20 days. The gross primary productivity (GPP) and the net pri mary productivity (NPP)
were measured each day. The results are shown i n the graph below.
!
35

"

Z0

.
.

1 '
l
"
t
10
-

c
S

E
`:
c
0
0
.... .......
T
5 1 0 1 5
Time since planting/days
CP
NPP
Z0 ZS
(a) (l) Compare the changes i n GPP and NPP duri ng the ti me period shown on
the graph. `
(ll) Suggest l 6xplnti o! for the changes you have described i n (a)(i). `
(b) L7]I|l the rel cti onshi p Uetw66n C|, l|| and respirati on. '
Total 6 marks
(Biology (Salters-Nufield) Advanced, June 2007)
The tol erance of plants to copper i ons in the soil is under genetic control . The
frequency of an al l el e, whi ch .S6S a ]IIl lO be more tol erant of copper, was
measured at two d fferent sites-A and U
The tabl e below sh::ws the percentage frequencies of the tolerance and non
tolerance IICICS i n pl ant popul ati ons at the two sites.
(a) Explain what is meant by the frequency of ! I|C|C in popul ati on. '
- : /
b cU ZU
(b) Describe how natural selection coul d have brought UOUll|Pdifferent al l el e
!6Q\CICS at the two sites.
(4)
(c) Suggest why bacteria often adapt to changi ng condi ti ons 0\D more quickl y
than pl ants. (2)
Total 8 marks
(Biology (Salters
-
Nuffield) Advanced, June 200/)
The time taken for the stages of
the blowfly life cycle 3|`
!he $|QC of larvae on OeaO
OOOy ca| OCo$COto estimate
'|/C of death.
Decay and decomposition. no matter how di stasteful it mi ght sometimes seem to us,
i s vital for the conti nuati on of life on Earth. Plants need nutrients such as nitrogen,
potassi um, phosphorus and carbon to make biomass. These nutrients are locked
into the tissues of the plants and any ani mal s that mi ght eat them. Once the pl ant
or ani mal dies the nutri ents can be released onl y through decay. The process of
decomposition al l ows the nutrients to be recycl ed.
Mi cro-organi sms are cruci al to the decomposition process. The carbon cycle i s a good
example of how nutri ents are recycled and how mi cro-organi sms hel p. Bacteria and
fungi produce a range of enzymes that are released on to the dead organi c matter.
The products of external di gestion are absorbed by the mi cro-organism and broken
down in mi crobi al respi rati on, rel easi ng carbon di oxi de back into the atmosphere
where it can be used again i n photosynthesis.
carbon
compounds
in plants
feeding carbon
compounds
in animals
` carbon compounds
in decomposers

dead organic
matter
L5I b u ugy
carbonate
The parts of the CiOOn cycle
which rely on micro-organisms
are shown by the orange arrow
on this diagram.
It is certai nl y possibl e to fi nd out how l ong ago a mammal di ed. There are five mai n
ways that scienti sts go about thi s.
hours
?Z
'=
\ A_
130our:
Z3hours
Green bOOK6. 1 Orange dUOk b. 1
1Op| cb. Infection, immunity and forensics
.

body temperature Body temperature is usually !`' but the body 0POins to
cool straight after death. During the first 2hours after death
the temperature of the body wen it is lo.nocan be used to
work out how long ago the person died.
degree of muscle contraction After death, muscles usually total l y relax and theri stiffen. Thi s
stiffening is call ed rigor mortis. This happens wi thi n about
hours (depending on temperature). The stiffness occurs
because muscle contraction relies on AT| which cannot be
made once respiration has stopped. So the muscles become
led.Testiffness wears off again after about d hours in
cooler conditions as the muscle tissue starts to break down.
extent of decomposition Bodies usual l y follow a standard pattern of decay. Enzymes
in the gut start to break down the wall of the gut and then
the surrounding area. As cells di e they release enzymes which
hel p to break down tissues. The signs oldecompositi on, such
as discoloration of the ski n and gas formation, combined with
information about environmental conditions allow time of
forensic entomology
death to be estimated.
Determining the age of any i nsect maggots on the body
al l ows the time the eggs were laid to be determi ned. Thi s
provides an esti mate OJti me of death assumi ng any eggs were
laid soon after death.
stage of succession As a body decays, the popul ations of insects found on it
change. There is a succession of species. The community of
species present when the body i s found al l ows the stage of
>.cce::Onto be determined and ti me of death estimated.
Putting al l this information together can give the forensic scientist a very good estimate
of time of death.
Q1 List |h|CCi ndi cators that can be used to work out ti me of death.
Q2 What ro| e do micro-organisms play in the carbon cycle?
All the methods used to indicate
time of death of a body are
sucject to error. Remember thi s in
examinations where you are asked
to do calculations. Realistically, thE
nswer will often be in the form of
range of possible times rather
than a precise figure.
1 Descri ce !H0wOys in which
succession on a body is simila1
to succession on a sand dune
or other natural system and
way in which they are different
Green Book o. ! Orange b00.
Unit 4.The Natural Environment and Species Survival
6
oo
double-stranded
DNA + res!riction
enzymes
DNA is cut into
fragments.
If the DNA probe is radioactive,
X-ray film is used to detect the
fragments. If the DNA probe is
fluorescent it is viewed using
Vlight as shown above.
Do not IIyjust to remember a
diagram like this. instead !yto
understand what happens and Wy
at each step. !H3W|SCyu |8y
get it in I|Cwrong Sequ0U0and
not realise it!
The DNA profiling (fingerpr nting) technique was i nvented in 1985. I ts i nfluence on
forensic science has been hJge. The technique all ows us to identify biological material
with a high degree of confidence. In addition there is now also a technique called the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which allows tiny amounts of DNA to be amplified
into quantities large enough to use in DNA profiling. Together they form one of the
most powerful techni ques we have for crimi nal investi gati on and a range of other
situations where total certainty about the identity of a sampl e is requi red.
Everyone's DNA is uni que. Thi s is because of the variety found in the sections of
DNA which are not used to code for proteins. These non-coding sections are called
i ntrons. Scientists look for short, repeated sequences in these introns. The sequences
of repeated bases are called short tandem repeats (STRs). There can be up to several
hundred copies of the STR at a single locus. People (and al l other organisms) vary i n
regard to the number of these repeats they carry at each l ocus. Scientists look at the
short tandem repeats at many loci to bui l d up a uni que pattern for that individual .
5
7T
Fragments of
double-stranded
DNA areloaded into
the wells of an
agarose gel in a tank.
Membrane placed i n bag
with DNA probe.
Single-stranded DNA probe
bi nds to fragents with
a complementary sequence.
:
4
The negatively charged
DNA moves towards the
positive electrode. The
fragments separate into
invisible bands.
DNA is transferred to a nylon
or nitrocellulose membrane
by solution drawn up through
the gel. DNA double strands
split and >Lck!o !he membrane.
The steps in the production of a DNA profile or fi ngerprint. The data can also be
presented as a graph or as a series of numerical values. DNA fragments continuing the
repeated sequences are created using reestriction enzymes or the polymerase chain
reactions. DNA and DNA frcgments carry a negative charge. If a potential difference
is applied across a mixture cf fragments in a suitable buffer, they will move towards
the po
s
itive electrode. The fragments move at different rates according to thei r size
and charge. Small fragments with fewer repeats travel faster and end up closer to the
electrode after a set time. It i s rather like chromatography, but here the separati on is
due to differences in size and charge, rather than sol ubil ity differences.
Green Book 6. 1 Orange Book 6. 1
1Op| cb. Infection, i mUUuiyJuU I0|0uSicS
We have discussed D\A profi l i ng in terms of forensi c investigation to hel p the pol i ce
to identify a cri mi nal , but it has more uses than that. Confi rmi ng the pedi gree of
domestic ani mal s (such as racehorses), looking at the purity of food sampl es (such as
Basmati rice) and determi ni ng the father of a chi l d, are all ways that the techni que can
be used. This is a good exampl e of developments in sci ence and technology al l owi ng
us to answer questi ons whi ch we woul d previously not have been abl e to address.
LH
The polymerase chai n reaction (PCR) al lows smal l sampl es of DNA to be ampl i fi ed
so that they can then be used i n DN. profi l i ng. The process rel ies on DNA pri mers,
short sequences of DNA compl ementary to the DNA adjacent to the STR A cycl e of
temperature change5 results i n huqe numbers of the DNA fragments bei ng produced
Step 3
75"Cfor at least
a mi nute- DM
polymerase builds up
complementary
strands of DNA

reactants
placed in
vial in
PfRmachine
steps 1-3

Step 1
90-9SCor
30 seconds
DNA strand
separates
" "

original DMA

DNA polymerase

'

.- primers

Step Z
S0-60( for 20 seconds - primers
bind to DMstrands
The procedure used for the polymerase chain reaction, PCR.
Q1 Whi ch parts of t he DNA are used for profi l i ng?
I
Q2 Why i s i t necessar for forensic scientists to look at 1U or more short
tandem repeats when creating a DNA profile?
1 The family tree of every
ra cehorsP in the | r.nn hP
traced back to just three mal
horses. Explain why it is easi
to identify humans using DN1
profiling than it is to identify
racehorses.
G|00u buuKb. 1 Orange b00kb. T
UnI\4.The Natural :v|'O08! and Species Survival
Translation is actually putting
amino acids together; this forms
a polypeptide. It only becomes a
protein when folded and, in some
cases, it has joined with other
polypeptides or other molecules.
The basic steps of protein synthesis are as follows:
amino Ut chain
mRNA synthesis manufacture
(transcription) (translation)
DN/ mFN/ amiicacU chair
pclypcp!iUe)
TranSCrlp1Dn
folding
pc!cD

WaR
Transcription means 'to make a full copy of'. The mRNA copy is not direct, like a
photocopy, but complementary. mRNA is made in the nucleus, but polypeptides are
assembled in the cytoplcsm, so the mRNA must move out of the nucleus through pores in
the nuclear membrane.
Trn5a1lDn
In DNA structure and when it is
being replicated, A pairs with T, but
when mRNA is made on the DNA
template strand A pairs with .
Once in the cytoplasm, Ihe mRNA attaches to a ribosome. tRNAs carrying specific amino
acids bind to the complementary codons on the mRNA. A peptide bond is formed
between neighbouring amino acids to produce a polypeptide. The whole process is shown
!-Cv
Protein synthesis is
-H-J ./H/?:
information from
a gene results in
sequence Of
0/0Oc/d,
Green Book b.1
1 TRANSCRIPTION
DNA information copied to mRNA
DNA strands mRNA strand
still joined template (anti-sense) strand of DNA being assembled
.


<
< <A L A c<C C C A

A
U

_=
J @' @_J \,J ' + r
sense straod of DNA
-double nuclear
membrane
L L / L A I L L ! L
free mRNA
nuclear pore
nudeotides
DNA strands separate one gene
mRNA strand copied from template strand of
processisca:e|ysedbyRNA polymerase eczyme
..<<<+<+:<<<<+<
==
2
nucleus
cytoplasm
_~.

_Met
mRNA carries the information to the ribosomes
the completed mRNA strand
leaves the nucleus and moves to a
rlbosomein :hecyoplasm

Amino acid activation

tRNA carries amino

__ _ ' _'_
different tRNA _
molecules
UAC
energy needed
to attach amino
acid to tRNA
; growing
r
polypeptide chain
UAC
Met
amino
eco:

ATP
ldofferent
GUG
M

(a-ticoeon)

-.8 r=::
o
o
c
O
_

:
''' ;
4 uc C u./ C q

O
Completed polypeptide modified
to produce functional protein,
e.g. enzyme of C specific shape
Orange Book b.'
nuo:omc-:ovc>aio
CKl~'e+ccgtecodons

+s..r.o
mRNA information translated
L
tcJc^clmN-l|OcD
me:cnct8NAaoticocoo
into a specific sequence of amino acids
`
10I0b. Infection, |00uhyand forertics

The genetic code

The
genetic code has several imporant properties:
-


=

triplet code
With Z amino acids and start and stop signals to code !
for and only four bases to do it, one base per amino acid
will not do and neither will two. Using three bases gives
64 codons which is more than enough.
non-overlapping Each set of three bases forms one triplet. The triplets do
not overlap, so no base from one triplet is part of another
degenerate
triplet, avoiding confusion about which amino acid is
be;og coded

Some amino acids have more than one codon. For
example, there are four different codons for the amino
acid proline. As long as the codon starts with 'L the

amino acid proline will be put into the polypeptide.

The code is said to be UCQCDErT This offers some
protection against mutation.
os-transcriptional changes
It was originally thought that each gene coded for one protein. We now know this is not
correct. Most genes code for many proteins and this is achieved by post-transcriptional
changes in the mRNA. These changes are made to the mRNA before it is used in
translation. We now think of the mRNA made in the nucleus as pre-mRNA.
LP
|C
_
DKP
{SC|DSt|C
|Cd
'
K|
__
`

|
_
'
_
0

'
C

0
_

___
`'
_
|

l 1GI5O!
'

LXC0 1
_
+
`
|CO

L
`'
| Z 0l|C0Z
`
C0 >
@/
]CS -I805|l]lIC0l
CH_6S
'
P

X
_
'

_ __
X

_
`

XC

>

C
'
_ __
_

cXC|

cXC0 > C
'
_
C0 < L
`
C0.
C| cXC|
'
XC|

1 Which part of the DNA is used to code for proteins- intron or exon?
2 The DNA code is degenerate. Explain what this means and why it is
significant.
3 Link each description in list A with the correct term in list B.

molecule with anticodon at one end and amino acid at the

template strand
other
complementary copy of template strand
I
tRNA
DNA transcribed to mRNA mRNA
.
The ribosome has \^usites u:s
surface, one for a tRNA alrezdy
bound to a growing uIyp8hd8
and the other for the tRNA carf'
the next amino acid to be attachec
Iu the chain. Amino acids are
added one at a time in a reeating
process.
Different proteins can be made
when different sections of mRNA
are spliced together before
translation.
1 Draw 3 flowchart to expla
roce88O!O\0 syr-ess
Green Book b. Orange Book 6 5
l
UnI\ 4:18 No'uio' .uvi0U00u! and Species :uiv'vo'
NII|8I086\8Il8 0IvIrLSuS are
ulSPSuS, bLl00ll migh\ LLO
ulSu8SuS.
inflammaIion
Infectious diseases in humans are caused mainly by bacteria (singular: bacterium)
and viruses. You need to be aware of the differences between them. Bacteria have a
prokaryotic cellular structure with organelles but viruses do not.

ell surface membrane,
ytoplasm, cell wall, ribosomes,
lasmids and somEtimes
mesosomes, flagellum and pili.
Circular strand of DNA 'S IE
genetic material.
. .
Can live Independently.
Average diameter 0.5-51m
Often have mucus-based cuter

No cell wall, cell surface membrane, cytoplasm or

orgnelles. Nucleic acid enclosed in protein coat.
DNA or RNA can be the genetic maIerial.
Must have a living organ sm as host.
20-400nm, wide range of sizes and shapes.
May have outer membrane of host cell surace
.
capsule. membrane, but containing glycoproteins from the virus.
.
Differences in structure between bacteria and viruses.
Both viruses and bacteria may enter the bodies of living things and, due to their own
life processes, cause symptoms which can, in extreme cases, lead to death of the host
organism. We can illustrate this by looking at tuberculosis, caused by the bacterium
(Mycobacterium r.|c;.|5;s)and AIDS (caused by human immunodeficiency virus, HIV).
In TB the first infection may have no symptoms but tubercles form in the lungs due to the
imflammatory response of the person's immune system. Some bacteria may survive inside
the tubercles, due to their thick waxy coat. They lie dormant, but if the immune system
is not working properly they can become active again. I n active TB, lung tissue is slowly
destroyed by the bacteria, causing breathing problems. The patient develops a serious
cough, loses weight and appetite and may suffer from fever. TB bacteria also target cells
of the immune system so the patient cannot fight other infections well. I n some cases the
bacteria invade glands and the CNS |central nervous system). All of this can be fatal.
The initial symptoms of an HIV infection are fevers, headaches, tiredness and swollen
glands or there may be no symptoms. Three to 12 weeks after infection HIV antibodies
appear in the blood and the patient is said to be HIV jositive. All symptoms can then then
disappear for years but eventually patients suffer from weight loss, fatigue, diarrhoea,
night sweats and infections such as thrush. Finally there are severe symptoms such as
dementia, cancers (e.g. Kaposi's sarcoma)and opportunistic infections such as TB and
pneumon1a.
Ncspelific repoises to infection
I n order to fight a disease the body can react in a number of ways. The following
responses are non-specific:
lysozyme action interferon phagocytosis
Damaged white cells
release histamines that
cause artenoles to dilate
and capillaries to become
more permeable. Blood
flow to the area increases
and plasma, white blood
cells and antibodies leak
out into tissues.
An enzyme founc in
tears, sweat and the
nose destroys bacteria
by breaking COW| IP
OdClC|d|cel| walls.
A chemical released White blood cells engulf, digest
from cells stops protein and destroy OCl6l' and foreign
synthesis in v|||SCS. malErial. These phagocytes include
neu\rophils and monocytes (which
become macrophages).
Green buu b.Z Orang0Book b.Z, b.3
10If 6: ||0ti', ll|!y duforensics

ur
The specific immune response relies on the lymphocytes (another type of white cell),
of which there are two main kinds, each with a number of sub-types. Both types
respond to foreign (non-self) antigens such as proteins on the surface of bacteria and
viruses. Macrophages are also involved, engulfing bacteria and displaying the non-self
antigens. They alert the immune system to the presence of the foreign antigens. When
any cell in the immune system displays antigens in this way, it is called an antigen
presenting cell.
Never try to answer an exam
question with just a diagram U
it specifically asks for one). Use
diagram to help you to understand
and then you can put i t into word
0 the exam.
The relationship between all these cell types and what they do is shown in the diagram.
B-cells C_TDKIO65
helper cell
cytckines

bacteri
1.
The cel'finds an antigen
which matches its receptors.
Z.
It waits until it is activated
Jelper cell
~
`
;

c.
memory celt
Then the B cell divides
to produce la5ma and
memory cells.
- :
~
ant|DD0Ies

bacteria
.
P\asmacells I00UC6
DlIDD0I65thatattaCh to
the current type of invader.
00|u00I0S0060.
'.Macrophages identify
intruders marked with
antibodies, and engulf
and destroy them.
O6HDIycell
6.
If the same intruder invades
again, memory celts help the
immune system to act|vate
much faster.
T memory cells

;0
P!_eH QI050HITIOH
\
dendriticcell 1h-lpetcell
D


' `

activated
T helper celt
1. Z Q, .
phagocyte Part of the bacteria The phaocyte The T helper
engUl!s Hu (antigen) gc0sto presents the cell is activated.
destroys a the surface of the act|eTDa
bacterium. phagocyte. 6I6"T cell.
T killer cells
JkIl\er C6l
\
.
vIrusinfete0 cell
-
-
-
antigen

.
cancer cell
.
bacterium-infected cell
I
C
`
dies due to CH6

_..
Infected cell be
re'easedpT k1
which cause pc
form in It.
1 Give two differences and two similarities between viruses and bacteria.
2 Why might a fever be a good thing if you have an infectious disease7
1 Draw a table to distinguish
between the roles of B cells
(including B memor and B
effector cells) and cells (T
helper, T killer 3D0memory
cell S).
Green Book 6.2 Orange Book 6.2, 6.3
U1 4.|- Natural Environment oU .-'-: .Uv'!3
Pathogens (organisms that cause diseases) eO!eithe body through areas not covered
by skin: nose, mouth, gas exchan'=2 surfaces, the eyes, gastrointestinal tract and
genital tract The entry of micro-organisms through wounds is also a major cause of
infections.
Eyes -tears contain the enzyme lysozyme
which helps to cigesImicrobes.
Pespira!orytract-conainsmucus which
traps bacteria. The mucus is then swallowed
and passed into the digestive system.
Gastrointestinal tract-acid in the stomach
helps to protect against any microbes which
are eaten. In addition the gut has its own
bacteria. These compete with pathogens for
food and space which helps to protect us.
The harmless bacteria also excrete lactic
acid which deters pathogens.
,Skin-the skin is a tough barrier and
usually only allows pathogens to enter if
it is cut. As an additional line of defence
the skin has its own microbes. These live
naturally on the skin and out-compete
pathogens. Sebum is an oily fluid which
is made by the skin and can also kill
microbes.
Major routes of entry of pathogens and the role of barriers in protecting the body from infection.
Hc <c vve de\eO
We can acquire imn,ni!yiO CIIeie:! ways:
Inj ected with
to ant1gen antibodies cross the antibodies that
by getting Veakened
'
pl acenta and are also can provide
the disease. disease found in breast milk. immediate
The body organisms, These antibodies can pr'tecti'n
produces toxins or protect against any against the
memory antigen invading pathogen inVading
cells which fragments that the mother has pathogen they
make it means that the encountered. are specific for.
immune to body is exposed
disease in to the antigen
the future. and produces
memory cells.
We can also use antibiotics to f1ght bacterial infections There are two kinds of
antibiotics: an antibiotic !l3! |i bacteria is bactericidal, and one that limits or slows
the growth of bacteria is bacteriostatic. When bacteria are no longer affected by an
antibiotic they are said to be resistant to it
Green Book o..,o.5 Orange Book o.~,o,
10I0 6: |l(!lDi, immunity and !0|$|0.
Evolutionary race
As quickly as we evolve mechanisms to combat pathogens, they evolve new methods
to overcome our immune system. The bacterium which causes TB and the virus
responsible for AIDS (HIV) have both evolved features which help them to evade the
immune system. The TB bacterium produces a thick waxy coat which protects it from
the enzymes of the macrophages. The protein coat of HIV is constantly changing
which means that the immune system can't target and destroy it.
Hosptal acquired infections
Mutations also help some bacteria to become resistant C antibiotics which result
in problems with antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections in hospitals. Hospitals try to
combat this in a number of ways.
_

only use antibiotics when needed reduces selection pressure on organisms and destroys all
and ensure course of treatment is | DoICl|c causing infection
completed

isolating patients with resistant 'reVents transmission of resistant bacteria between

diseaSeS patients
good hygiene encouraged, prevents the spread of infection and cuts down on the
including hand washing and bans number of places that may harbour pathogens
on wearing of jewellery, ties and

long sleeved shirts

screening of patients coming into
1
o person may be infected without showing symptoms;
hospital ID!S can be detected and they can be isolated and treated
Investigating bacteri d nt!biotics
A simple procedure can be carried out to investigate bacteria and antibiotics for the
core practical It is important to follow safe, aseptic techniques when doing this kind
of work and C.Cii3| to carry out a risk assessment.
A :!-|/enutrient agar plate is seeded with
suitable bacteria, e.g. using a :l?//?spreader.

Apply antibiotic to a $len? filter paper disc, then
lay on the bacterial lawn using :!e|/?forceps .
nl::ce antibiotic solutinto a well in agar,
us1ng a $|?n|? p1pette.

i
Seal P?l|id:| /uldO nOll3? 3ll |Oundlh
*
Incubate O?/vJCCfor about 24 hours.
Look for clear areas around the antibiotic discs
or wells. Bigger areas indicate a better antibiotic
against this bacterium species.
This flowchart shows how you
investigate the efect of different
antiotics on OCu0. Anything in
italics relates to aseptic procedure.
1 What theory would you hope to test with the practical above7 Write a
scientific question to answer.
2 Explain why the bacteria are incubated below \ and why the dish is not
completely sealed.

!
Bacteria do not have a rapid rate o1
mutation, but they do have a high
rate of reproduction. This means
that new mutations occur quite
regularly and each new mutation
may help the organism to survive.
Consequently they will produce
many mutations in the time it woulc
take a drug company to develop a
new antibiotic .
When describing practical
procedures you need to be very
detailed. For example, if you say
'the bacteria are placed on a Petr
dish' you will not get any marks.
This is because bacleria will not
grow in an empty plastic dish. You
need to say 'nutrient agar' {in a
Petri dish). Lack of details like
this often lose candidates marks
in exams.
drug developers to proa_:e
treatments that a-e eue: -
the long term.
'08 bOD| oz, o. Orange Boo 6 . .., 6.S 6:
M
un:4.100 N8Iul |uv|lOuuuIud :p0C|0S :ulvv8I
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

.
*

.

`

Decay and Describe how to estimate time of death in LLZ\

. .
decomposition a mammal using information from insect
colonisation, muscle state and body temperature.
Describe how micro-organisms are involved in LL'
. .
decomposition.
DNA profiling Describe the way in which DNA profiling LOS
' .
(fingerprinting) can be used to work out genetic
relationships in living things.
Describe how the polymerase chain reaction can be LLD
. .
used to give more DNA for analysis.
Describe how DNA fragments can be separated by LLJ
. .
electrophoresis.
DNA and Explain the process of protein synthesis and the role LL.
. .
protein of DNA strands and RNA in it
synthesis
Explain that the genetic code is triplet, non- LL2
. .
overlapping and degenerate.
Explain how changes that happen after LL-
. .
transcription can give rise to more than one protein
from one gene.
Infectious Distinguish between the structure of bacteria and |LC
. .
UlSC05C5 OU V!:u5C$
the immune
Explain the symptoms of bacterial and viral disease .L`
. .
response
to include those of TB and infection by HIV
Describe non-specific immune responses: LL`Z
. .
inflammation, action of lysozyme, interferon and
phagocytosis.
Explain antigens and antibodies and how plasma LL`J
. .
cells, macrophages and APCs are involved in the
!0U!E response.
Distinguish between roles ofT (helper, killer and LL`
. .
memory) and B (memory and effector) cells.
Explain how people develop natural, artificial, active LL``
. .
and passive immunity.
Ifection Describe the routes of entry of pathogens into the LL`
. .
prevention and body and skin, stomach acid and gut/skin microbe
control barriers.
Discuss the theory of an evolutionary race between LL`D
. .
pathogens and hosts and the evidence for this
theory coming from HIV and TB.
Distinguish between bacteriostatic and bactericidal LL1
. .
antibiotics.
Describe investigations of the effects of antibiotics |L`C
. .
on bacteria.
Describe the way in which our understanding of LL`'
. .
infections acquired in hospitals can be used to
reduce their occurrence through codes of practice.
1OI 6: |D0L0h, lluUlI] cU0 l0|0:
W
T Suggest why a patient ||3C30\|1Ois more likely to develop symptoms of th disease 1f they are also infect9d by |\ ')
In o|der to gain full marks you are e\pected to wr|te answers which contain detailed bioogical knowledge and relate different areas to each
other.
HIV weakens the immun system and therefore
it is likely tha!opportuni>tic infections such as
TB would take advantage of a weakened immune
system and therefore become more active.
Symptoms will develop as the immune system
response is suppressed and cannot effici enly
destroy the bacter|um, resu ting in symptoms
This is quite a typi!al answer which is not wrong but simply does not have enough
detail to gan either of the two marks. A 'weakened immune system does not address
the specific aspect of the immune system which HIV affects. |Iis not TB which does
anything in relat1on to the immune system, but the bacterium that causes it
A D5C D5V6!would mention that TB bactena are not destroyed by the immune
system.
An 6XC6!l6D1 D5VCt would linKthe destruction ofT hel ,er cells by |\to the
fact that the TB bacteria are not desIroyed.
Z Give l|0symptoms which are likely to occur in a person with TB. ./
On thL face of it this is a very simple question, but again to gain marks at advanced level, answers must show some relevant detail.

_
.

Fever
'ough'g
This is l answer in which the student has thrown away a mark due to a 8imle lack
of |eis|on and careful thought. Almost everyone coughs at some point dur|ng most
days so, to be a disease sympIoO, it should be obvious that this must be qualified
A 05Ic u5W8Iwould suggest a high temperature or fever as being a relevant
symptom of TB.
An 8XC88uIu8W0t would suggest qualified coughing (i e coug|i0gup blood or
excessive coughing)as well as the appearance of tubercle, abnormal weight loss and
development of fever.
Unt\4. 1|8 a''rl .|vll0hlen! JnU :8l0: `u|v|v3l
1 The graph below shows !le changes in population size of bacterial cultures grown
in the presence of three antibiot'cs/, | JnO C. n each case the antibiotic was
added at J hours.
6000
Antibiotic
" sooo
c
+
4000

!
3000
T
m
f
C
_ ?000

__
Antibiotic 6
C.
C
c.
100
0 5 10
antibiotic added
Time/hours
15
(a) Use examples from the graph to explain the differences between bactericidal
and bacteriostatic antibiotics- (3)
(b) A previous investigation on the same bacterium usng aO!liC!/ had
produceO a curve similar to that for antibiotic B. Suggest an explanation for the
change in the response to antibiotic A.
1
|c) OtJtline a technique that cculd UemcnL|a!ethe effectiveness of antibiotics on
bacteria. (4)
1o:aI11 marks
(+o|qy:-|:et:/.l-|J,~-c-J.1.te.08;
Z The hepatitis | virus (HCV) is transmitted 'n body fluids and infects th8 liver. HCV
is very common in people who also have HIV infection. One treatment for HCV
infection is injections of interferon.
(a) Explain why HCV infection is common in HIV positive people. (2)
(b) Name the type of cell involved in the normal immune response to virus-infected
liver cells.
(1)
Binding of interferon to infected cells causes an enzyme called PKR to become
activated_ and this prevents protein synthesis from occurring. The diagram below
shows how |n!eilC|Onmight be involved in the body's response to HCV infection.
interferon binds to
protein on cell surface

inactive active }
l PKR PKR l
HCV
infects ~
cell
-
protein synthesis
prevented
|
L
interferon
ce|| surface protein
(c) With reference to the diagram above, explain the likely effects of interferon
binding to the infected liver cell.
'
10
|
6 6: .i-'Oi, |'!y`J 30il:
_
Unfortunaely, treatment is only effective in 2
0% of cases because many
strains of HCV are resistant to the effect of interferon. It has been found that these
resistant 'Jiru.e: have a protein on their coats which inhibits the enzyme PKR.
(d) Suggest a reason why these virus strains are resistant to tnterferon. (2)
1caI O mar|s
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June 200c,
3
HIV can damage the human immune system.
(a) Describe two active immune responses that are affected by HIV infection. (4)
(b) Non-specific immune responses are not affected by HIV and can continue to
prevent infection. Copy and complete the table below which shows some non
specific immune responses and descriptions of their functions.

>

inflammation
lysosyme action

engulf and digest bacteria

prevents viruses from multiplying

'
1otaI O matks
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June .00c,
4 On 26th September, a forensic scientist was called to a room where a man was
found dead. She was asked to determine the time of death.
She recorded the temperature in the room and she collected the larvae and pupae
of several species of insect from the body. She took the pupae and larvae to her
laboratory, where th2y were placed in a constant temperature of 23
On the 4th October, adults from four species of insect appeared, and another
species appeared on the 6th October. One of the first species to be seen was the
blowfly, which can lay eggs on a corpse within minutes of death, but which is rarely
active at night. Records of weather conditions for the area were consulted and the
time of death was determined to be 14th or 15th September.
(a) Explain the importance of the temperature data in this investigation. (2)
(b) Suggest one reason why collecting data about several species of insect would
make the estimate of time of death more reliable. (1)
(c) Suggest a reason why the scientist could not be more precise as to the time
of death. (2)
1oaI D maiks
(Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced, June .00c,
M
U0I1 4.1|8 Natural Environment and Species Survival
The diagram below shows what happens to el ectrons during part of the light
dependent reacti ons of photosynthesis Any excited el ectrons that are not taken up
by el ectron carriers follow pathway A and release energy as l i ght in a process called
fluorescence. The excited el ectrons that are taken up by el ectron carriers fol low
pathway b
:
fluorescence

light
'J.
:
A
:
:
:
:
:

electron carriers
X

.
Key
:. energy
~~~~~~ alternative electron pathways
electron pathways
.
.
.
.

red uced Y
(a) Name the mol ecul es Z and ` shown on the diagram.
`
(b) Explain the importance of reduced ` in the process of photosynthesis. (3)
(r) A l i ght was shone on a leaf and left swi tched on.
Thf grrph below shows changes in the amount of l i ght gven off d
fl uorescence by the l eaf.

Tiresince light switched on/seconds
(l) Suggest an expl anation for the i ncrease in fl uorescence.
(i i ) Suggest a reason for the fall i n fl uorescence.
(2)
':
(d) Explain why an i nhi bi tor of carbon dioxide fixation woul d lead to an increase i n
fluorescence. '`
1oa| 12mat|s
(426134 Biology Salters-Nuffield January 2009)
2 A study of tree pollen grains in a peat bog in Fi nl and was carried ou. Th ,umber
of pollen grai ns of 0|Ie:e' tree species was :eCc:CeC at different depths in the peat.
The data for four of these trees are given as a percentage of the total ':ee pollen
sampl e, in the table bel ow. An esti mate of the age of the sample at each depth
was also made.


~

*
0.5 2850 0 0 53

43
|
4
1.0 3770 0 0 55 40
1.5 5600 0 0 31 47
2.0 6390 0 12 15 53
2.5 8170 5 36
'
4 48
3.0 8700 38 36 6 35 |
3.5 8780 27 40

3 32
|
4r 4.0 10000 10 ..

'
2
The di agram below shows the present-day di stri bution of the four tree species
found in the main climatic zones of the northern hemisphere.
Climatic Distribution of trees
zone
Ac!ic
Boreal
larch spruce
Z
pine
Temperate beech
|
Sub-tropical
(a) Suggest how pollen grains can provide evidence about which species of tree
were growing successful l y i n Finl and as the peat bog was forming. (2)
(b) (i) Whi ch species of tree l isted below does not provide evidence about the
changes in climate in Fi nl and dunng the last 1UUUU years? '`.
A l arch
B spruce
| pi ne
D beech
(il) Expl ai n your answer to (b) (i ). (2)
(c) Wi th reference to the present-day distribution of the four tree species and the
resul ts of the pollen grai n study, suggest i n what way the cl i mate i n Fi nl and has
changed duri ng the l ast TUUUU years. Give reasons for your answer. '
(d) Describe how dendrochronology can be used to provide evidence for cl i mate
change.
(2)
1oa| 12 mar|s
(A2 68104 Edexce/ Specimen Paper)
Unl 4.The Natural |lv|I0|u8|I|d Species Survival
Tubercul osi s (TB) is caused by the bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
(a) The tabl e below lists five structural features that may be found i n bacteria
and viruses. Copy and complete the table by putting a cross in the box if the
structural feature is present
Structural feature Bacteria Vi ruses
mesosome i
.

'
I
capsid

'
nucl ei c aci d

. .
cytoplasm

ri bosome

`
(b) The table below shows the number of new TB cases recorded in T994and in
2004 from four different geographical regions. These data exclude people who
are HIV positive.

uu4 48 :!u
!..4 .
(i) Describe the trends shown by the data.
u8
-
(2)
(i i ) HIV positive people were excluded from the data. If they had been
included suggest how the data would differ. Give an explanation for your
answer. '3`
(c) JLis increasing in some countri es whi ch have wel lfunded heal th services.
Suggest two reasons tor this. (2)
Total 12marks
(A2 68104 Edexcel Specimen Paper)
MRSA is a strain of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA can survive
treatment with several anti biotics. An i nfection with MRSA is diffi cul t to treat
It is i mportant to use an anti biotc that is effective against specific bacteri a.
Describe in outl ine how you could test the effectiveness of an anti bi oti c on a
speci fi c bacterium in the laboratory Incl ude aspects of the method that ensure safe
working. '
Total marks
(A2 6734 Biology Salters-Nufield January 2009)
An i nvesti gati on was carried out to fi nd the distribution of pl aRt species on sand
dunes. A tlansect was used which extended i nland from a beach. Quadrats were
used at nine positions along the transect. The percentage cover of selected species
was recorded in each quadrat as well as the number of jl ant species | n each
quadrat+ A sample of soil was taken from the area within each quadrat and used to
measure the mass of organi c materi al present.
The results are shown in the two tables bel ow.

Distance from 0 80 1. 250 500 650

top of beach/
metres
Number of 18 1
species found
Mass of organic 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.8
|
6.4
material/grams

Bare sand 80 30 30 8
Sea couch 20
Marram grass 70 50 20 5 5
Red Fescue 5 40 DD 40
Sea buckthorn
HUOH heather
Corsica pine
(a) Explain why it is necessary to use a quadrat to estimate percentage cover. (2)
(b) Expl ai n why a transect is more appropriate than random sampl.ng in
this study.
(2)
(c) Use the i nformation in both tables to compare the data collected from quadrat
T and quadrat b. |3)
(d) Differences in the vari ety and number of plant spec,es found in t|e different
quadrats can be expl ai ned by succession. Use the Information in the tabl e to
suggest how the resUlts of the study coul d be explained by succession~ ,b)
Total 12marks
(A2 !o4 iOIOgy'J|!?|-Nu|'|?|dJ3I 2008)
980 1600 1980

6 7
25.1 23.4 32.8
80
z
100
Remember that muscl es can't
stretch themsel ves. It is the pull
created by the contraction of the
antagonistic muscl e that stretches a
muscl e when it is in a relaxed state.
The prefixmyo- refers to 'muscl e'
and sarco- to 'flesh' (i . e. muscl e) so
specialist terms starting with myo
1 sarco- will refer to structures
within muscl es.
Bones can move in rel aton to one another at joi nts. Different types of joint al low
different degrees of movement. Li gaments are made of elastic connective ti ssue.
They hol d bones together and restrict the amount of movement possibl e at a joi nt.
Tendons are cords of non-elastic fi brous ti ssue that anchor muscles to bones.
tendon
joins muscle
to bone
ligament
joins bone to bone
strong and flexible
synovial membrane
secretes synovial fluid
synovial fluid
acts as lubricant
- typ1cal synovial joint
bone
cartilage
absorbs synovial
|u:d
acts as shock
absorber
pad of cartilage
gives additional
protection
fibrous capsule
encloses joints
Skeletal muscles are those attached IO bones and are normal l y ar ranged i n
antagoni sti c pai rs Thi s means that there are pairs of muscles which pul l i n opposite
directons- Flexors contract to flex, or bend a joint, e. g. bi ceps in the arm; extensors
contract to extend, or straighten a joint, e. g. triceps in the arm.
Each skel etal muscl e i s a bundl e of mi ll i ons of muscl e cell s cal l ed fi bres. Each muscl e
cel l may be several centi metres l ong and contains several nucl ei . It contai ns many
myofibrils which are made up of the fi brous proteins acti n (thi n fi l aments)and
myosi n (thick fi l aments) The cel l surface membrane of a muscle cel l i s known as the
sarcolemma The sarcoplasmic reti cul um i s a speci al i sed endopl asmi c reticul um
which can store and release cal ci um ions. The cytoplasm i nsi de a mdscl e cell i s cal l ed
the sarcopl asm. The speci al i sed synapse (see page O, Topi c 8)between neurones
and muscl e cells i s called the neuromuscular juncti on.
The functi onal uni t of a mucle
fibre |Scal l ed a sarcomere.
When the muscl e contracts
the thi n acti n filaments move
between the thick myosin
f l ament_ shorteni ng the l ength
of the sarcomere and therefore
shortening the length of the
muscl e.
The arrangement of actm and myosin
filaments in a sarcomere when relaxed
(A) and contracted )
A
\LLiLlL
mOsin <IiO
Green buu/: Orange bUU /.`
1O6J. H.0oiyuu l i fe
Myosin fil aments have flexible ' heads' that can change their orientation, bi nd to actin
and hydrolyse ATP (using ATPase). Acti n fil aments are associated with two other
proteins, troponi n and tropomyosi n, that control the bi nding of the myosin heads to
the actin fi laments.
When a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction, calcium ions are released
from the sarcoplasmic reticul um and the fol lowing events take place that lead to the
contraction of the rruscle.
Ca2' attaches to
troponin (on the
actin) causing it
to move together
with the threads
of tropomyosin.
Ca' binding site
tropomyosin
tropon+

Myosin

binding sites

'- - , .
blocked by
actin

p
tropomyosin.

Myosin head
cannot bind
.,: i
/*

Myosin binding
sites on the actin
are exposed so
myosin forms
cross-bridges with
the actin filament.
-AP

Af P

"yosin head

returns to
upright
The myosin heads
release the AJP
and Pi and change
shape as a result
the power stroke.

p "'""
'

AJT

IC,/9nQ I?JeO! !6O|,O|uu:.|:COn|ac!/On
4 o u5I-IW
IIch mUScle tUre5
ATPase causes
ATP hydrolysis

.

,-.
specialised for slower, sustained contraction

specialised to ,rode rpid, intense

and can cope with long periods of exercise contractions in short bursts
many mitochondria-ATP comes from aerobic few mitochondria-ATP comes from
respiration (electron transport chain) anaerobic respiration (glycolysis)
lots of myoglobin (dark red pigment) to store little myoglobin and few capillaries The
L_ and lots of caillar es to supply L_. 1|lS muscle has a light colour
Ivthe muscle a dark colour
fatigue resistant fatigue quickly
low glycogen content high glycogen content
low levels of creatine phosphate high levels of creatine phosphate
Q
1 Give OH6 reason why fast-twitch muscl es are more likely to get t i red faster
than slow-twitch muscl es.
Q
2 Describe the role of ATP in muscle contraction.
Q3
Explain why muscl es are arranged in antagonistic pairs.
position.
P1 binds
to the myosin
head causing
it to detach
from the actin.
Green Book .z Ora"ge
lemember that energy cannot
>e created or destroyed, but can
:hange from one form into another
-so never refer to enegy being
>roduced or used.
Remember that the formation of ATP
is an example of a condensation
reaction, the reverse of which i s
hydrolysis:
ATP H
2
0- ADP Pi +nergy
Glycolysis means sugar splitting.
Glyco =sugar, lysis= splitting.
Hydrolysis means splitting using
water. Hydro =water.
All living organisms have to respire. There are two different ways in which they do this
-aerobic respiration (using oxygen) and anaerobi c respiration (without oxyge ..)
Both of these processes make the energy stored in gl ucose available i n the form of
ATP, to power metabolic reactions.
Aerobic respiration
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide+ water+ energy
'
'|
_'

+ 6
'_
6
''_
+ 6l'+ ~OU l1
Anaerobic respiration
glucose lactic acid +energy
'l
1
_'

`'
{
l

'_ Z l1
ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) is the cell's energy currency. Energy is required to add a
thi rd phosphate bond to ADP to create ATP When this bond is broken by hydrolysis,
the energy released can be used in energy-requi ri ng processes taking pl ace wi thi n the
cell.
The brea< o 1 gh:ose 8n glycolysis
Starting with one gl ucose molecule, gl ycol ysis produces two mol ecul es of pyruvate,
two molecules of reduced NAD and a net gain of two molecu es of ATP Glycolysis
takes place within the cytoplasm of cells.
g|colysis
glucose (hexose) (6C)

.
hexose phosphate ( 6C)

hexose bisphosphate (6C)

molecules of triose phosphate (3C)

-1

reduced NAD
intermediates
c1
Jo|eLUles of pyruvate (3C)
A5iaerobh: rspHwion
The main 3l3gC5 of
glycolysis.
Glycolysis does not need mol ecular oxygen , HOveve:, for glycolysis to conti nue, a
constant suppl y of NAD is requi red. In aerobic respi ratOn the NAD is produced by the
electron transport chai n. The reduced NAD must be oxidised to NAD. Duri ng anaerobic
respiration, NAD must come from el sewhere. In animals, pyruvate from glycolysis is
reduced to givC lactate, NAD is formed and can keep gl ycolys s going.
Green Book J.1 Orange Book J.z
Topic 1. hu0for your l i fe
Anaerobic respiration al l ows ani:1al< , make a small amount
of ATP It is an inefficient process but it is rapi d and can supply
muscles with ATP when oxygen is not being delivered quickly
enough to cel l s.
cec:eieccs|actlcacldin solution whi ch lowers the pH. This
can i nhibit enzymes and, if allowed to build up, it can cause
muscle cramp. Once aerobic respiration resumes most lactate
i s converted back to pyruvate. It is oxidised via the Krebs cycle
into carbon di oxi de and water. The extra oxygen required for
this process is called tre oxygen debt.
2ADP
+2P
i
2ATP
glucose
Iactatepathvay

2H- reduced NAD

NAD
y
2H
pyrJvate .
Brvestigating the rate o ( rspiratio"- us-g
a respirometer
experimental tube
screw clip
l
small organisms
KOH solution
absorbs carbon
d
i
oxide
A iC||OnC|C!

manometer tube
containing coloured
fluid
1 cm3 syringe
The rate of aerobic respiration can be determined using a respirometer by measuring
the rate of oxygen absorbed by small organisms. Any .Oproduced is absorbed
by the potassium hydroxide (KOH) sol ution, so that any oxygen absorbed by the
organisms results in the fluid in the manometer tube moving towards the organism
(see arrow on di agram). The tube on the righthand side compensates for any changes
in pressure or temperawre within the apparatus.
Q1 Suggest luexampl es of biological processes that require the use of ATP.
Q2 Compare the role of ATP with glycogen.
Q

Describe the role of NAD in anaerobic respirati on.

Anaerobic respiration in animals.
Don't forget the importance of
including something to absorb the
_or the respirometer reading wid
noIchange during aerobic respiration
of carbohydrates because the same
volume of gas is produced ||d}as
` absorbed by the organism ,o|)per
glucose molecule respired.
Remember that in the A2 Biology exa"
you may be asked to:
bring together scientific knowledg
and understanding from differen;
areas
apply knowledge and understar0
of more than one area to a
particular situation or context
use knowledge and understand'rg
of principles and concepts in
planning experimental and
investigative work and in the
analysis and evaluation of da:a
The respiration topic i s a commor
choice for such synoptic quest1ons
because Ill0C088 'inks to man o
areas such as photosynthesis, 'ood
chains and muscle contraction
U1 Draw !hBmain stages of
glycolysis alongsi de the
stages of the light-indepe-ce-
reactions of photosyntes s
Use these diagrams 1U de--
the similarities 8Rdd=e-e-::'
between the WUpocesse::
Green Book I1
Many of the rea ctions i nvol ved in
respiration are redox reactions
where one substrate i s oxidised
and another is reduced. When
a molecule is oxidised, it ei ther
loses hydrogen or one or more
electrons are lost. -mol ecul e that
gai ns el ectrons or hydrogen i s
reduced. One way of rememberi ng
thi s is to thi nk of UI!hl (oxidation
is loss, reduction i s gain). When
a mol ecul e gains hydrogen it is
reduced, and the mol ecul e that
loses the hydrogen i s oxidised. For
exampl e: pyruvate_, acetyl + ZH lis
oxidation);
NAD 2H reduced NAD lis
redu ction).
You do not need to know the names
of the i ntermedi ate compounds of
the Krebs cycl e for the exam, but
you are expected to appreci ate
that aerobic respiration is a many
stepped process with each step
controlled and catalysed by a
speci fi c intracel l ul ar enzyme.
rJe:OO|C :e||J'|Oi, lle jy|uvJ'e ,l:Or Q|yCO|y) | .Or|ee|y O|d|eC |'O CJ|OOi
C|OiCe JiC vJ'e: u|iQ OyQe
e:OO|C :e|:J'|O 'Jke |JCe |i 'vO 'JQe
:' y:UvJ'e IS O|C|eC |i'O CJ:OO C|O|de JiC lyC|OQen ,JCCep'eC Oy 'he
COen.yre NAD JnC FAD). T|| 'Jke p|JCe |n '|e matrix Ol l|e mitochondria
JC |nvO|ve '|e Krebs cycle.
n '|e eOnC slJQe, rO O el Qee|JleC | Je:OO|C |e|:J|O |. syi|e|ed
Oy oxidative phosphorylation JOC|JleC v|'| '|e electron transport chai n.
|l| |vO|ve chemi osmosis JnC '|e en.yre ATPase. ' l lJke p|JCe O l|e cristae
,|e| erO|Jie) Ol lle r|OClOnC:|J
...: r e |'rebs _.
.I .~a.on)
Je:OO|C |ep:Jl|On eJC| ,y:uvJ'e rO|eCu'e COr|Q l:Or Q|yO|y| | l|e Ce||
.yO|Jr ei'e: '|e rJl:| Ol 'le r|'OClOid||Oi l | COnve:'eC l:Or y:DvJ'e (`.)
'O J JCe'y' 2.,Q:Oup || |vO|ve lle 'O Ol .O,CeCJ|OOy|Jl|Oi) JnC lyC:OQen
,CelyC:OQeJl|O, Qeie:J'.|Q :eCuCeC N' !|e J.ely| Q:Oup | CJ::|eC Oy COe.yJe
J Jcely| COen.yre /
|le ||eO CyC|e OCCur |n l|e rJ't| Ol 'le ri'O|OnC:|J |le rJ|n pu:Oe Ol l|e
CyC|e | lO up|y J COnl|OOu l|Ov O |yd:OQe ,JiC 'le:eO:e e|eC:Oi) !O l|e
el e'rcr ar.pc clan l'r U.e |n lle syl|ests Ol ATP oy oidJ'ive plc.plciy'acr.
iUUCU I-L
uC!lCUH/t- [Z']
4C 6C
cCUQCUlU cUtUUHU
IUlthaLa||ll UUCU
IUIC_ulccup!Ui$cIlnul
UiJ_lthroJgn!
i$jI|!Ci Iil !U
ICOUcu-l.
"
K|L$ CC!

I-L_
C
IUuCU |-L + 2
-

IUuuU |-L

|-L
|-
__

CUUUlU
O
iuUUCU I-L
The reactions involved in the breakdown of pyruvate in aerobic respiration.

|ee `OOk . |Jge oUUl z

Topic J. Run for your life
Each molecule of th' -carbon acetyl coenzyme A from the link reaction is used to generate:
three mol ecul es of reduced NAD
one mol ecul e O reduced FAD
two molecules of |L
one mol ecul e of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation (synthe.ised directly
from the energy released by reorganising chemi cal bonds)
one mol ecul e of a 4-carbon compound, whi ch is regenerated to accept an acetyl
group and start the cycle again.
Note that for each glucose mol ecul e entering glycolysis two acetyl groups are formed,
so the Krebs cycle will turn twice (i. e. p|oduci ng two ATP and six reduced NAD, etc.)
Most of the ATP generated in aerobic respiration is synthesised by the electron
transport chain.
J Reduced coenzyme
carries Hand electron
to electron transport
chain on inner
mitochondrial membrane.
? Electrons pass from one electron carrier to 3 Protons (W) move across the
the next in a serIes of redox reactions; the inner mitochondral membrane
cai"ris reduced when it receives the electrons creating high W concentrations
and oxidised when it passes them on. in the intermembrane space.
intermembrane
space
4 W difuse back into the
mitochondrial matrix down
the electrochemical gradient
5 dllus!0n
inner mitochondrial
membrane
aI|ows A1Pase to
ca!alse ATP sn!he>i>.
mitochondrial
matrix
H
ATPase on
stalked particle
ATP
Electrons anu |ions
recombine to form hydrogen
atoms which then combine
with oxygen to create water.
Ithe supply of oxygen stops,
the electron transport chain
and ATP synthesis also stop.
The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis result in A`synthesis by oxidative phosphorylation.
The majority of ATP generated by aerobic respiration comes from the activity of the
el ectron transport chain in the i nner membrane of the mi tochondria (cristae).
The overall reaction of aerobic respiration can be summarised as the spl i tting and
oxidation of a respiratory substrate (e. g. gl ucose) to release carbon dioxide as a waste
product_ fol l owed by the reuniting of hydrogen with oxygen to release a large amount
of energy in the form of ATP .
A ~~~~~~~
Q1 Describe what happens to the carbon and hydrogen atoms trom a gl ucose
molecule in aerobic respiration.
Q Explain what oxidative phosphorylation means.
Q Explain why the el ectron transport chai n and the Krebs cycle woul d stop i f
there was no oxygen.
+
.
1 Sketch a simple diagram L a.:
and mitochondria and oue
where the main steps in !+
respiration take place.
Green Book ! Orange Book 7.2
Un\ b. cXc|C|SC 30 L00i0l03|00
1 Electr ical impulses from the 3
SAN spread across the atria
walls. causing contraction.
This is called atrial systole.
Z Impulses pass to \hc 4
ventricles via the AVN after
a short delay to allow time
for the atria to finish
contracting.
3 Impulses pass down the Purkyne
fibres to the heart apex.
4 The ioulses spread up through
the ventricle walls causing
contraction from the apex upwards.
Blood is squeezed oto the arteries.
This is ventricular sys tole.
The impulse to contract originates wihi the heart itself from the s| nootr|al node
-
the
heart is said to be myogenic.
The route taken by electrical impulses across
the heart during the cardiac cycle.
Purkyne fibres
You can calculate the heart rate
using an by measuring the time
interval between one wave and
the next one (a complete cardiac
cycle) and then working out how
many occur in 1 |lIuIu.
\6l Book 7.3
After contracting (systole), the cardiac muscle then relaxes for a period called
di astoie when the blood returning from the vei : fills the atria.
NeaSurng eectrca chnge5 ln he heit
Electrical currents caused by the spread of the electri cal impul se (wave of
depol arisaton) during the cardiac cycle can be detected with an electrocardiogram
(ECG).
If disease disrupts the heart's normal conduction pathways changes wil l occur in the
'.Cpattern which can be used for diagnosis of cardiovascular di sease.
Pwavc
0 SsegenL

.
A normal ECG pattern in a healthy heart.
~ '
s
The P wave is the
time of atri al systol e.
The QR5 complex
is the time of
ventricular systole.
The T wave is caused
by repolarisation of
the ventricles during
dias!ol e.
Blood is pumped around the body to supply _ and remove C_ from respiring
tissues. How much is pumped in a minute (cardiac output) depends on two factors:
how qui ckly the heart is beating (heart rate) and the volume of blood leaving the left
ventricle with each beat (stroke volume)
carcacouIpuI(cm`mn') =sIroke volume (cm`) X hearIraIe(mn')
O|ang Book 7.3
Topic 1. Run for your life
The heart rate can be affected by hormones (e.g. adrenaline) and nervous -: ont<''. The
cardiovascular control centre i n the medulla of the brain control s the si noatrial
node via nerves. The sympathetic nerve speeds up the heart rate in respon:.: to fal l s
i n pH in the bl ood due to C_ and lactate levels rising, increases in temperature and
mechanical activity in joints.
Impulses carri ed by the vagus nerve (parasympathetic) slow down the heart rate
when the demand for _ and removal of reduces.
RegUl1iC. C v1HtC. l<
The rate at which someone breathes is cal l ed the venti l ati on rate. This is often
expressed as the volume of air breathed per mi nute (the minute ventilation). The
volume of air breathed in or out of the lungs per breath i s called the tidal volume.
The maxi mum vol ume of air that can be forcibly exhal ed after a maxi mal intake of ai r
is cal l ed the vital capacity.
ventilation rate= tidal volume X number of breaths
p
er minute
The venti l ati on centre in the medul l a controls the rate and depth of breathing
in response to impulses from chemoreceptors in the medul l a and arteries which
detect the pH and concentration of C in the bl ood. I mpulses are sent from the
venti l ati on centre to stimulate the muscles involved in breathing A smal l increase in
C_ concentration causes a large increase i n venti l ati on. I t also increases in response
to impulses from the motor cortex and from stretch receptors in tendons and muscl es
involved i n movement. We also have vol untary control over breathing.
A person using a spi rometer breathes i n and out of an airti ght chamber causing i t to
move up and down and l eavi ng a trace on a revolving drum (kymograph)
6

V!
6[C!q

!
u
'

1uC{Cu 1 HInu!e]
A spirometer trace showing quiet breathing with one maximal breath in and out.
'!
If someone takes T breaths per mi nute with an average ti dal volume of
|dm3 cal cul ate thei r ventilation rate.
'
Sketch what you would expect an ECG trace to look like if a patient
suffered from ventricul ar fibrillation. (This is rapid and uncontrolled
contractions in the ventricles sometimes caused by a patch of damaged
tissue in the ventri cle acting as a pacemaker)
'~
Suggest what might happen to the heart rate if the connecti on between
the sinoatrial node and the vagus and sympathetic nerves was cut.
SAFETY!
A cani ster of soda l i me
can be used to remove the
C from the exhaled ai r
to measure the vol ume
of _absorbed by the
person after exercise, but it
is important to remember
that the chamber must be
filled with medical grade
_ before starting if this is
to be attempted.
You cJncJlcuJl0the volume
of _J0S0r0eU in Jgiven time
by measuring the differences
in volume 0eveenthe troughs
J00leU A and Lnthe UJ|JJ
JnccvdIng0ythe time uelv000
A J0U b
U1 Summarise Jn0eplainthe
0IIectSof 07ercise unboth he:
Jndventilation rate.
eel | /` ,rang6 b00KJd
Uni t b. Exercise and Coordination
Negati ve !ul30 is the key
to understanding homeostatic
responses. Just remember-if one
thi ng guu5 up, the Uuuyresponds to
bring it back down, or vi ce versa. To
do this yuD need receptors, a norm
value, a control centre (ohen par u!
the brain like the hypothalamus) and
some effectors to bring about the
response.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment, within a narrow
l imi t, of the optimum conditi ons needed by cells so they can function properl y. A
homeostatic system therefore requi res:
receptors to detect the change away from the norm value (sti mul us)
a control mechani sm that can respond to the information. The control mechanism
uses the nervous system or hormones to switch effectors on or off
effectors to bri ng about the response (usual l y to counteract the effect of the initial
change). Muscl es and glands are effectors.

input receptors control mechanism effectors __ output

-------------------
fee
d
back
r-----------
Negati ve feedback hel ps to keep the internal envi ronment constant. A change in
the internal environment will trigger a response that counteracts the change, e. g. a
rise in temperature causes a response that wi l l lower body temperature. For negative
feedback to occur, there must be a norm value or set poi nt, e. g. 31'C for core
body temperature.
A Conditions controlled by homeostasis fluctuate around the norm value.
'
U 'eccrdition is controlled b ngative feedback.
rise above
norm
norm value
fall below
norm
.
change from
norm detected
effectors act to
Time

return the codtio

to the set point

A summary of the role of negative feedback in maintaining body systems within narrow limits.
We have already seen that the body responds to the demands of exercise by increasing
cardiac output and ventilation rate under the control of centres in the medul l a (see
page :T-The heart, energy and exercise) Not only does the i ncreased respiration
rate during exercise produce a lot of LL and/or lactate, but the energy transfers also
release a l ot of heat energy. This can be enough for a L rise in body temperature
every 5-10 minutes if we can't disperse the heat away from the body.
The control of core body temperature through negative feedback is cal l ed
thermoregul ation. Thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature. I n
addition thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus (in the brai n) can detect changes i n the
core bl ood temperature. I f a rise in temperature is detected above the norm value the
heat loss centre in the hypothal amus wi l l stimulate effectors to i ncrease heat loss from
the body - usual l y through the ski n.
Green Book 7. 3 Orange Book 7.4
Topic 1. HuhfDr DUlife
t3L |DSS
centre in
hypothalamus
Stl0 SE0C:
`
impulses'-

Ltm]crature risEs Lt0[tlLUlE falls

G m
LtP[tl3Lll Jo|S Lt0]tlUlP |1SS
HtL |DSScentre
SL10U|ates. SwE3L g|RCSLD5ECllE SwE3l.
Inhibits: contraction ofarerioles in
Sl [C|8\tS ]illries in
skin)
hair EItCLDl muscles (relax -
hairs |1t T|I
|1ver [It0UCP! 0tL0D|J rate)
S<E|EL| 0US|tS (relax - no
shivering).
Negative feedback in thermoregulation.
heat gain
receptors Ct0L1t1H
'
Stl0
hypothalamus
10pules
HtIgain centre
o10UiLtS arterioles in LE S<1n to
constrict
hair erector musc|eSIu
contract
liver to raise PtLDD|1 loIE
skeletal muscles to contract
in shivering.
1R101\S sweat glands.
react
Above or below certain temperatures homeostasis fai l s (e.g. because the
hypothal amus may be damaged). Instead, positive feedback may occur resulting i n a
high temperature continuing to rise or a low temperature fal l ing still further. This can
result in hyperthermia Ol hypothermia and may lead to death.
Uctehnology to enBble those v1D
|njucsand disabilities to partncipate 5 Crt
The development of keyhole surgery using fi bre optics has made it possi ble for
surgeons to repair damaged joints (including torn cruciate ligaments in the knee) with
precision and minimal damage. This is because only a small incision (cut) is needed so
there is less bleeding and damage to the joint, and recovery is much quicker.
A prosthesis i s an artificial body part designed to regain some degree of normal
function or appearance. The design of prostheses has improved significantly and many
disabled athletes are now abl e to compete at a very high level, e. g. with dynami c
response feet that can literally provi de them with a spring in their step. Damaged
joints (such as knee joints) can also now be repaired with small prosthetic implants
to replace the damaged ends of bones, freeing the patient from a life of pain and
restoring ful l mobility.
\J Expl ai n what is meant by the term 'negative feedback'.
\ Suggest what the consequences might be if you were unable t o lose heat
from the body during exercise.
\~
Describe the body's likely responses to the core temperature dropping
bel ow 1C
uUsi |g your revision in this
section and pages 45, b0and '
expl ai n why some ani mals are
adapted to short bursts oTfast
powerful exercise, while other
are a d apted to long 0erio0s of
continuous exercise.
'33i bDD 7.3 O3i0 |DD 7.4
M
Remember that exam questions
in this uni t may refer back to any
other topi cs from the level biology
course, so now would be a good
ti me to check your notes about the
cel l s involved i n the speci fi c and
non-speci fi c i mmune system ( page
. Unit 4l.
Just because two thi ngs are
observed to happen, it doesn't
mean they are connected. |P
parti cul ar it doesn't mean that one
caused the other. A correlation
does not necessarily mean a
connecti on. If there appears to
be a strong correlation between
two factors, a causal link is more
l i kely if you can provide a bi ol ogi cal
explanation for why one factor
wi l l affectthe other, especi all y
i f there aren't many other l i kel y
factors or explanations avail abl e.
For exampl e, there i s a positive
correlation between the number
of shark attacks and the number of
i ce creams sol d at a beach. There
is no bi ol ogi cal explanation for this
correlation, so there i s no di rect
causal l i nk. I n contrast it i s thought
that there i s a causal l i nk between
the number of ci garettes smoked
and the number of deaths due to
lung cancer, because there is a
strong correlation and a bi ol ogi cal
ex pi a nation a bout why smoki ng
coul d cause l ung cancer.
Green Book 7. 4
Te o.si l C= C. < O TC tl. exercise
There are many benefits to regul ar moderate exerci se. Here are a few possible effects
of a lack of exercise over a prol onged period of ti me:
reduced physical endurance, l ung capacity, stroke vol ume and maximum heart rate
increased resting heart IdiE, blood pressure and storage of fat i n the body
increased ri sk of coronary heart di sease, type II diabetes, some cancers, weight
gai n and obesity
i mpaired i mmune response due to lack of natural ki l l er cells
increased level s of LDL (' bad' cholesterol) and reduced level s of HDL ('good' cholesterol)
reduced bone densi ty, therefore i ncreased risk of osteoporosis.
The tosi b! e effects of co -uch enrds
Overtrai ni ng can l ead to symptoms such as i mmune suppression and i ncreased wear
and tear on joints. I t can also result in chronic fatigue and poor athletic performance.
Too much exercise generally may al so i ncrease the amount of wear and tear on
joi nts. Damage to cartilage in synovial joints can l ead to i nfl ammati on and a form of
arthritis. Ligaments can al sc be damaged. Bursae (fl ui d-fi l l ed sacs) that cushion parts of
the JOi nt can become i nfl amed and tender.
There is also some evidence of a correlation between i ntense exercise and the ri sk
of infection such as col ds and sore throats. This coul d be caused by an increased
exposure to pathogens, or d suppression of the i mmune system. There i s some
evi dence that the number and activity of some cells of the immune system may be
decreased whi l e the body recovers after vigorous exercise. I t may also OP the caeIbaI
damage to muscles during exercise and the release of hormones such as adrenal ine
may cause an i nfl ammatory response whi ch coul d al so suppress the i mmune system.
Some ehica Qsitos reating to the use
o per,orranceenhancing substances
Some athl etes wi l l do anythi ng they can, in the pursui t of excel l ence. This might
i nclude the use of i l l egal performance-enhanci ng substances. Others may feel they
need to follow sui t because they don't want to be at a disadvantage. Thi s has been a
subject for debate in the sporting worl d for many years.
These ethical frameworks can be used when consi dering both si des of the argument:
ri ghts and duties
maximising the amount of good i n the world
making decisions for yourself
leading a virtuous l i fe.
For example, dopi ng i n sport coul d be considered /|acceptable because athl etes
have a ri ght to fair competition, but could equally be considered acceptable because
athletes have the right to exercise autonomy, for exampl e to choose to achieve their best
performance, and al so have duty to any sponsor they may have.
Remember that in order to maintain that somethi ng is ethically acceptable or not, you
must provide a reasonabl e expl anation as to why that i s the case.
Ethical absol utists see thins as very clear cut. They woul d take one of two positions:
1 It i s never acceptabl e for athletes to use performance-enhanci ng substances (even i f
they are l egal ), C|
it is always acceptable for athletes to use any substance avai labl e to them to
compete more effectively, even if there are associated ri sks to thei r heal th.
Ethical relativists woul d rea i se that people and circumstances may be different, e. g:
I t is wrong for athletes to use performance-enhanci ng substances, but there may be
some cases and ci rcumstances where i t ..acceptabl e.
Orange Book 7. 5, 7. 6
Topic 1. Hulfor your life
Some 0rugs such as anabol i c steroids are closely related to natural steroid hormones
They can pass di rectly through cel l membranes and be carri ed into the nucl eus bound
to a receptor mol ecul e. These hormone/receptor compl ex
.
s act as transcription
factors. They bi nd to the promoter regi on of a gene all owi ng RNA polymerase
to start transcri pti on. As a resul t more protein synthesis takes pl ace in the cell s.
For example testosterone increases protein synthesis i n muscl e cel l s. i ncreasi ng the
size and strength of the muscl e ti ssue. Peptide hormones do not enter cel l s di rectly,
but they bi nd wi th receptors on the cel l surface membrane. Thi s starts a process
that results i n the activation of a transcri pti on factor wi thi n the nucl eus. For exampl e
erythropoietin (EPO) sti mul ates the production of red bl ood cel l s. Thi s means that the
bl ood can carry more oxygen whi ch is an advantage for an athl ete.
Genes are switched on by
successful formation and
attachment of the
transcription initiation
complex to the promoter
region.
RNA polymerase

promoter region -

site for RNA polymerase attachment

gene
..... ..
_ P
Genes remai n switched
off by failure of the
transcription initiation
complex to form and
attach to the promoter
region. This is due to
the absence of protein
transcription factors;or
the action of repressor
molecules.
L L
transcription factors
transcription
initiation complex

LN transcription i cOOI!OlkOOyliaOSciiIiOO actOrS.

RNA synthesis
\! Describe why a l ack of exercise may lead to an i ncreased risk of coronary
heart di sease.
\ Expl ain why a l ack of T helper cel l s may increase the risk of an athlete
suffering from a sore throat.
Q3
Outl i ne the role of transcri pti on factors in the control of gene expression.
1 Even if al l performance
enhancing substances were
formally banned, would we eve1
have a l evel playing field for
athletes?
|'-c buu7. 4 Q'angc Book 7 5, 7. 6
Un\ b. Exercise and Coordination
By the end of this topic you shoul d be able to:
4 =
Muscles and Describe the structure of a muscle fibre and expl ai n |Lz
. .
movement the differences between fast and slow twitch
muscle fibres.
r
Explain how skeletal muscle contracts usi ng the sl i di ng |Lo
. .
filament theory.
Recall the way in which muscles, tendons, the |L
. .
skeleton and ligaments i nteract to allow movement.
Energy and the Describe aerobic respiration as splitting of gl ucose to LLO
. .
role of ATP release carbon dioxide, water and energy.
Describe a practical to investigate rate of respiration. LL
. .
Recall what ATP is and how it supplies energy for cel l s. .L7
. .
Describe the roles of glycolysis in both aerobic and |Lc
. .
anaerobic respiration. You do not need to know al l
the stages but you do need to know tha: gl ucose i s
phosphorylated and ATP reduced NAD and pyruvate
are produced.
Explain what happens to l actate after you stop LL! 1
. .
exercising.
The Krebs cycle Describe how the Krebs cycle produces carbon L
. .
and the electron dioxi de, ATP reduced NAD and reduced FAD You
transport chai n shoul d al so understand that respiration has lots of
enzyme-controlled steps.
Describe how ATP is made by oxidative .L1
. .
phosphorylation in the electron transport chai n
i ncl udi ng the roles of chemi osmosi s and ATPase.
The heart, energy Understand that cardiac muscle i s myogenic and |L' Z
. .
and exercise describe how electrical activity in the heart allows it to
beat. You should also know how ECGs can be used.
Expl am that tissues need rapi d delivery of oxygen and |L1 J
. .
removal of carbon dioxide during exercise and that
changes i n venti l ati on and cardiac output allow this to
happen. You should understand how heart rate and
venti l at1 on rate are controlled.
Describe how to use data from spirometer traces to |L1
. .
investigate the effects of exercise.
Homeostasis Explain the principle of negative feedback. L01 5
. .
Discuss the concept of homeostasis and how it LL1
. .
mai ntai ns the body during exercise, i ncl udi ng
control l i ng body temperature.
Heal th, exercise Expl ai n how genes can be switched on and off by |L'
. .
and sport DNA transcription factors i ncl udi ng hormones.
Analyse and interpret data on the possible dangers of |L' C
. .
exercising lOO little and too much. You shoul d also be
abl e to talk about correlation and cause.
Explain how medical technology helps people with |L1
. .
injuri es or di sabi l i ti es to take part in sport.
Outline the ethics of using performance-enhanci ng LLZ
. .
substances.
Topic 1. Run for your life
Animals that are predators often show bursts of very fast movement. Their prey tend to be able to carry out sustained movement over
l onger periods of ti me. Close examination shows that the muscl es of predator and prey show a different composition of fast- and slow
twitch fibres.
z (i ) Outl i ne the differences between fast- and slow-twitch mLscl e fibres. |/
(ii} State whether predator or prey would show a higher propJrion of slow-twitch fibres. (1)
(iii) Discuss why predators show different proportions of fast- and slow-twitch muscl e fibres from thei r prey. |/|
If you are asked for the differences. make sure you refer to both or use a comparative word. e.g. 'more'.

(a) (i) Slow-twitch muscle fibres have more mitochondria and
more capillaries supplying oxygen than fast twitch fibres.
( i i ) Prey
(iii) Predators are ||K6|{to have more fast-twitch than slow
twitch fibres, in comparison to their prey. This is because
predators tend to be fast and powerful over short distances
to catch and kill their prey and therefore use anaerobic
respiration to release ATP quickly.
This is a good response because not only does it provide a likely
comparison, it also provides a clear and pl ausibl e explanation
(bI During fast movement, lactate builds up in the muscles of a predator. such as a cheetah. Explain what happens to this
lactate after the chase has ended.
.`

a(IItdU8-8|Um\|8 mU80|8 |uIC\|6UCo0where iIi8 carried
away from the muscle to prevent cramp.
Lactate is oxidised back into pyruvate using NAD that has been
oxidised in the electron transport chain using oxygen. The extra
oxygen needed is the oxygen debt.
1U|S|SUnS |SC 00|!0!but on|y |io|xplOnat|on. I t 0xp|ai ns
how the lactate i s moved away from the muscle. but not how it is
removed from the body,
This response wi l l gain maximum marks because it provides
a chemical explanation 0!U0fate of the lactate. clearly
demonstrating an understanding of both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration. as well as recognition of the need for extra oxygen.
( During the chase, the core body temperature of both predator and prey rises. Describe how changes in blood circulation help to return
their core body temperatures to n0|m|.
|`l
In longer questions like this try to be clear on writing cause and effect. Where possible use key terms and concepts from your course as part
of your description as you will often receive credit for these. However. the terms need to be in the correct context -you will not gain marks
for lists of random terms that do not 0emonstrate your understanding of what they mean.
5Iu6e0Ia0

swer
*< = *
An increase i n core temperature causes vasodilation so that more
heat i s lost from the skin.
This is an example of homeostasis using a negative feedback
mechanism. Changes to the core temperature are detected by
thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus which send nerve impulses to
arterioles in the ski n. This causes vasodilation resulting in increased
blood fiow to the skin.
This response would onl y score ' mark for the recognition that more
heat would be lost from the SK|P.The reference to vasodi|ation is
not enough as it does not describe what change occurs to the blood
circulation.
This response is better because it includes key terms and structures
in the correct context of how the change is caused (homeostasis.
negative feedback. hypothalamus). It also clearly describes the
effect of vasodilation on the blood circulation.
(Edexcel /tBiology (Salters-Nufield) Advanced Unit JJune ?I
1 (a) Name the region Ol the human brain i nvolved in control of heart rate. ' `
(b) Heart rate increases during exercise. Explain the mechanisms involved in
control l i ng !' :i ncrease in |ea|' rate.
(4)
Total D marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5June 2007)
Doi ng too l i ttl e exercise can l ead 'O heal th probl ems, but too much exercise Can
also be harmful. Discuss tre benefits and potential dangers of exercise
i n humans.
|o
Total marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 5June 2007)
The tabl e below refers 'O three major 'aQe of aerobic respi ration and the |OCuc':
Ol each stage. Copy and complete the table by i nserti ng the part of the cel l in
which the stage occurs an: two products in the bl ank spaces.
' glycolysis

eosc,cle matrix o: IocoJ| On

electron transport chain ATP 8|C VlC|

l
'-`
Total marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit 4 - paper oJune 2007)
The diagrams show one sarcomere in its ful l y relaxed state and when il i
partially contracted.
actin
myosin
Fully relaxed sarcomere Partially contracted sarcomere
(a) Cal cul ate the percentage change v uI' ol the H zone when the sarcomere
is partially contracted Show your working. (3)
(b) During the contracticn of thi s sarcomere, the myosi n fil aments pull the aC'n
fi l aments towards the centre Ol the a:COne:e Explain how I'.: i s
brought about. (4)
D `|e di agram shows
the ways i n whi ch the
respiratory system and
di fferent parts of the
brai n i nteract wi th
each other to
regulate breathing.
Total J marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit - paper oJune 2007)
sretchreceptors
Topic 1. Run for your life
(a) Breathing can be controlled vol untari l y and involuntari ly. Name the part of
the brai n that controls involuntary breathing
:
(b) Suggest one occasion when the depth of breathing is increased voluntarily. ,1)
(c) Usi ng the i nformati on the di agram, expl ai n the roles of muscle spi ndl es
and nerves i n the control of breathing during exercise. (3)
(d) The ventilation of the l ungs duri ng breathi ng is essenti al i n mai ntai ning
the concentrati or gradients of the respiratory gases. This ensures that gas
exchange is efficient. Explain why the chemoreceptors are particularly
i mportant duri ng exercise.
.`
Total J marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced Unit = paper oJune 2007)
The di agram shows some of the muscl es in a human l eg.
(a) Using the letters A, B, C or D, i dentify the muscle
on the diagram above which (i) contracts to
bend the leg backwards at the knee AND (i i ) is
antagonistic to the muscle identified in ( ) ( 1 )
(b) Joi nt i njuries often shorten the career of athletes.
Explain the advantages of keyhole surgery on
damaged joints, such as the knee, compared with
traditi onal surgery. ..)
(c) Two weeks after taking part in a okm race,
33% of the runners devel oped respi ratory tract
infections. Those who completed the race were
three times more likely to develop an infection
after the race compared with a control group
which did not run.
Expl ain one factor which could contribute to this
hi gher i nfecti on rate. '
Total marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nufield) Advanced Unit 5 June 2005)
7 The diagram shows the pathways for the conduction of electrical impulses during
the cardiac cycle.
X
7
pathways for the

conduction of
electrical impulses
(a) Name the structure l abel l ed Z. :
(b) Describe how the structures shown i n the diagram control the compl ete
cardi ac cycle.
4

Total D marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit l January 2005)
Animal nervous systems are fast-acting communi cati on systems containing nerve cells
(neurones) whi ch carry information i n the form of n erve impulses (see page C.)
In mammal s sensory neurones carry i mpulses from receptOis to a central nervous
system (CNS) consisting of the OJ. Oand spinal cord. The CNS (contai ni ng relay
neurones) processes i nformati on from many sources and then sends out i mpul ses via
motor neurones to effector organs (mai nl y muscles and glands).
Tne pupil reflex
The iris contai ns pairs of antagonistic muscl es (radial and circular muscl es) that control
the size of the iris under the influence of the autonomic nervous system (involuntary).
radial
musc|es
re|ax
pupil constricted
radial
musc|es
c!rcu|ar cotract
PusLls
cotrac!
pupil dilated
ClCU8I
PuSClES
relax
How the musces of the iris act to control the amount of lght entering the eye.
I n hi gh l i ght intensities photoreceptors such as rods in the retina cause nerve i mpulses
to pass al ong the optic nerve to a group of nerve cells in the brai n. These then send
impulses along parasympathetic motor neurones to the ci rcul ar muscl es of the iris.
The muscles contract, reducing the diameter of the pupil so :hat less light can enter
the eye, thus preventing damage to the retina.
In low l ight conditions fewer impul ses reach the coordinating centre in the brain
impul ses are sent down sympathetic motor neurones to tne radial muscl es of the
iris instead. This causes the radial muscles to contract and the pupil becomes dil ated,
al l owi ng more l ight to reach the retina.
1t1 : n l n1S
" Photoperiodism: Pl ants fl ower and seeds germi nate i n response to changes i n day
| -OQ!| The oreceptor involved i s a bl ue-green pent cal l ed phytochrome.
Qn absorbi ng natural (or red) light phytochrome converts ] the i nacti ve form
_to the active ||
__dark _slowly reverts ba::k to Pbecause i t i s
relatively unstabl e (or it can change back ridly_j.R- ||exposed to far rd l i gt).
I t _ !:that the active P
FR
may trigger a rang_e_gf diffe[t..Qbot.eriodic
responses.
Phototropi sm: Topisms are growth responses in plants where the direction of the
gwwth response is determined p1 dternal stimul us. If a pl ant
grows towards a stimul us it is said to be a tropic respoe.
Green Book . T, d. z Orange bDD . I
Light Light
With illumination (.`.
from all sides, an
.
Zone o
even , :tribution elongation
oIauxns moves
dovn Iromthe
snoo!tip, and __
causese|on_a!on ^
oIce|lsacoss
!he one oI
el ooga:ioa
Light
from one side, auxins
move down Irom!he
shoo! !ptowards \he
shaded side of the
shoot. Only those
cells on !heshaded
sdee'On_a!e.and
!ne shooI bends
!Ovadsthe 'ight
'
It is not LlC3r vO3 Oe reCeptor for |CtoICpi$m i s in shoots, but a good
candidate ||Lere3ls is riboflavin. `|!CIC. !C!|egrovtO response
' >cell elongation. This h3ppen>just OC|Ov!OeI'of the shoot and is
contolled by the pl ant growth $UO$!|CC |(the first auxin discovered).
Mechani sm of phototropism in shoots.

Electrochemical changes Chemical hormones from Chemical growth substances
giving an electrical i mpulse. endocrine glands eared 1 n (e.g. auxins) diffusing from
Chemi cal neurotransmitters

cell to cell - some may go i n

the blood plasma around the

used at most synapses. C' r\ul atoy system. the pl ant transport system
- the phloem.
rapid acti ng slower acting slower acting
Usually associated with Can control long-term Controls long-term
short-term changes, e. g. responses, e. g. growth and growth responses, . _ cel l
muscle contraction. sexual development. Some el ong3t' on.
are involved in homeostasis,
C. _. control of blood sugar.
Some can be relatively fast,
e.g. effects of adrenaline in
. response to stress.
Response i s very local and Response may be widespread, Response may be widespread,

specific such as a muscle cell or restricted IOspecific target but normally restricted to cells

or gl and. cells. within a shor d1stance of

the growth substance bei ng
released.
Table to compare communication and coordination methods in plants and animals.
Q1 Expl ai n what is meant by the term photoreceptor.
Q Explain why it is c advantage that shoots have positive phototropism and
roots have negative phototropism.
Q
~
What effect does IAA have on cells?

Take care not to muddle tropic

and trophic. Tropic responses
are growth responses i n plants.
Trophi c is connected v'!| |0v
l i vi ng thi ngs feed and thei | positi01
within food chai ns. FoPu||' u
pl ant shoots have u positivu tropi c
response to l ' ght and they 3|
autotrophic U8LduSuthey 00k
thei r own food and therefore
occupy the ||Sll/0hlc| u!u' on u
food chai n.
Remember, auxins l i ke IAA cause
cel l elongation and not cell
d' vis' on.
Hl | I
1 W|yi s it an advuntuufor
animal s to have a nervous
system and an endocrine
system?
Green Book 8. 1, 8. : Orange Book 8. 1
Sensory neurone
cell body

Schwann cell

axon
"
dendrites
cell body
Relay neurone

axon
dendrites
The structure of neurones in a mammar
Neurones are i ndi vi dual nerve cel l s,
whereas nerves are several axons
bundl ed together i n a p rotective
sheath, 8RdtlUSconduct i mpul ses
towards the cel l body, and XUS
conduct impulses away from the
cel l body,
Al l neurones (nerve cel l s) have a cel l body (containi ng the nucl eus and
most of the cel l 's organel l es within the cytoplasm), dendrites (that conduct
impulses towards the cel l body) and an axon (that conducts impulses away
from the cel l body), The main difference between the structures of sensory,
motor and rel ay neurones is the rel ati ve posi tion of the cel l body
Neurones are able to carry waves of electrical activity called action
potentials (nerve impulses) over a l ong distance because the axons can
be very l ong and the membranes are pol ari sed (different charges on the
insi de and outside of the membrane),
Most vertebrate neurones have a fatty i nsul ati ng layer called the myel i n
sheath wrapped around the axon and/or dendron , Thi s increases the
speed of conduction of a nerve impulse through a piocess cal l ed saltatory
conducti on, Schwann cel l s wrap around the neurone, to nourish and
protect it and produce the myelin sheath, H:wever, there are smal l gaps
left uncovered cal l ed the nodes of Ranvier, Action potenti al s jump from
one node of Ranvier to the next increasing the speed of conducti on,
ei:BnSniSSOn O1a nerve mpuI5e
In a resting neLrone there are more sodi um i ons outside the cel l
membrane than inside, and more potassium i ons inside than outside,
The inside of the resting neurone has a negati ve charge i n comparison to
!neOut.. de dJe!O I|e presenceof chl oride ions and negati vel y charged
proteins, This distribution of ions creates a potential difference (a
difference in charge) of about
-
70mV cal l ed the resting potential and
the membrane is said to be pol ari sed, The sodi um-potassi um pump
creates concentration gradients across the membrane (sodium moves out
and potassium moves in to the axon), Potassi um ion channel s allow
facilitated diffusi on of potassium ions back out of the membrane down
their concentration gradi ent, creati ng the uneven di stri bution of charge
across the membrane,
.
c

'
1

+
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Movement of ions in and out OIthe membrane during

an cuOn ]OlCnl Ml
88
! C800E|
1Jm0
Green b00o. z Orange o00o.
Topic 8: '|0y matter

If a neurone cel l rr,eml- ne is sti mulated, voltage-dependent sodi um i on channel s

open and sodi um i ons diffuse i n. Th1 s increases the positive charge i nsi de the cel l , so
the charge across the rrembrane is reversed. The membrane now carries a potenti al
difference of about +~|mV Thi s is the action potential and the membrane i s sa1 d to
be depol ari sed. As the charge reverses, the sodi um ion channel s shut ar , J voltage
dependent potassi um i on channel s open so that more potassi um i ons l eave the axon,
repol ari si ng the membrane.
Z
stimulation
D
4
high Na

high axon

first action potential


second action potential

!`

third action potential

+ + +
K refractory Na
period

progress ot the impulse

Propagation of t nerve impulse along an axon.
At resting potential there is
positive charge onthe outside of
the membrane and negative charge
on the inside, with high sodium ion
concentration outside and high
potassium ion concentration inside.
When stimulated, voltage-
dependent sodium ion channels open.
and sodium ions flow into the axon,
depolarising the membrane.
Localised electric currents are generated
in the membrane. Sodium ions move to the
adjacent polarised (resting) region causing
a change in the electrical charge (potential
difference) across this part of the membrane
The change in potential difference in the
membrane adjacent to the first accion
potential initiates a second action potential.
At the site of the first action potential the
voltage-dependent sodium ion channels
close andvoltage-dependent potassium ion
channels open. Potassium ions leave the
axon, repolarising the membrane. The
membrane becomes hyperpolarised.
A third actionpotential is initiated by the
second. In this waylocal electric currents
cause the nerve impulse to move along the
axon. At the site of the first action
potential. potassium ions diffuse back into
the axon, restoring the resting potential.
Action potenti al s have an al i -or-nothi ng nature (the val ues of the resti ng and acti on
potenti al s are al ways the same O|a speci fi c neurone) A bi gger sti mul us increases the
frequency of the action potenti al s (not the strength). A threshold sti mul us must be
appl i ed to produce an action potenti al .
Strai ght after an action potential there i s a short refractory period when a
new action potential can't be generated because the sodi um ion channels can' t
reopen. Thi s ensures that acti on potential s pass along as separate si gnal s and are
uni di rectional (onl y acl e to pass in one di rection).
'|cc| o03o z Orange bUUo 1
`

Uni t b. .Xer'i se and Coordi nati on
Pre - before; post- after; uni - one;
summati on - addi ng.
I f two or more excitatory
l i mpulses arrive at a synapse
at the same time thei r effect
wi l l be combi ned and you
are more l i kel y to depol arise
the postsynaptic membrane
(thi s i s spati al summati on) I f
you have a strong sti mul us
along one neurone many
action potenti al s wi ll arri ve
one after the other (due to
the hi gh frequency) and thi s
wi ll have the same effect
(thi s i s temporal summati on).

1 Look back at your AS Bi ol ogy
notes for the structure of
membranes and transpor
a c ross membranes. Sketch a
di agram of a membrane to show
how sodi um and potassi um i ons
move duri ng a nerve i mpul se.
Then add to your di agram any
other ways that substances can
move across membranes.
Synp5e5
The poi nt where one neurone meets another i s cal l ed a synapse. At T'F ti p of
the axon an i mpulse opens calcium i on channel s then tri ggers the release of a
chemi cal neurotransmitter (for exampl e acetyl chol i ne) from synapti c vesicl es. The
neurotransmi tter can diffuse across the gap between the neurones (the synapti c cleft)
and bi nd to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. I f the neurotransmitter comes
from an excitatory neurone it may open sod1 um ion channel s on the postsynaptic
membrane, tri ggeri ng a new acti on potential in the postsynapti c neurone. However,
some neurotransmitters are i nhi bitory and they may open chl ori de ion channel s on the
postsynaptic membrane, causi ng it to become hyperpol arised and therefore harder to
get an above-threshol d response needed to tri gger the new acti on potenti al .
An enzyme i s often present i n the synapti c cleft to hydrol yse the neurotransmitter, so
the response does not keep happeni ng. The neurotransmi tter may also be taken back
up i nto the presynapti c membrane ready to be used agam.
Because the receptors are only on one si de of the synapse (the postsynaptic
membrane) the si gnal can onl y pass in one di recti on ( uni di recti onal ). Synapses al so
act as juncti ons and al l ow nerve i mpulses to converge or diverge because one neurone
can meet many others at a singl e synapse.
1 An action
potential arrives.
? The membrane depolarises.
Calcium ion channels open.
Calcium ions enter the
neurone.
-
Calcium ions cause synaptic
vesicles containing
neurotransmitter to fuse with
the presynaptic membrane.
4 Neurotransmitter is released
into the synaptic cleft.
axon
synaptic
vesicle
neurotransmitter

-
presnapt1c
memorane


C
_ i

H
C
synaptic
cleft

postsynaptic

membrane
5 Neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane. Cation channels open.
Sodium ions flow through the channels.
The membrane depolarises and
initiates an action potentiaL
7 When released the neurotransmitter will be taken up across the presynaptic membrane
(whole or after being broken down, , or it can diffuse away and be broken down.
The sequence of events occurring when an action potential arrives at a synapse

1 Expl ai n the di fference between depol ari sati on and hyperpol ari sati on.
2 How do the structure of the synapse and axon membrane ensure that nerve
i mpul ses are onl y abl e to travel in one di rection/

>
Descri be what happens to sodi um i ons when a neurone membrane i s
sti mul ated.
Green Book o ` Orange Book o.
|
|
|
Receptors are specialised cel ls abl e to detect sti mul i . Receptors are often grouped
together into sense organs.
Human eyes have two types of photoreceptor cel l s found in the reti na on the back
of the eye. Cones al l ow col our vi si on in bri ght l i ght and are clustered in the centre of
the retina. Rods onl y provide bl ack and white vision, but are much more sensi ti ve than
cones and can work in dim l ight conditions.
dark
.

Na diffuse i n
Na
throuh open
outer
-
cation channels
.egment
inner
segment
Na + mo.e down
concentration gradient

N

+
<=
Na + activel,
. pumped out
I

'

_
_
_
membrane slightly
depolarised -40mV
Neurotransmitter is released
and binds to bipolar cell,
pre.enting it depolarising.
bipolar neurone

light
light breaks down

__
rhodopsi n to retinal
a-d o,si|
`"

Opsin binds to the

membrane causing a series
of reactions which result i n
the Na c-an-e.s being closed.
Na activel,
pumped out
membrane
hyperpolarised
No neurotransmitter is
released.

Cation channels i n
bipolar cell open and
membrane becomes
depOlari.ed,enerating
an action potential in
the neurone of the
optic nerve.
-iOuce |O lC uik nuin!l:IQ|.
Light energy is absorbed by rhodopsin whi ch spl i ts into retinal and opsi n. The
opsin binds to the membrane of the outer segment of the cell and this causes
sodium i on channels to close. The inner segment continues to pump sodi um
ions out of the cel l and the membrane becomes hyperpoarised (more negati ve).
This means that gl utamate is not released across the synapse. Gl utamate usual l y
inhibits the neurones which connect the rod cel l s to the neurones in the optic
nerve. When there is less inhibi ti on an action potential forms and i s transmitted
to the brai n. The information from the optic nerve is processed by the brain i n
the visual cortex.
~
Q1 Expl ai n why rods release a neurotransmitter in the dark, but not in the l i ght.
Q Describe what happens to rhodopsin when i t i s exposed to light.
Q Compare photoreceptOs in mammals and pl ants.
! Groups of three rod cel l s
connect to a si ngl e bi pol ar cel l
whereas j ust one cone cel l
connects to a bipolar cel l . Use
thi s information to explain why
y0|can't see col our well in di m
l i ght conditions.
Green Book o Orange Book 8. 2
Whi te matter is so cal l ed because it
mai nl y consists of lots of myel inated
axons. Grey matter is where the
synapses occur and therefore
where al l the processi ng takes
pl ace and your memori es are
stored.
The regions of the cerebral
hemispheres and their functions.
The cerebrum (cerebral cortex) is the largest part of the brai n. It is divided i nto two
cerebral hemi spheres connected by a band of wh i tE matter cal l ed the corpus
cal l osum. The cerebrum i s associated wi th advanced mental activity li ke l anguage,
memory, cal cul ati on, processi ng i nformati on from the eyes and ears, emotion and
controlling al l of the voluntary acti vi ti es of the body.
Frontal lobe (also referred to as the higher centres of the brain) - concerned with the higher brain
functions such as decision making, reasoning, planning and consciousness of emotions. It is also concerned
with forming associations (by combining information from the rest of the cortex) and with ideas. It
includes the primary motor cortex which has neurones that connect di rectly to the spinal cord and brain
stem and from there to the muscles. It sends information to the body via the motor neurones to carry out
movements. The motor cortex also stores information about how to carry out different movements.
Temporal l cbe - concerned with processing
auditory information, i.e. hearing, sound
recognition nri sreerh -| t~,o o+-,.
\.cinvolved in c-..
Parietal lobe - concerned with
orientation, movement, sensation,
calculation, some types of
recognition and memory.
Cerebellum
Occipital lobe (visual
cortex) - concerned with
processing information
from the eyes, including
vision, colour, shape
recognition and perspective.
corpus callosum cerebrum
The hypothalamus
controls
thermoregulation.
pituitary
The cerebellum is important
for balance and coordinating
muscle movements.
gland
midbrain
The main regions of the human ora in.
The medulla oblongata controls
many body processes such as heart
rate, breathing and blood pressure.
'J Disti ngui sh between the cerebrum and the cerebel l um.
'
Which regi on of the brai n is most associ ated wi th thi nking and decision
maki ng/
Green Book o. ` Orange Book 8. 3
Topic . Grey matter
W" are born with a range of i nnate behaviours (behavioural responses that do not
need to be learnt) such as crying, grasping and sucking. However, the brain still needs
much growth and development after birth through the formation of synapses and the
growth of axons.
zV
Critical wi ndows (or critical periods) for development are those periods of time where it
is thought that the nervous system needs specific stimuli in order to develop properly.
Evidence for critical windows for development has come from medical observations
(e.g. children who develop cataracts before the age of U days may suffer from
permanent visual impai rment even || the cataracts are repaired at a later date) and from
ani mal models Hubel and Wiesel used kittens and monkeys as models to investigate
the critical window in visual development because of the similarity of their visual systems
to that of humans.
The iJni mal s were deprived of the stimul us of light into one eye (monocular deprivation)
at different stages of development and for different lengths of ti me. They found that
kittens deprived of light in one eye at 4 weeks after birth were effectively permanently
blind in that eye. Monocular deprivation before 3weeks and after 3 months had
no effect. It was thought that during the critical period (about 4 weeks after bi rth)
connections to cells in the visual cortex from the l i ght-deprived eye had been lost Thi s
meant that the eye that remai ned open duri ng development became the onl y route for
visual stimuli to reach the visual cortex.
Inactive synapses are eliminated.
Eye has no worki ng connection to the visual
cortex and i s effectively bl i nd, even though
the cells olthe retina and optic nerve work
normally when exposed to light
Axons pass nerve i mpulses to cell s in the
visual cortex.
Synapses used by active axons are
strengthened.
Synapses only present for axons coming from
the light-stimulated eye. So the visal cortex
can only respond to this eye.
The use of ani mal s as models for understanding how humans develop, or how
new drugs may affect us, is a very controversi al area. There are those who hold an
absol utist view of ani mal rights and think we should OCvEI keep animal s or use
them in medical research. From the poi nt of view of medi cal research, a much more
widespread posi tion is the relativist view that humans should treat animal s well and
minimise harm and suffering so far as i s possibl e. Here the emphasis i s on ani mal
welfare, respecting their rights to such things as food, water, veterinary treatment
and the abil i ty to express normal behaviours. This is pretty much the position in
European l aw This al l assumes that animal s can suffer and experience pl easure.
A utilitarian ethical framework al l ows certain ani mal s to be used in medi cal
experiments |OwOCOthe overall expected benefits are greater than the overall
expected harms based on the bel i ef that the right course of action is the one that
maximises the amount of overal l happi ness or pl easure in the worl d.
Green Book 8.3
Visual development is H
exampl e of how the effects of
nature and nurture can combi ne
i n development The genes
control the development of the
responsive cel l s in the vi sual
cortex (nature) but sti mul us frorr
the environment is needed duri ng
the criti cal wi ndow for the correc1
connecti ons to be made {nurture).
Or3nq0 Book 8. 4
Unit 5: Exercise and Coordi nati on
!! though it is not general l y
possi bl e to experiment on peopl e,
t is possi bl e to sel ect a sampl e
areful l y so as to ensure that non
xperimental variabl es, such a s
3 ge a nd sex, are matched so it i s
nore l i ke a tradi ti onal control l ed
xperiment in the l aboratory.
1 What is your personal view on
the use of ani mal s i n medi cal
research? For exampl e, how
many a fruit flies, b mi ce, cats,
d monkeys do you think you
coul d use to test new drugs to
hel p treat breast cancer,
mal ari a, |wrinkl es in the skin?
How do you justify your position?
.e :Ole O1 H1J:e HC Hur1ure H nr n

1 .
Nature: Many of our characteri sti cs develop sol el y under the i nfl uence of our
genes with l i ttl e i nfl uence from our envi ronmem or l earni ng, e. g. bl ood group.
Nurture: Many characteristics are l earnt or are heavi l y i nfl uenced by the
envi ronment, e. g. how l ong your hai r i s.
Most of our characteristics are actual l y determi ned by nature and nurture or nature vi a
nurture. We are the resul t of a mi xture of geneti c and envi ronmental factors. Human
behavi ours, atti tudes and ski l l s may have an underl yi ng geneti c bas1 s but are mod1 fi ed
by experience or the envi ronment i n a way whi ch I S very compl ex. For exampl e, the
chance of devel opi ng some di seases, such as some cancers, has a geneti c basi s,
where a gene or several genes i nteract to confer suscepti bi l ity to the di sease with
envi ronmental factors contri buti ng to the risk of devel opi ng the di sease.
Evi dence for the relative rol es of nature and nurture i n brai n devel opment come from
a variety of sources:
The abi l i ti es of newborn babi es: Newborn babi es have some i nnate capaci ti es.
These suggest that genes hel p to form the brai n and some behavi ours before the
baby i s born.
Studi es of i ndi vidual s wi th damaged brai n areas: Some pati ents who have
suffered from brai n damage show the abi l ity to recover some of thei r brai n
funct1 on. Thi s demonstrates that some neurones have t he abi l ity t o change.
Ani mal experiments: e. g. Hubel and Weisel's experi ments on cri ti cal windows for
si ght, suggest that external sti mul ati on i s i mportant i n brai n devel opment
Twi n studies: I denti cal twi ns share al l the same genes. Fraternal (non-i denti cal )
twi ns share the same n umber as any other si bl i ng woul d. Twi n studi es con hel p to
esti mate the rel ati ve contri buti on of genes and the envi ronment Any differences
between i denti cal twins must be due to the effects of the envi ronment
I denti cal twi ns rai sed apart i n compari son to those rai sed together are parti cul arl y
useful for study. For exampl e i f there i s a greater difference between those twins
raised apart than twins raised together i t suggests some envi ronmental i nfl uence.
However, twi ns rai sed apart may not have compl etel y different envi ronments and
twi ns rai sed together may devel op different personal i ties due to a desi re to be
different. I n general if genes have a strong i nfl uence on the devel opment of a
characteristic, then the cl oser the geneti c relati onshi p, the stronger the correlation
wi l l be between i ndi vi dual s for that trait.
Cross-cul tural studies: I nvesti gati ons i nto the vi sual perception of groups
from different cul tural backgrounds support the i dea that vi sual cues for depth
perception are at least parti al l y l earnt.
Q1 Descri be why it may be dangerous to l eave a patch over the damaged eye
of a chi l d for a prol onged period of ti me.
Q Expl ai n why ki ttens and monkeys have been used i n experi ments l ooki ng
at human brai n devel opment.
D
{
If one i denti cal twin has schi zophreni a there is 8`chance that thei r twin
wi l l al so have symptoms of schi zophreni a. However, if one fraternal twin
has schi zophreni a there i s onl y a Tchance that thei r twin will also have
symptoms of schizophreni a. What do these fi gures suggest about the
contri buti on of nature and nurture on the devel opment of schi zophreni a?

.

Green buOo. ` Orange buuo o

1u| C . Grey matter

Learni ng is a process that results in a change in behaviour (or knowledge) as a result

of experience. For l earning to be effective you must remember what you have l earnt.
Memories (conscious and sub-conscious) are formed by changing or maki ng new
synapses in the nervous system.
Habituation is a very s mpl e type of l eari ng that involves the loss of a response
to a repeated stimulus whi ch fails to provide any form of reinforcement (reward
or punishment). It al lows ani mal s to i gnore unimportant stimuli so that they can
concentrate on more rewarding or threatening stimul i .
The core practical i s an example of a simple investigation into habituation. I t measures
the time a snail spends withdrawn into its shell when you tap the surface it is moving on
at regular time intervals or gently touch the snail 's head. Initially the snail tends to retreat
into its shel l for a si gni ficant period of time after each tap. As the tapping ccmtinues the
snail stays in i ts shell for a shorter duration as it becomes habituated to the tappi ng.
Descri bi ng how to investigate
habituation to a stimulus is a
requi red practical so you may
wel l be asked quesIions about
thi s duri ng the exam. As thi s i s
Many i nvertebrates have been useful ani mal model s for investigating the workings
of the nervous system. For example sea slugs (Aplysia) have been used to i nvesti gate
habi tuati on.
A Gill withdraws when siphon stimulated.
water ]et ill wthdrawal
6 After several minutes of repeated
stimulation of the si phon the
gill no longer withdraws.
water jet
gill
-abituation |^a sea slug.
C How ha0itudtlon is achieved.
lWith repeated stimulation. Ca2
channels become less responsive so
less Ca2 crosses the resynaptic
membrane.
(aZ
? Less neurotransmitter
is released.
a n experi ment involving ani mal s
( p ossi bly humans, dependi ng on
your method) you shoul d consi der
any ethi cal and safety i ssues that
may ari se in your methodology.
It i s al so worh considering how
to evaluate your results as it is
often difficult to control many
variables when using live animals
in experiments.
3 There is less depolarisation
of the postsynaptic membrane
so no action potential is
triggered i n the motor
neurone.
sensory neurone
from the siphon
motor neurone
to the gill
'! Write out the reflex arc involved | the sea sl ug's response to
water being sprayed onto its si phon.
'
Suggest why sea sl ugs used in thi s habituation experi ment need
to have been reared in captivity rather than in the sea.
' Suggest whether nature or nurture i s l i kel y to be responsi bl e for
the development of an innate reflex.
Green Book 83 Orange Book 8J

Oopaine arrd PcdrsonJs disease

Parkinson's disease is associated with the death of a group of dopami ne-
secreting neurones i n the brain (an area of the mi dbrai n known as the substantia
nigra). This results in the reduction of dopami ne l evel s in the brai n. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter which is active in neurones in the frontal cortex, brai n stem and
spi nal cord. I t i s associated with the control of movement and emoti onal responses.
The symptoms of Parki nson' s are:
muscle tremors (shakes)
stiffness of muscles and sl owness of movement
poor bal ance and walki ng probl ems
difficul ties wi th speech and breathing
depressi on.
A variety of treatments are avai l able for Parki nson' s di sease, most of which ai m to
increase the concentrati on of dopam1ne i n the bram. Dopami ne cannot move i nto the
brai n from the bloodstream, but the mol ecule which is used to make dopami ne can.
Thi s mol ecul e i s called L-dopa (l evodopa) and can be turned i nto dopami ne to hel p
control the symptoms. Some other treatments for Parki nson' s are outl i ned later in thi s
section
Serotonr and deression
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter li nked to feeli ngs of reward and pleasure. A lack of
serotoni n is l i nked to clinical depression (prol onged feeli ngs of sadness, anxiety,
hopel essness, l oss of i nterest, restlessness, i nsomni a, etc.)
Treatments for depression often i nvol ve drugs that can hel p i ncrease the concentrati on
of serotoni n i n the synapses. For example, Prozac i s a selective serotoni n reuptake
i nhi bi tor (SSRI) that blocks the process which removes serotoni n from the synapse. See
below for discussion on how SSRis might work
.
The effe(t of dr- $ f synapses
Many drugs affect the nervous system by i nterferi ng with the normal functi oni ng of
a synapse. The d1agram and followi ng text show some of the ways synapses can be
affected by drugs
.
J Some drugs affect the synthesi s or storage of the
C
c '
neurotransmitter. For example L-dopa used in the treatment
o
f
Parki nson's dtsease i s converted i nto dopamine, i ncreasi ng
the concentrati on of dopami ne to reduce the symptoms of the
di sease.
Z Some drugs may affect the release of the neurotransmitter
from the presynaptic membrane.
3 Some drugs may affect the interacti on between the
.- 5
neurotransmitter and the receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane
a) Some may be stimul atory by bi ndi ng to the receptors

m
3

.
and openi ng the sodium ion channels-for exampl e
dopami ne agoni sts (whi ch mi mi c dopami ne because they
have a si mi l ar shape and are used in the treatment of
Parki nson's disease) bi nd to dopamine receptors and trigger
action potential s.
b) Some may be i nhi bi tory, bl ocki ng the receptors on
the postsynaptic membranes and preventi ng the
neurotransmitters bi ndi ng.
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The development of new drugs
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Look back at your notes on
synapses and nerve impulses to
help get your head around this
section about how 0!u3 can affec
your nervous system.
1 Explain why treating mental
health problems with 0!u
u0 8 diffi cul t process
to get right. (Remember that
neurotransmitters are effectivE
in extremely low concentratior
and are 8JlV8 l very specific
synapses within the brain.)
CeeP cOo- OaQeUCCJ o
A genome is all of the DNA (or genes) of an organism. The Human Genome Project
was a multinational project that determined the base sequence of the human
genome. Many new genes have been identified, including some of those genes
responsible for inherited diseases. In addition new drug targets (specific molecules
that drugs interact with to have their effects, e.g. enzymes) have been identified
Information about a patient's genome may help doctors to prescribe the correct drug
at the correct dose. The Human Genome Project may also allow some diseases to be
prevented. If you understand what genes you carry you may understand what disease
you are likely to be at risk from.
The Human Genome Project also helps to provide information about evolution and
increases our knowledge of physiology and cell biology.
T
D<:''
Who owns the information? Some groups have applied for patents on genetic
sequences so that they have ownership, or have to be paid for any treatments
developed using the knowledge of that sequence.
Who is entitled to know the information about your genome if it is sequenced/
Should insurance companies have access to the information?
Will genetic screening lead to eugenics (the genetic selection of humans) and
designer babies?
Who will pay for the development of the new therapies and drugs/ Many possible
highly specialised treatments may be very expensive and will only be suitable for a
few people.

:.e
'
*

~
GM plants may be useful for producing edible drugs such as vaccines that can be
stored and transported easily in plant products such as bananas or potatoes. Useful
genes can be transferred into crop plants using a vector such as /Q|OJC/C/um
/umC!JCC|, gene guns (pellets coated with DNA) or a virus Restriction enzymes
are used to cut DNA at specific sequences and DNA ligase is an enzyme that can be
used to stick pieces of DNA together. These make it possible to insert specific DNA
sequences into the GM organism. Large numbers of identical GM plants can easily be
produced.
Transgenic animals (animals with human gene added to them) can be used
to produce useful drugs that can be harvested from their milk (or even semen)
Liposomes and viruses are vectors used to insert genes into animal cells. Drugs
produced from transgenic animals include the blood clotting factors used to treat
haemophilia.
Micro-organisms such as bacteria are the most common target for genetic
modification as they are relatively easy targets for gene transfer and can be grown
rapidly in large quantities in fermenters. The drugs produced can be extracted and
purified using downstream processing Insulin, to treat type II diabetes, is an example
of a drug produced from genetically modified micro-organisms.
Green LOC c,^
Orange bCC< c1
.
10c. Uy latt
Ti plasmid
Stage 1
The Ti plasmid is
extracted from
A.rcn.]sc|eas.
Stage 2
The gene to be carried to
the plant is inserted into
the T plasmid which is
then returned to the
bacterium.
bacterial chromosome Ti plasmid
Stage 3
The plant is
infected with
the modified
bacterium and
part of the Ti
plasmid with the
engineered gene
becomes part of
the plant
chromosomes.
cacIerial
DNA
!rom
plasmid
--.,---

plant
chromosome
Stage 4
A.t.mcj+c|cnscauses a tumour
to develop on the
jlanI.These plant
cells contain the hcwgene. '
tumour cells are taken and cultured,
whole new plants can be grown
from them, containingthe new
genes. These are genetcally
engineered or transgenic plants.
crown gall [tumour)
caused eyA.tomcsccas
!^eQenet.mCd|/|.J'OOO|`O.
So . . <
de\eo
.oncerns over tle
mett ard tise o1genet8caUy
7 3:55 (GInOs)
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pOl l a O
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2 |sc|oet heoenO! u ngoBcJ|aJO pOotc B huanprotein (' | <e

i nst+ n}1OIeB1B deBe
new gene
new plant containing
new gene grown
from gall cells
When pepaing for your A2
Biology exams try to think why
things are the way they are and
look for links between different
areas of the course. This can u!|0i
help you understand, remember
and apply your knowledge even
in areas of the course which may
appear tough.
.
T Outline some of the benefits an
di sadvantages of sen'ng u O
natioDal screening programme
for a newly |06DIl!'6u gene
responsible for an inherited
genetic disease.
C:ee: HOO|.4 Oa:g HOO/
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
r.': -

=
Responding to Explain how the nervous system allows us to respond to
the environment the world around us, using the pupil reflex as an example.
Describe how plants detect light and respond.
Compare plant hormones, animal hormonEs and the
nervous system all as methods of coordination.
The nervous Describe the structure and function of sensJry, relay and
system and motor neurones including the role of Schwann cells and
nerve impulses mye|ination.
Describe how a nerve impulse passes along an axon.
Describe what synapses do and how they work, including
the role of acetylcholine.
Vision Describe how the rod cells | the retina work to create
action potentials in t|e opti c nerves.
Structure of the Recall where the different regions of the human brain are
human brain and what each one does. This should include the cerebral
hemispheres, hypothalamus, cerebellum and medu|la
obl ongatC.
OrOin Discuss the concept of a 'critical window' in the
development development of vision.
Describe Hubel and Wiesel's work with monkeys and
kittens and how it explored the development of the brain.
Consider the different methods used to stud, the
development of the brain.
Discuss two ethical standpoints on the moral and ethical
issues relati ng to the use of animals in medical research.
Learning and Describe how animals, including humans, can learn by
habituation habituation.
Describe how to investigate |abiluction.
Effects of Explain how chemical levels in the brain may change,
drugs on resulting in illnesses such as Parkinson's and depress1on
neu|otransmitter and how this area is a source of research for new drugs.
systems
Explain the ways that drugs af!ect synapses in the brain,
includi ng ecstasy and those used to treat Parkinson's.
Describe how dferent imaging techniques are used to
study the brain, including magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), funCtional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
computed tomography (CT) scans.
Uses of genetic Discuss how the Human Genome ProJect is helping to
modiIiCction develop new drugs and some of the issues that arise.
Describe how drugs can be produced using genet1cally
modified organisms (plants and animals an:
micoorganisms).
Discuss the risks and benefits of genetically modified
o|ganiss.
m

.
I

.
.

'

'Jple with Parkinson's disease
have poor control over their skeletal
muscles. caused by a lack of the
neurotransmitter dopamine. L2rge
numbers of neurones secreting
dopamine are found in the basal
ganglia region of the brain.
Parkinson's disease can be
diagnosed and monitored using
brain scans. The fMFI scans on the
right show the results of a study
where subjects did a standard finger-
tapping activity to investigate the
effectiveness of a new drug treatment
10c . Ly `u'0
..
O|U_ OD|U_
The results above right are from a healthy brain, a patient with Parkinson's disease without drug treatment and a patient with Parkinson's
diseose taking drug t1eatment The scan shows a horizontal section with the front of the head at the top. The most active areas are white.
(a) Using the fMRI scans above. discuss the effects of this new drug on brain activity. l`I
When provided with plenty of information to read and diagrams to look at, make sure you study it thoroughly to help you understand the
context of the question and what the examiner is actually asking you about For example. this question is comparing activity in different
regions of the brain and not the size of the different areas.

Rl00l h0 *- . , .. . "
~
There is more actiYity in the basal ganglia and less activity in
the motor cortex for the person treated with the drug than the
person with Parkinson's without the drug. The drug may work by
stimulating the release of more dopamine from the basal ganglia.
Make sure you make a comparative statement. The student here
includes 'more' and 'less' to make the comparison clear. It is also
made clear what is being measured by the fMRI-the activity of the
brain. Many candidates lost marks for this cuestion by referring to an
increase or decrease in the area rather than the activity of the area.
This response gains full marks by going on to provide a possible
explanation for the differences.
(h) Explain how neurotransmitters. such as dopamine, st1mulate neurones. ll
Don't get thrown by the context of the example. You may not know much about exactly how dopamine works, but you should be able to recall
what happens at synapses and how a neurotransmitter can stimulate an action potential in the next neurone .
hlduhlB0' _ _'- _/ _
' i
Dopamine can bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
Dopamine can be released from vesicles in the presynaptic
membrane in response to calcium ions moving in through the
membrane when an action potential arrives.
The dopamine can diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors
and open sodium ion channels. Sodium ions can enter the
postsynaptic membrane and cause the membrane to depolarise.
resulting in an action potential in the postsynaptic neurone.
WMh0tMhQ, . _ .
1

This response describes what dopamine do:s. but doesn't explain

how it stimulates neurones.
This response provides lots of specific detail about how a
neurotransmitter stimulates a new action potential in response to the
arrival of an action potential at the synapse.
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Sa/ters-Nufield) Advanced U/!bJune 7JJ.
111

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(c) :O^ ;eO{!en8vnc8|OoPIOsO88| Pxp:ts. Sugges hOv8
oO|OgsIgrl| usIy IhP usP O88|sPxpPeIs (2)
Total J7 marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nufield) Advanced Unit DJune 27}
7 |IcIO O|ghIOCc.s noOIh88|s8dOvPgp|8Is
(a) In hu8^s, Iecen8!PgO OP P:8 h8s vy v rOdce| | s OvvP ,
8 oO_8oOJt 80-90% Ol OIOPPOs CI8 egOOl IhPI8
8POdce| | s
:J__sIcne8dv8:8gP IO 8 dog of 8v^_ OP Ooc' 's^s :PgOOlI!
reti na.
(3)
(O) soeI oCOOl '_ fl owering {|8s
:
Total marks
(EdexCel CC!Biology Advanced Unit 4June 25(,)
O |nP d8g8 o|Ovs!Dvs8 vIc8|sPcIO rOugh8 hu8Or8^
Usng Ih |IIes A, B, , DO ,sI8IPvhch rPgOOl Ih o8:
D
(a) cOOd8IsOVeeI
(O) OIO!s h8I8Ie
(c) PcPvssesOy;uIOIhPPys
|1
|
:
Total O marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit June .:)
.
1Oic. Grey 1aIIe
1v luC.eC' ueused to investigate theOeOl ge^P|^ oenaVOu+ .The
1euecyOchOphP|aOP:I.a| (mO^OygOIc)Ivvainvesti gated.
COOIOhachOphPaaP IhOugnIIO oepO!ygec.
(a) |e1:e IhPIPmO!ygPc
(b) |1OemOO/ygOIIv hah,Ophe^a Ihe IhP pOoao|lyOlIhP PcOO
Iv| naV|g the condition ^bV
PPOc'vnaI]OuvOu|O expect the ece1agep:Ooao|lyto be |'
schi zophrenia was entirely caused by gee. |!1
(c) 1nP probabi l i ty of two unrel ated people oOIh |a.:g schi zophreni a i s .'V
Expl ain what the results oh. study show about the rol es of genes and the
environment in schizophrenia.
`)
Total marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) /d.anCCdUn||.lJune 25)
b 1heuma GPOmP | rO]Pcl has discovered Ihe|OcalOO! 30 000 genes. | ya
ma!lumoe:O huma^ gPe haVPa |Ov^1ucIO,O IhP PxI step iIO O
OuIvhaIIheeOIhe gPPOO
(a) Exp|a vhaI mPaIoyIhPvOO geOme l`)
(b) SOmPceII.vaI to u~P |Ov|POgegaeO OmIhP Huma GPOmP
Project to screen eop|e lO lOOulIneynaVP a gePcpredispositi on to
cer'adiseases, such as heart di sPaSeO l ung cace:They think that screening
can help people IO lead a heal IhPr ' | le
C\hescientists t hink that _PPI screening shoul d not be carried out because
Iwi l l create extra problems for soci ety.
() Suggest how knowing that you ve:e mOP l i kel y than other people to
devel op heart disease or 'ugcace coul d ne| yO\\O lead a longer,
healthi er l i fe |`)
(ii) Sugge1 nOvcmpu|ygenetic cee^|ngOlPVPyOP mgh1oPl
oeP!IIO society.
(2)
(iii) Suggest vhyPOpP mghIVOIeaganIcOmpt!Oygeet c .ePg i
a rP!Pe^Oum (3)
Total c marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) /dvancedUnit 1 JunC2004)

J Muscle paralysis is common in many cases of poisoning, often as a result of

interference with chemical transmission from the motor neurones to the muscles
at the neuromuscular junctions. Studies of venomous snakes, such as the Prugasti
krait (Bungarus fasciatus) have played a part i n the investigation of thi s chemical
transmission.
(a) Describe the normal sequence of events that occurs within a muscle fibre
after stimulation of a neuromuscular junction.
'~I
(b) Bungaratoxin can be isolated from the venom of the Prugasti krait In minute
amounts, it can cause paralysis of the di aphragm and intercostal muscles by its
effects at synapses
.
Suggest how bungaratoxin causes these effects. (3)
Total c marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit DcJune 2..7)
7 Isolated mi tochondri a in a sol ution containing i norgani c phosphate and an el ectron
donor can be used to study respiration. An electrode is used to record changes
i n oxygen concentration whi l e mitochondri a respire. The graph shows changes in
oxygen concentration for some isolated mitochondria.
c

C

u
* o

.
^ C
' `
........... . .
T|eIn:||iseconds
(a) tl) Descri be and explain the trends shown on the graph above.
(l) Name an el ectron donor used i n the el ectron transport chain in
mitochondria.
(l) State the l ocation of the electron transport chain in mitochondria.
(iv) Descri be how ATP i s synthesi sed in the el ectron transport chai n.
(3)
.
( '1
(4)
(b) ATP is used to provide an immediate suppl y of energy for biological processes.
Describe the role of ATP in the fol lowing processes
.
(i) nerve impulse transmission '`)
(ii) hyperpol arisation of rod cel l s i n the retina.
(2)
Total JO marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 3OJune .o)
O (a) Explain what is meant by the Human Genome ProJect. (2)
(b) The Human Genome Project is making i t possible to identify peopl e who may
be at risk of developing medical conditions such as heart disease, cancer and
diabetes
(l) Suggest two reasons why identifying peopl e at risk mi ght be of benefit to
the people who are tested |)
(ii) Suggest |t??di sadvantages or ethi cal objections posed by the Human
Genome Project. (3)
Total T marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology (Salters-Nuffield) Advanced Unit 2June 2..:)
|
l
|
(a) AI h_h e^vrOnmenI8' Iempe8lLP, Ihe8Ie Ove8l^_ n.m8^ nce8-,
Exp| 8nlOv.vP8In_ nVO|vPdn Ihee_u|8IOnOoOdyIPmpP8luP. (2)
(b] |n8n nveIi8IOn,8 he8|IhyvO| unIee me8ued h oOdyIPmpe8Iu-
AIe5 mnu\P, hP _Ol nIO 8 o8IhOw8Ie:8I8 Iempe8IuPOl 8CHP
I8yedn Ihe o8IhO 10 mnuIP, IhPn_OIOuI8:d8IOn8 c h8 |un_IhP
:^veI_8I O hP rPcOPd his oOylempe8I. e8le_.' 8ImP !Pv8'
Thee\' lOlI investigation 8ehOvn ^lhel8o' eoP|Ov

0 Started investigation .
b Got into bath oU.'
' Lying in bath :-
' Got out of bath o.
Z Sitting on a chair o
25 |Sitting on cI .u
(|) DecroelhP h8n_P noOdyIempe8IuP Ih8IOc c u:r Pddun_ II
j
nvPI_aIOn
|I
(|l) Su__eIPxp'8n81On O !hP ch8n_e n oOdyIPmpP8IuP Ih8!Occued
oelveenlP lO ||Ov_ lme |^Iev8|
SIO !C m.lP.
! :to 25 mi nutes 'I
Total c marks
(Edexcel GCE Biology Advanced -]Je|ol l2/` .:?.CCo)
b A^ investigation v8. 8 PdO.lnlO lle eleclOlCyc^_peP On the breathing 8P
Ol8 P8|IhylOP: |n ll investigation, 8nPxerceo cycP v8.used.
Theoe81 :n_ 8P Olthe student v8 me8ued8IPI PlPncyc ed81 0|m
pe lO\lO `minutes 8nd,: m^Pd8Iey8Ie, h oe81hn_ 81Pv8 PcOPd HP
eIedO : mntIP, before cyc| n_8I ckmper hOu O < m:^u1P,81Pr vh+
h oe8I!n_81Pv8 8_8n mP8uPd.
1 h nveI_8IOnv8 PpP8IPd8IcyC|n_ peedO zU8nd`'<mpP |Ou.
1 heIudenIPIPdO ' mnuIP oPIvPPn e8ch pe:Od Ocyc| n_.
1 hereu|I8ehOvn nIhPI8o|P oP|Ov
0 (rest) 12
18 14
15 17
20 20
25 27
(a) C8 '\'8IP Ih? percentage ^cP8P n oP8Ihn_8le,8 l|P cy.'n_ pPP
nce8Pd1Dm '0<mpP Ou1O 25 <mpelOu ShOvyOu vOn_ `)
(b) Su__eI8nexp|8^8lO^O IIeeeu| I .
(2)
Total 4 marks
(Edexcel GCE 3/OIOQyAdvanced -paper 6112/01 1UDE 2008)

I,

(a) The diagram shows some of the stages of anaerobic respi rati on in a muscle cel l .
Gl ucose
SlaQe 1
phosphorylated GC sugar
Glycolysis
*
SlaQZ
phosphorylated 3C sugars

StaQc3
Substance A

SlaQc 4
Lactic Acid
(i) Name substance A.
(i) State which of the stages shown in the diagram
uses ATP
z produces ATP.
(b) The Krebs cycle occurs duri ng aerobic respi rati on and is an example of a
metabolic pathway.
(i) Explain why the Krebs cycle i s descri bed as a metabol i c pathway.
(ii) State precisely where i n the cel l the Krebs cycl e occurs.
acetyl coenzyme / (zC)

fourth cacid
6C
1 reduced |/D 1 reduced |/D

third Cacid
:cacid
Z

1 reduced NAD
>econd 4Cacid first Cacid
cc

1 reduced AD
(c) The diagram shows some of the stages that occur in the Krebs cycl e.
'`
'`)
(1)
.
Oxi doreductase enzymes are i nvol ved i n some of the reactions in the Krebs cycl e.
Usin< Lhe leller) l 'O cuLhe information given i n the diagram, l ist d||the
stages that invol ve an oxidoreductase enzyme.
(1)
Total marks
,!O?\Ce| GCE l|iQyO.3t?O Ut||- Je|.1ute2')
|
l
l
l
l
l
|
l
l
l
|
w
T (a) 1heB_:a^ oe'Ov.Ov.BOel=: T BB:Blu. uedO eaJ:e
e vO|u^eOla|o|eB|eBdOu ade l:eJe.yOo|eB lg Jde:
d\e|e cOd1O
ro!aIing
drum
vater
A :Oele: vB J.elO.OpB:e B pe:O' O:ea_B |elB Ot: g
exe:..P 1e:eu'1sB:e :!Ovheg.Bp! oe Ov
0 5
PIISI

1u 15 20 ?5 30 3S
1|ne ls
0crinexercise
U 0 15 20 2S 2U 3S
1|nels
1heuIevO| ume Ihe vO umeO Oxyge Ia<e: O lhe | ung 1 iuIe,
ad:B|.u|Bledtyu|\p|yglhe ldB|vO|tmeoy I!et:eaI!g |Ble
(i) Jghe | fO|alO O he g|a|s cB| cu|Ble le iule vO| ueB |e
S|Ovyour working. (2)
(ii) CB| .u|Be lhe .eBe Ihe mue vO| ue lalO..J::ed .!. peOB.
B |e:u|IO! heexe|e ShOv yOu|vO|<g. (2)
(b) CB:a. Oul{tB|O:c|eBse dJ:_ exe|ce
(i) SI- val ^a:! ycaC6co uou1 (1)
(ii) E?p'B !Ov ..eB:e: ^Le vO| ueadB|acOLpudJ:g
exe|c.eeat|e|Bp de|ve|y OOxyge IO mus.| e |<
Total T marks
':d?x?|CC:Biology (Salters-Nufield) Advanced Unit 3OJune 2004)

i
'
' '`

When preparing tor the

comprehension section of the Unit
5 exam:

Read the article carefully and

check any key words you don't
understand, it may help to build
up your own glossary of tcimS.

Seek help with any difficult

ideas and key words in the
article, particularly if they are
barriers to your understanding
of the article.

Identify aspects of the A-level

specification which are woven
into the article and make sure
you know the relevant A-level
detail of material from the
specification. Remember that
you will need to draw on your
own knowledge of the course as
well as the content of the article
to answer the questions. For
example, see question (g) in the
comprehension practice.

Some background research into

major items in the article may
he!p your understanding.

Your teacher does not know the

questions and is therefore free
to be a mentor in helping you to
prepare for the exam.
1his comprehension is based on the Unit 6 A2 Bio| ogy paper in June 2006. You will
need to ask your teacher to find you a copy "nd read it carefully before you answer
the questions.
Adapted from 'Life at the Extremes' by Frances Ashcroft
Publi.hed by laingo_ 2001 |`L 006551254.
Available from the Edexcel website
www. edex cel . om.
uestlOns
The .cientific artiriP yotJ hvP <ttJriPr i< OJFO from r |OOl C<i!Pd ife at the
Extremes: ||e Science of Survival' by r ances Ashcroft Use the information from the
article and your own knowledge to answer the following questions.
(a) Ex plain how humans are able to survive in dry air at temperatures
above 100(
(4)
(b) | nuits have evolved short stocky bodies. Suggest how this could have occurred. (2)
(c) Explain how sufferers of cystic fibrosis can be detected by a sweat test (2)
(d) LXplain why marathon runners and cyclists are at a high risk of heatstroke at the
end of a race.
:.
(e) Lxp|ain how the study of pigs has led to a genetic test for m-lignant hyperthermia
in humans. (2)
(f) Suggest why taking aspirin may .low a person's recovery from an infection.
(_} |escribe the role of calcium 1ons in muscle contraction.
':.
'1
(Total 7 marks)

Unlb. |B1B| c|D'yB:D |0v0:!g3!iv0 :''

lREfMQ
Choosing your own interesting
question can often result in highr
marks. However, discuss this with
your teacher to make sure that it will

be possible to collect sufficient data

to meet all the criteria and that it can

be carried out safely.

'

II

Keep a careful check 0n your
word count. It is very common for
reports to be too long. This is ohen
because research rationale |Snot
all relevant. Later sections tend to
be rushed or too brief. As a rough
guide use the mark allocations
-so research rationale would be
about J0words.
YOu hBVe1O p|OduceB |epO|lO n Bn expe||men1B| |nVel|_Bl|On,vh| chyOu hBVe
p'Bn:ed, cB||edOulBnd|n!e|p|eled | nd| V| duB| |y. 1 he|eB |e~D mB|<BVB||Bl|e

20%
1helOB|A2 mB|< 1hemB|<BeBvBdedB. O| |Ov |eeB|ch & Bl|OB| e
( B|<), ' Bnn| n_ ( ! ! mB|<),Ol.e|V| n_ & |e.|d_ (8B|), |nle|p|el_ &
eB '.B: (9 B|<), cO^tn|.Bl|n_ ,b B|)

+esli_oIc U|t vcri able only. try to 'prove anything or just try to demons'rate a well-
base your hypothesis on sound AS
or -zlevel biology and make it
simple and clear.
include a clear statistical
statement.
try to i nves1igate an inteesting
question.
include clearly labelled subsections
to match the criteria.
make sure you are really familiar
with the marking criteria before
you start.
t

documented 'fact'.
repeat a core practical or a basic procedure from a book.
do the same as your friends Ct classmates.
include lots of irrelevant matenal.
include illustrations that are rot referred to or lots of
graphs when one would do.
forget to refer to the marking criteria when writing up
your investigations.
1n|. |.B |eBOnedexpBnBl|OnO|yOu| hypne.|. He.eB|chexllOO<, mB_B?| e.,
ce|.| Ou|nB|Bndlhe|:le|nellulmB<e. u|e lhBlyOuO:| y| nc| udemBle|B| lhBl .
|e|eVBnllO yOu| hypOlhe|
YOu mtli ndcBlec|eB||y| nyOu||epO1 exBl|yvhe|eyOu haVeuedyOu||eeB|ched
| nO|mBOn(eeUn| lJ AdV|ceOn e1e|e:c|^_}
A g00u. tltar hypothesis iprLve8y0ul|3|t6S03thiviIga high mark in all the criteria.
O000 hypotheses:
106l6iS3signi|i0ant Qos itive 0ull6luli0006lw66|3oil moisture content and the di8tri0UL|0n 0
creeping buttercup 8eraccu|aste,ecsl
h6re |8a significant difference between the rate of growth upollen tubes from fresh pollen and
pollen stored for days.'
Poor hypotheses:
'Seaweeds on a rocky shore will show zonation.'
'Piax mouthwash will kill more bacteria than Listerine mouthwa8h
|
Your report must give clear evidence of how you have thought about and developed
an effective and safe method to test your hypothesis. You need to use a simple trial
experiment to do this.
Nu-ng sure yo collett vaiid nd
reke dta
Always ensure you are really testing your chosen hypothesis.
'Make a clear plan of action including a trial experiment. This should explain what
materials you intend to use and details of quantities and concentrations, etc. You
also need to show exactly how you are going to use your trial to develop the final
method.
Decide how your data is to be analysed before data collection, not later For
example chose your statistical test and number of repeat measurements in advance.
Include a separate section for discussion of possible variables and how you intend to
control them or take them into account.
CosGdering "ariabl-
lt is unlikely that you will be able to control every single variable but you must show
that you have considered all the important factors that could affect your results and
that your planned investigation will yield some scientifically meaningful data.
(a) |nthe laboratory
You should be able to control most variables here but even if apparatus is limited,
use what is available, for example, you may not have a thermostatic water bath
but you could use a beaker of water to hold temperature constant. Beware of
making your own judgements of things like colour changes, try to devise a method
that will help you to be consistent. Trial experiments are an ideal way to do this.
(b) |nthe field
Many variables are more difficult to control in the field but they still need careful
consideration. Select your sampling sites carefully to make sure you do not
introduce more variables Measuring some abiotic factors can help to ensure they
are not affecting the results.
You must show that your investigation can be carried out safely by including a risk
assessment The diagram below shows one approach to this assessment.
List all procedures and
chemical compounds used.
1
What risks are
associated with each?
+

Can the risks be eliminat
Change planned method.

No

What precautions must be taken

to reduce risk to a safe level?
Poorly planned data collection
can lead to the completion of
many statistical tests or graphs
which do not actually relate to the
hypothesis you are testing. This
can limit marks in planning and in
interpreting evaluation.
The followi ng are good exampl es
of how to use a trial experiment to
change your method:
'The cl ear areas of agar were not
ci rcul ar so I deci ded to trace them
on graph paper and measure the
area by counting squares.'
'It i s obvious from my tabl e that there
was only a very small difference
i n my results when I i ncreased the
concentration by 1% each time. I
changed this to 5% each time so that
the effect was much more obvious.'
'The stream I was usi ng had lots
of ar.as whi ch were shaded by
l arge trees and the depth of water
was quite different in some pars. |
searched further downstream until I
found an unshaded section with an
even depth but there was a pool with
slow-flowing water and a narrower
section with a faster moving stream.'
Don't write a detai l ed method
twice. You can achi eve hi gh marks
by writing this once then listing
any amendments you make, with
reasons, after your trial.
Make sure that your trial experiment is an i mportant part of your planning, not just
an exercise to justify what you have already decided. In order to gain hi gh marks you
will need to show that you have used the results of a trial to amend and develop your
method. Simply following i nstructions or copying a common experiment from a book
will only gain a few marks.
The tri al does not have to be extensive but it should produce some evidence or si mple
data that you can use to explain any modifi cati ons you make.
If you are worki ng in the laboratory you must try out your method and check to see if
yOu caOoIa| nthe results you need. |J you are worki ng in the field you must vi si t the
site and try out your sampl i ng technique.
oe imp@lBlt t_;estos fo t:
.!.prH a=1 n-s
(a) In the laboratory
I s your chosen range of values suitable'
How accurately can you take measurements? I s there anything that can be done
to make your measurements more accurate and reliable'
Are there any vari ables that you have not taken into account!
(b) I n the field
Is the whole of the selected site sui table
Do you need to choose sampl ing sites to avoid introducing other variables/
Can you identify the i mportant species/
Does your proposed sampling method allow you to collect sufficient data `
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
|
Va<eueyOuecOOyOu daIa: a c |ea Iao|e, tng Ihe.OecIS| unla nd aIa
|eVe| Oac c uacy I|aIens b|ebeari:g n^ndIheeIhOdyOu ue
:.

. -- _..=.
Ue.|ea, accurate headi ngs | nc|.di ng
ui t .
|ea cOnIenl number of s gn f caI: gue 1O a' '
oala ,i nc l ud ng manipulated figures such as ean)
|uluni ts i n leheadi ngs only, not
with i ndi vi dual readi ngs.
Hemebe to use zeros |zis nOlthe .JCa; dd).
a|eueleea cl ear summary
Iao| eshowi ng the values used to draw
yOJ gap!
.O OI use numbers of si gni fi cant fi gures I!alcaOl
oe\led byyO. method A si mpl e vay lO appy
lh s rul e nOIlOuse a greater umbe|O igni l| cant
1gue I|an shown in your a.lua|^ea.:emel.
1heeaea u pgnuoeOoa. eO ne| eclnga:d dav ngga phOa
ui !ao|eIype,O gVelh Oecaeu! IhOughI,IaI gvIh oac pn. p| e
NOa||y I|eehOu| dbe On|yOneO: IvO gapn
YO. gra pn needs to be directly l i nked lOyOu hypOle and help you to make
.Onc| uOn 1 O^ your data.
Axes shoul d have .!?a, accurate l abel s v.lhapprOp|ialeSl LI where possi bl e.
. neO1 ' oest fit' are not a requirement at A2 |eVe' adOL' o normal l y be avoi ded
.
MOsli mpl e l i ne gaps are best presented by j oi ni ng poi nts accurately wi th a ruler.
|I oellelO leave a scattergram without a l i ne rather than draw one by g\esswo | .
Avoid ui ng 'sampl e number' as a ax| Thi s a'^OIa'vaymeani ngless when
alle^pInglOa nal yetrends and palle n dalaa nd epecial ly when andO
ap| ng!a oeen.ed
|yOuae| OO|ngOgncanId1een.e nyOt nVeIgaIO,yOuay!aVeIvO
eIOap|e Owncyou would .a|cu|aIeIvO ea 1h ghI!eadlO a Vey
p|eIvOcO' J oa gap!, v!.hvOu!dgVeyO JOn| y '|led n1OaIOn on
vnc|IO ^aedetai l ed comments. HOveVe, e|e.lng suitable si ze cl asses for each
dala elandlen plotting a! stogra for each on Iheaeaxes woul d al l ow you to
cOenIon such thi ngs as the spread of data, any overl ap and skewed di stri buti on.
;b
;
&b
a
6

20

1o
.
~
10
0
K6_
_5dC6area
|
_unshaded area
~

'

|
|

WI
U-99 100-199 20)299 300- 399 400-499 500-599 600-699 700-799
Area of leaf/mm
2
600
500
F
4U0

300

M
2 Z00
100
0
uns|aoec
area
A ve:,common mistake is to
record ti me from a stopwatch
as a deci mal or as two units.
Recordi ng 2mi n 50s as 2. 5mi n
instead of 2.83 mi n or 1 70 s is a
very large error.
shaded
area
I
!
.

i '
UU| \b. `|C!| U Ol Ugy0 ' v0>!'gu!'vS|| | | :
0ucannotach| uvumO|uIhU4/5
m|KSif you do not explain \|8
reSults of your stati sti cal teSt |
your own words. You can uS88
comput8r programme to calculate
the test statisti c UuInot to explain
|ISm88U| Ug.
| mag| neyOuaeIa<| ng adOmamp' e|Omtwo a|eaandyOuvhIOoec de
veIhe|'heya|ed|le|en!1O ma<e!h| dec.|Onc|enI||ca||yyOu need'OO||Ov
\hee|u|e.
J Eeg by aJm|ng 'a''|e ave|ageOlthe two amp|ea|eIheame |h| |a
null hypothesis.
7 1a<esampl es from each area.
O '!is ve.yun| | <e| y'eave|aev | | oe denI| a' OyOucaca|cJ'aeIhechace
p|Ooao|Iy)OOo'a| n ng|eu|! <eyOu,even| IheIvOap|eve|e nOl|ea' |y
d|le|enI, u|nga 'aI|I|ca|IeI
4 |Ihe cnance (p|Ooao|| |Iy) calcu|aIed | h| gherIhan Ihesi gnificance level Ihen yOu
mu'accepIIha' yOu|lirIaJmpI O cOecIadI|e|e | Od|le|ence. |l Ie
canceOge''g '|ee eu'I | |Ove|''aIe3ign|f|cBnCe level Ihe yOuvOu'd
reject 'enu| | ypO'e
:mpes o' u po1lese$
The|e | nO|gn||caId|e|ence| nIhe numoe|Omay!|yymphOund| n|Ov
|Ov|ngI|eamandlal|Ov|ngI|eam
1e|e| nO| gn| ! ca'cO|e'aI|On oe'veen'e aoundanceOlceep|ng oJ''e|cup
aoO|| mO|'Jecontent.
gnifi cance ves
| n OI ve'|ga'|OnyO|Ou| duea gncance|eve|O5% || mean'ne|e
a|e : chance| n l CC IhaI'hereu|IyOu Oo'a|n cOu|d Occu|even| lIhe|evanO
d|le|enceoeIveen'neIvOeIOdaIa Th|canoev||IIen aa p|Ooao|||IyO
pC CS. Ol|ndIn va' ueO|yOuda'a yOu Oma| | y haveIOca'cu|a'ea Ie' 'aI|'c
adIhe 'OO< up the probabi l i ty |n a publ i shed tabl e.
You a|eOIexpec'eoIO<OvlnelOmu| aeor | nedeIa||O!each Ie'. YOu
hOu' dcOnceI|aIe On e|ec'|ngIhe cO||ecIIypeOIeIanddemOnI|aI|ngyOu|
unde|Iand| ngOhOvIO|nIe|p|eIIhe|eu|I.1heIh|ee\ypeOIeIyOua|e mOI
| | <e' yIOcOnde|a|e
'e.ts lO' g l| cant olle|encee g IIe'O a \h| 'eyU 'e'
IeIlO| g l ca'correl ati ons e. g. Spea|a Han<COe'a'O'eI
Ie'lO| gn l| canIa.OcaI.OnO|gOOoneOl I e g Ch| SqJa|ed'e'
Other statistical erm$
YOu aea|Oexpec'edIO Jnde|IandI|e!O| | Ov| ngIe|mvhe|eapp| . caole
arithmetical mean (average) - 'heumOlal l Ihe eauremenId|v deo by'e
uoeOl meaJee'
median - !0 mi ddl e va'Je Ol yOJoa'avee a' lIeamp|eeau|eeIare
above Ih| va'Je ano a'ae oe'Ov
mode - Ihemeau|emenIvh|ch Occu|Ihegea'eInumoe|O'ime |n
yOu|amp|e
l
l
|
|
|
|
It is vital that you begin by describing accurately the trends and patterns shown by
your data. At this stage do not be influenced by theoretical expectations. The next
stage is to try to interpret your results using biological pnnciples. This does not mean
simply adding a lot of biological theory. You must use your biolog1cal knowledge and
link it very clearly to your data.
ltmitu1tOrs
I t i s expected that you will take an object1 ve, critical look at the method you have
used and assess how it might affect the reliability of your conclusions. The important
question to ask yourself is 'no matter how carefully I carry out this i nvestigation what
factors could still cause variations in my repeat readings/'
Poor limitations.
admiss1ons of practical mcompetence when describing li mi tationS
suggestions of l im
ita.ioDSthat 8HuU|uhave been eliminated by sensible planning U! a
tri al e/erimen!
Good l imitations:
'I set up a series uc|our standards to make my judgement of the end-point as accurate as
possible but this was still \ery subjective. It woul ube more accurate to flter my samples
and use a coiori mete to gi ve a precise measurement.'
This section should follow from your anal ysis of limitations. If you have identified
factors which could cause variations then what modifications could be made to your
method to minimise their effect/
Don' t:
simply suggest taki:1g more samples - you should have thought about this i n
pl anni ng and J USt doing more of the same will not normally improve your method
modify your investi;ation so that it begins to test a completely different hypothesis
LCrtL.attrQ
High-scoring reports always make i t clear where each of the criteria has been
addressed by using sub-headings. This will prevent you omitting important details
or repeating yourself. Use the advice given in other parts of this section of Unit | to
tabulate your results accurately and choose the right form of graph.
Keep your sentences short but accurate and use a spelling check, especially for
scientific terms. You will be given credit for selecting information from sources i n
'research & rational e' but for higher marks you must use at least one professional
journal and list all your sources in a bibliography, identi fying where in your report each
has been used.
For the highest marks you will need to evaluate your chosen sources, describing their
credibility to sci entists as a whole.
Avoid terms such as 'proves that'
or 'shows that'. Use more cauti ous
terms such as supports the
hypothesis that' or ' agrees with the
suggestin tht.
Uri T lopRc 5
''
1 reduced NADP; ATP
2 a gain of electrons; Oloss of electrons
TT
1 The alga produces oxygen from the water it uses
in photosynthesis, but only in the light. At all other
times both types of oxygen, which are chemically
indistinguishable, are being used in respiration
therefore levels are falling due to this, both in the
light and the dark. The fall in
6
L
/
in the light is
offset by its release from water.
''
1 In recreating RuBP and in the formation of GALP It is
used |n the 'first' step, carbon fixation.
2 Catalyses reaction of carbon dioxide with RuBP.
3
11
1
"

thylakoid
membrane
thylakoid
space
granum
stroma
outer
membrane
inner
membrane

light -dep;
-
cooto;m
reacti ons chlorophyl
.
l, other
I
.:rrPor pigments,
electron carriers
photolysis of water photolysis
enzyme(s)
provides a site for large surface area
light-dependent
reactions
light-independent enzymes for all UR
reactions stages including
Rubisco
fully permeable many open protein
channels
permeable to many gated and active
substances which transport channels,
need to enter or together with open
leave the chloroplast channels

, '-
6car0Ondcxc
I
|
1[_|yC8|l8
JU1AIP

d~gh0ghl8 ` I

:::+lZP
:
1?reduced

I j 1 y8|08y08
JZNADP
gg -~_

!_|ucose

''
1 R * GPP- NPP
2 The place where an organism lives and the role it
plays (job it does) there.
TT
1 First need to work out the energy that is actually
transferred to consumers. It is the total fixed minus
respiration loss, i.e.
1 . 9 7 1 U 11 ? 1 U" Uo ? 1 U
so NPP = U.8 7 1U
Production of primary consumers U1 7 `U
so efficiency=
U` ? 1U:
? 1UU = `27
08 7 U
''
1 a soil factor; any three of: pH, organic matter
content, water content texture, mineral content
2 Niche is a combination of what an organism does
(e.g. its feeding type) and where it lives, i.e. where it
does it- the 'address' and role of Jn organism is its
niche.
Transect is a path along which occurrences of things
are recorded (such as what plants grow there, what
the pH is, etc)
Quadrat is a fixed area sampling device. It is
sometimes, but not always, gridded to make
estimates, particularly of percentage cover, easier to
work out.
3 e.g. Rocky shore: abiotic-salinity, temperature,
light intensity/solar input; biotic- any three of:
competitors, predators, parasites, herbivores. Sand
dunes: abiotic-soil factors (as in -any three);
biotic- any three of: competitors, predators,
parasites, herbivores. Woodland: abiotic- soil
factors (as in |- any three); biotic- any three of:
competitors, predators, parasites, herbivores.
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
n
1
30

E
C
0
00

.l

2
Species numbCrS ICoCl o [Po o 500 m from the
reference po'n_ VHCCoS DC o_onic matter content
continues to rise throughout. There are few species
in the first two quadrats because these are highly
specialised pioneers in harsh conditions. Conditions
improve with distance from the reference point (on
the beach) as organic matter accumulates in the soil
due to death o[oUS OOD mineral content and
water-holding Co|oI!yolSO increase. JD'S leads to an
increase in SpeieS IUlDC CU l'S falls away again
as a few S[PCICS FvCntUolly dOminoC.
''
1 reproductive isOlotion
2 Because the suv'vOSlUS IC[OOUCP olC pass Ol
the favourable allele.
n
1 Because they had only been separated for a
relatively short tiMe. (Or pupils may explain that
evolution takes not just a few hundred years.) The
chance mutations that H_D!be beneficial have not
happened. There is no S'_l'ICoD! |SCCC'Ol) pressure
for change
''
1 E.g. tree ring Co!3, 'C OIC Coo, [OllCI oDolySIS,
temperature records.
2 Biofuels OIy PlP3SC as lUD ColCOl oS they have
absorbed W'lC |ey are growing, i.e. they are carbon
neutral. The disadvantage is that they take up land
which could be used for growing food, destroying
habitats etc.
n
Sketch of carbon cycle similar to the carbon cycle
on page 26. |!should show Ho! lUlol activity has
increased ColDOlOOXICC lCvClS l the olOS,lPP by
oCCl_more CoIDOI C'OXICC lOl CUll!l_ fossil fuels
and also CPCPoS'l_ the olOUD lo |lo!S and trees
take 'l lOU_lOCOlCSo!'Ol
:\eforestation would increase CC_intake from the
atmosphere by photosynthesis. Use of biofuels would
reduce use of fossil fuels and are carbon neutral as
the C02 rel
.
eased 1n combustion has only recently
been f1xed 1n photosynthesis.
''
1 1lC Cl[Co!UP at \D'Cl it catalyses its reactions
lOst o[!Cly.
2 !n? StuOy of SCoSOIol evCls such as lO\CI'l_ !IlCS,
loCll_ !IlCS, lo'l_ 'lPS, m'gIa'Ol.
3 /lDOU_H [lO!OSy!PS'S lEvels will increase 'l \'ll CC
lil'CC by OCl octorS such as temperature O '_D
levels. 1C 'lCCoSC D photosynthesis levels will lO
CC sufcIent to balance the increase in carbon
dioxide levels
n
1 MuSt be handled properly (kept in water with at least
10 g of salt per litre and better to have a5g salt l|),
return to hOlOil_ tank after inspection; use a soft
plastic pipette Oget lPl OU of the water; loKC
SUP lOUl O |'|C!!P \C enough; never OCSCVP
Ol lOlC loI 5 l'lUCS.
Unot R TopQC 6
''
1 /lyDCC Ol | iC cycle of an insect, state of
decomposition, temperature of body, rigor mortis,
succession of insects
2 They break down biomass and release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere through respiration.
TT
1 |n both there 'Sa change to CODCI'OlS that suit OlCI
S[CC'CS, Il CO lCC 'S a change 'l the species or
OS'CU'Ol O S[CC'CS\!l'lP, 'l the SolCy SDOIC
we see oll So_CS o! lPsame time; in DP COOy\C
see OIyOlC So_P
''
1 introns
2 Because lC more STRs looked at, the more likely the
profile is O be unique.
TT
DNA has fewer differences ,in racehorses); DNA
f'ngerp'ls olC'KCly to be more similar; probability
of L/ [IO'lC being unique much smaller; lOS
lOlSCS ClOSPy CoCC/lUlolS are not

' !
''
1 intron
2 Each amino acid is coded for by more than one
codon. Even if the last base of the codon is changed
by mutat1on the correct amino acid will still be
coded for.
3 molecule with anticodon at one end and amino acid
at the other - tRNA
complementary copy of template strand - mRNA
DNA transcribed to mRNA-template strand
T
1 DNA unwinds; mRNA strand assembled from coding
strand of DNA; mRNA travels out of nucleus into
cytoplasm; (post-transcriptional changes take place);
mRNA associates with ribosome; tRNA molecules
bring amino acids to ribosome; anticodon on tRNA
associates with codon on mRNA and polypeptides
bind together to make polypeptide chain;
(polypeptide chain bound to other chains or other
molecules to make protein).
''
1 Similarities- any two from: both reproduce, both
have protein, both nucleic acids, DNA and/or RNA,
enzymes, organic molecules. Differences-any two
from: bacteria have cell wall, capsule, flagellum,
ribosome, pilus, mesosome, plasmid, cell membrane.
2 Because the high temperature might slow down
bacterial reproduction as well as enhance the
immune response and phagocytosis.
made from
B cells after
T helper
activation
made
from B
cells after
T helper
activation
activated
by anttgen
on
phagocyte
destroy
viruses or
bacteria in
infected
body cells
as well
as the
help more
rapid
aLtivation
of immune
system
if same
intrLder
''
1 Which antibiotic is most effective in controlling the
populat1on of a named bacterium?
2 Incubating below 30C discourages growth of
human pathogens. Air is allowed into the Petri dishes
to discourage the growth of anaerobes.
1T
1 Answers should include reference to four or more of
the following points: rapid reproduction of the bacteria;
there are many gene mutations or a relevant mutation
is more likely in a given time; there is a wide variety of
protetns; there 1s a great deal of variation in microbes
microbes are selected; there is selection for the
'
resistant phenotype or gene; this does not take very
long; but developing new drugs does take a long time.
''
1 Lactic acid/lactate builds up in fast-twitch fibres.
Slow-twitch fibres have a good _ supply so they use
aerob1c resp1rat1on to produce ATP which does not
produce lactate.
2 ATP is hydrolysed which causes the myosin head to
change shape, ATP binding frees the myosin from
the cross-bridge, ATP also used in active transport of
calcium ions back in sarcoplasmic reticulum.
3 Muscles can only contract (shorten) so another
muscle acting in the opposite direction is needed to
extend the contracted muscle once it relaxes.
''
1 Any four from: active transport, muscle
contraction (sliding filament theory), glycolysis,
Calvin cycle, protein synthesis, phosphorylation.
infected encountered
2 ATP is never stored, but can be rapidly produced
or used in a cell; glycogen is a large, long-term
store of chemical energy. ATP releases small
quantities of useful energy when hydrolysed,
glycogen contains a lot of stored energy that is
not immediately available for the cell to use. ATP
is soluble, glycogen is insoluble.
help more
rapid
activation
of immune
system
if same
'intruder'
encountered
tn the future
produce
antibodies
cell
activate B
cells
in the futLre
3 NAD is used to oxidise the triose phosphate
(sugar) which produces ATP. Reduced NAD is used
to reduce pyruvate into lactate so that glycolysis
can continue.

T1
1 `I!'lo''CS |lOS|lOloIOD llvOlvCO, lOIO_CD
CoIIlCI 'lvOlvCO, /t/_lUCOSC/lOSC |lOS|lo\C/
_lCCoC |lOS|loC/C 'lvOlvCO, COOX
'CICDCCS ///L,/1l |IOOUCCO/ICCOC,
_lUCOSC USCO/|OOUCCO, OvCIollOX'OoIOlO _lUCOSC
'l ICS|IIoIlOD/COUClOl O 'L
z
ID |lOOSllCS'S,
!ol !OC IIIC!CO'oCS ID \olv'lCClC CIO|loS!/
CllOO|loSl
''
1 CoCOl 'L
z
, lyOIO_Cl |
/
L
2 'X'OoIlvC DCCoUSClC ClC_ 'S olSCIICO DCOOX
CoClOlS. llOS|l0IloIIOl CCCoUSC /l _o'DSo
|lOS|loC _OU|.
3 V'lOUI L
z
IlCC\'llCC lOIlID_OoCCC|\lC
ClCCIOlS,olOlOO_Cl'OlS)o \lCClO OIlC
ClCCIOl olS|OIIClo'l 1lCCCll \Ill IUlOU\ O/
olO l/SO lOlII_ColOX'O'SC IlCCO!|OUIOS 'l
lC 'CCSCClC,olO l'lICoClOD)
TT
1 lCOlSlS ID CO|loS!, lllKCoC\IOlolO |CCS CClC
ID !olX O !'OCHOlOIIo, OX'Oo'vC |lOS|lOloOI/
ClCCIOl IIolS|OIIClo'D OD C'SIoC O l'OClODO'o.
''
1 4.95 O!
,
|C !'l'C
2 `KCCl SlOUlO lCl.OC C|CoCO 'C_UloI r` \ovCS
\IlOU !ol |O oD vlS'ClC) oDO T \ovCS
3 |CoI \OUlO COIlUC O DCo CCCoUSC Il 'S !O_CIlC,
CUI \OUlO IOICll_C ID ICS|OlSC IO CloI_CS 'l lC
COO MO\CvC. I'/OUlOSIll CC oClC OCS|OlOO
HOl!ODolCloI_CS SUCl oS lC ClCoSC O oOIClolIDC
TT
1 `lO\\C! CCC\S SOC vOlU!C olO lCoII oC
'lCCoSC ColO'oC OU|U 'lCICoSCS oIC olO OC|\l
O DCol'l_!I'OolvOlU!C)'lCCoSCS vClllo\'OD
oC IICICoSCS. LOI_C! CCCS SOKC vOlU!C
'lCCoSCS SO CS'l_ lCo' oC OCCICoSCS.
''
1 / Clol_C 'l ooCOI C'I_S oCOUo CS|ODSC IloI
COUlCoCS lC CHol_C SO lo lC oCOI CIUlS IO o
lO! volUC
2 'OIC DOO \C!|CoUIC \Ill 'SC oCOvC .J\, lCo
S\IOC, l|OloloIUS !oCCCO!COo!o_CO,
CD!CS !o CC OCDoUCO, lClColC |IOClDS
!o CC OCloIUCO, olS|OolO ICS|oIIO !o CC
'!|oIICO, CO!ooIO/OIOCoIl!oCSUl
3 MCo _o'D CCDC O l|OlololUSSI!UloCSCCCOIS,
S\Co |OOUC\lOl ll'C'CO, COUCCO DlOOO lO\ O
lCSID, Sl'vCID_ !CoCOllC oC ,O l'vCI) !o
TT

'lCCoSC, lo'S IoISCO Ol SK'l, CClov'OUol ICS|OlSCS

SUCHoS 'lCCoSCO !OvClClI, |U\ OI CXoC'OlCS, CC
`O!C ol'!olS lovC lOIS O oS\lCl 'DICS O
S|CCO olO |O\C, C_ |COo'OS IOCoCl |IC.
`O!C ol!olS !o lovC lOS OSlO\\'Cl 'CCS,
_OOO CCoIllI_ olO C'CUloICSSC!S |!o CC
lI_l\C'_l) O ClOUIolCC, ._ l_IoO DlOS \lO
lovC O |COl'lUOUSl OI l.I_OlSolCCS
''
lDCICoSCO CHolCCS O ODCS'COUlO lCoO O 'lCCoSCO
ClOOO |CSSUC 'lCICoSCO ClolCC O Oo!o_C \O
ClOOlClIU! O oiCICS, l!_HCICOlCCl\Io'Ol O lO\
OClSII l'|O|O\C'lS 'lCCoSCO ClolCC O |loQUC/
olClOSClCOS'S COOIo lCo O'SCoSC
2 LCSS CIO'lCS ClCoSCO lC;S oClvoIOD OS|CCl'C
B oDO 1 lllC CCllS lCSS ClolCC OOCSO'l_
|olO_CD CCOIC CoI !Ul\'|l ClOU_l OCoUSC
Oo!o_C O IISSUCS olO CCoCSl|O!S OJ IlC SOIC
IlOo\
3 1IolSClI|IIOloC\OISC'lOOHC |O!OCl S'C
O lC _CIC ollO\'l_ lC '- |Ol!CoSC IO
CllO ,IolSCl|IOI 'lIIIoOl CO!|lCX) ollO\ID_
\IolSCI|IOl O oC |loCC SC !/ CoI CC
|IOOUCCO
TT
'|ll'OlS\'ll voI, DUOU lS\CI!o COISIOC
OIlC 'SSUCSSUCH oS S|OlIS C(UI|!Cl, UlOII_ oIO
II!C O IolDID_, COoCl'l_, 3l'UOC Io'l'l_, olO
OlCl OU SlOUlO _lvC OU O|'l'Ol oIOUSII
OUI olS\C.
''
1 rlOOICCC|OS OCCCI ll_l
2 |OS''vC|lOOO|'S! ID SlO0ISCIoClCS\lC! IO _IO\
O\oIOS lCl'_l OOS oC lC_o'vCl |lOOlO|lIC
O lCl| \lC! _O\OO\D 'lO \HCSO'l o\o O!
lC l_l
3 CCll ClOl_o'Ol
T T
1lC I\O SSC!S \Ol_ \OQCIlC |OvlOC _CoCI
COOOIIo'Ol oDO COlOl DC\vCCl SlOIClolO
lOl_C! ICS|OlSCS olO CHol_CS CIvOUSSSC!
'S oS O I!!COloC CS|OlSC, CDOOC'lC SSC!
'lC'UOCS COlOl O _O\l olO OCvClO|!Cl.
Ill
I
I
r
I
''
1 Depolarisation IoKCS \lC p.C across the membrane
less negative (because ,OS'IvCSOC'Ul ions move
into the cell), vlCoS with hyperpolarisation the p.d.
CPCOIPS IOC nCgoIl\C !C. g ' DC_oI'vCCllO!CP 'OlS
move into a cell at al 'll'C\O SyapSC)
2 The refractory pC'0d lCoDSIloI IlC SOC'U! 'ol
channels can not |COpe vl'Cl preven\S another
action potential be ng Iig_CrCd Synapses only have
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
3 Voltage-gated sodiJm ion channels open and sodium
ions diffuse into the cell.
TT
1 Sodium ions move in during action potential,
potassium ions move out. During recovery, sodium
ions pumped out and potassium ions in. Potassium
ions diffuse out Cu' lg resting potential/state. Other
labels could 'lClUCF [oSS'vF CIUS'O, facilitated
diffusion, oCI'vP transport, osmosis, endocytosis,
exocytosis, etC. vit su|\oCl? CxolpleS
''
1 'l the dark rod, cells remain slightly depolarised
because of the opEn sodium ion channels and
continually release the inhibitory neurotransmitter.
2 breaks down into opsin and retinal.
3 Photoreceptors in plants are chemicals like
phytochrome, in mammals they are specialised cells
like rods.
TT
1 RoCs are more SClS'\vC Ilol COCS CUI CO not detect
d1fferences 'COO\l. `[oI'o SUIIo!'Ol oI the bipOlo
cell - three rod CCllS COvC_Il_ O o Silgle C|pola|
cell lovP a _PoIF CoCC O oCCI'l_ Ile C'Opo|a
cell 'l Ov l'_lI CvClS Ilol o SinglC cone cell.
''
1 1he cerebellum is concerned with the control of
balance and movement, the cerebrum is involved in
the ability to think, see, learn and feel emotions, etc.
2 Ie frontal lobes of the cerebrum (cerebral
hemispheres)
''
1 The child may CCCCIC Dl'lC DCCoUSC the eye voS
deprived of l| gh!C''_ \lC CI'\iCol v'lCOv
2 K'Itels olC !OIKCS lovC oS'l'loI v|Sual system
and C!o'l to huIals SO IlColC _OOC models for
looking at human brain development. You would not
be oOvCC IO do the same experiments on human
children.
3 C'ZO,lCl'o is mainly determined by _PlPS, Cu\
there is |IOCoC o SUoll Clv'Ol!PlIB 'lUClCC
TT
1 1lCIC 'S lO COIICCI answer, but your O'l'O SlOUC
be USI''CC v'Il eeenCe to potential benefits O
CCvClO,'_ IlC lCv drugs, FU'PlPll O ol'!ol
tests before human trials, animal welfare/rights
'SSUPS
''
1 stimulus-jet of water- pressure receptor on siphon
sensor neurone motor neurone gill muscle
respOlSC g.|l vithCavs
2 Sea Slugs IoISCC 'D IhC sea may already be habituated
CUC IO voIC currents and tidal changes in the sea.
3 GCletiC [O_oII'_ (lo\UIF) 'S l'KPl to be
CspOnS'Cle Ol 'lnate reflexes, because they oC lOI
'llUCDCCC C IC ClvirOl!et (nurture).
''
1 Dopamine is active in the part of the brain that deals
with emotions. The other symptoms of Parkinson's
and the knowledge that there is no cure would also
leave many people feeling depressed.
2 L-dopa can pass into the brain and be made into
dopamine.
3 TC DCv OU_ Io bind to serotonin receptors
olC !Il'C llC CCC\ O Seot0Dn causing action
pOIenIiolS IO OI
TT
1 Del| vCy O CIU_S IO IlC Spec|'c area of IlC Co' in
IlC COCCI concentration and PlPoSPC at the precise
tiC neCOCC di!iCu|VimposS'0le.
''
1 Genes may CCtransferred into wild species.
2 Can be produced cheaply, in bulk and easily purified.
TT
The human protein is produced rather than using an
animal prOIein SO there should be fewer S'de efCcts.
1 OCDC'IS Col treatmenVpreventative care; Co'ClS
CoD ClOOSC IO ovO'C lov'l_ Cl'lCPl/USP P!CO/CIol
SCICCl'l_.
''SoCvolIo_CS SICSS OI those v'Il gene; COst; SOIC
COUlCS may chOOSe Ol IO have children; IDSUolCP
'SSUCS, CU_CD'CS lSSUCS.
I
I
:ni t: opit 5
1 (a) 1. thylakoid/granum;
2. membrane;
(b) A ATP;
B reduced NADP/eq;
(c) photolysis;
(d) 1. less carbohydrate production;
2. less reduced NADP;
3. less reduction of carbon dioxide;
4. less ATP (to supply energy);
5. less conversion of GP to GALP;
2
2
4
Total 9 marks
2 (a) Measure {growth/height/number of leaves/mass/
dry mass};
Growth with copper and {without copper/control/
range of copper concentrations};
Reference to controlling variables;
Reference to {repeats/means/calculation of
percentage growth};
2
(b) Plants compete/eq;
For {ions/water/nutrients/nitrates/tightlspace/eq}
Tolerant plants less well adapted/converse/eq
So tolerant plants {smaller/less dry mass}/
converse/eq
Idea: Results are due to competition only because
trays 1 and 3 growing the same;
Manipulated figures; 4
(c) Decreases/more non-tolerant;
No benefit;
Competes less well;
2
Total 8 marks
3 (a) (i) GPP and NPP similar to start with;
both increase;
(after 2 days) GPP and NPP diverge/eq;
figures in support; 2
(ii) more energy is used in metaboltsm/eq in
{older/bigger} plants;
figures in support;
suitable explanation, e.g. protein synthesis/
flower initiation/differentiation/ref. to
herbivores;
more photosynthesis tissue;
(as grows)/eq; 2
(b) GPP-NPP=Rieq;
biomass production reduced by
respiration/eq;
2
4 (a) proportion of total alleles;
for one gene (in a population)/eq;
(b) different alleles exist/ref. mutation;
advantage in specific environment;
ref. selection pressure;
more likely to reproduce;
Total 6 marks
2
allele passed to offspring more often;
ref. at disadvantage in other environment;
(Allow converse argument) 4
(c) faster life cycle of bacteria/converse/eq;
greater selection pressures on bacteria (e.g.
antibiotic use);
ref plasmid transfer in bacteria/eq;
larger numbers of bacteria hence larger gene
pool!eq;
ref. mutation; 2
Total 8 marks
1 (a) 1. C is bactericidal;
2. bactericidal kills bacteria;
3. B is bacteriostatic;
4. bacteriostatic prevents reproduction/growth; 3
(b) 1. bacterium is no longer affected by antibiotic A;
2. reference to mutation/changed {gene /DNA};
3. reference to resistance;
4. reference to selection/eq;
5. reference to plasmid transmission/horizontal
inheritance; 4
(c) 1. lawn bacteria/eq;
2. reference agar plate/eq;
3. antibiotic in well!multidisc/eq;
4. incubation qualified;
5. measurement of clear area/eq;
6. bigger area implies more effective;
7. reference to safety/aseptic technique/eq; 4
Total 11 marks
2 (a) 1. similar route for infection;
2/3.examples of means of transmission;
4. immunosuppression in HIV/eq;
5. reference to opportunistic infection/eq;
(b) T(-ceii)IT-Iymphocyte/T-killer;
(c) 1 . signal from surface protein;
2. activation of PKR;
3. ref. to protein synthesis/translation/eq;
4. no production of virus;
5. cell death/cell function disrupted:
(d) 1. rapid reproduction.
2. many (gene) mutations/relevant mutation
more likely in given time;
3. ref. to variety of proteins;
4. large variation;
5. selection;
6. of resistant phenotype/gene;
7. short time;
2
3
8. long drug development time; 2
Total 8 marks
3 (a) 1. T helper cells {destroyed/damaged/reduced in
number/cell lysis/eq};
2. no T killer cell {production/activation}leq;
3. B cells activation/plasma cells production/eq;
4. (less/no) antibody production/eq;
5. phagocytosis/phagocytes; 4
4. (resulting in) increased {rate of ventilation/
breathing rate/depth of breathing/contraction
of {respiratory/intercostals/diaphragm
muscles}}; 2
Total 7 marks
6 (a) (i) B
(ii) A (muscle opposite) ;
(b) (Only a small cut) because damage is less/less
bleeding/less pain;
Recovery is rap| d/shorter stay in hospital/eq;
Less risk of infection/inflammation; 2
(c) ref. to pathogens/disease causing organism;
through {travel/team sports/idea of runners
meeting from other areas}!eq; weakened/
suppressed immunity (with hard exercise);
through fall in natural killer cells/phagocytes/
lymphocytesff-helper cells/B and T cells;
Reference to airborne/droplet infection; 3
Total 6 marks
7 (a) sinoatrial/SA node /SAN /pacemaker;
(b) Any four from:
I . wave of electrical impulses/depolarisation
from SA node;
2. passes over both atria;
3. resulting in atrial systole;
4. slight delay at AV node;
5. Impulses pass along bundle of His;
6. along Purkyne fibres;
7. correct direction of impulse described/
ventricles contract from the base up;
8. resulting in ventricular systole; 4
Total 5 marks
Unt 5: Topic 8
1 (a) (} 1. (light hits) photoreceptors (on the retina);
2. impulses pass to the brain;
3. ref. to sensory neurone;
4. ref. to innate/inborn/autonomic response;
5. impulses along parasympathetic nerve;
6. ref to motcr neurone;
7. circular muscles contract/radial
muscles relax;
8. pupil {contracts /constricts/becomes
smaller};
4
(} 1. {faster/eq} impulses due to;
2. myelin acting as an {electrical/ eq} insulator;
3. ref to Schwann cells producing myelin;
4. depolarisation only occurs at the nodes
of Ranvier;
' ref. to saltatory conduction;
b need rapid response to protect retina; 3
(b) 1. visual stimulation is essential for visual
development;
2. ref. to critical vindow/critical period/sensitive
period;
3. ref. to visual cortex;
4. growth of axons/formation of synapses/
inactive synapses eliminated;
5. <iIIC> |- I|3n 4 weeks old have not
developed (visual cortex) {connections
synapses} or kittens over 5 weeks old have
already developed (visual cortex) (connections/
synapses} 3
(c) 1. ref. to animal experiments helping to
test {medicines/treatmens}lgive greater
understanding of the {human/animal} body;
2. ref. to utilitarian philosophy;
3. expected benefits greater than expected
harms/eq;
4. reduces chances of harm when testing on
people; 2
Total 12 marks
2 (a) I (rods contain) rhodopsin;
2. ref. to convergence/summation/eq;
3. therefore the dog will have better {vision in
dim light/night vision}/eq;
4. idea that dog can look directly at object (in
dark)/eq;
5. dogs are ,more active at nightnocturnal}/eq; 3
(L) 1. ref. to phytochromes;
2. name two forms {PFR and PR/P730 and P660};
3. ref. to absorption of light (by phytochromes);
4 conversion of PR to PFR AND reference to
red light;
5. conversion of PFR to PR AND reference to far
red |ight;
3
3 (a) B 'cereDellJm);
(b) C (medulla);
(c) A (cerebrum);
Total 6 marks
Total 3 marks
4 (a) (characteristics) controlled by more than one
gene/many genes;
(b) I 00%/above 95% suitably qualified reference
to mutations;
(c) An explanation to include two from:
I multiactoria| ;
2. environment has an effect/genes and
environment (interact);
3. correct use of figures; 2
Total 4 marks
5 (a) the total of all the {genes/g2netic material/DNA!
alleles} in {humans/an organism 1
(b) () I ref. to example, e.g. avoid smoking/eat a
special diet/avoid fatty foods/ more exercise;
2. the need to be particularly careful when
one knows one is pa-ticularly at risk;
3. could have treatment in advance of onset
of condition/ could make preparation for
coping with problem/more check ups/closer
monitoring;
(ii) I to inform health service {planning/budget/
priorities}/identify people at risk;
2. early {treatment/diagnosis} {may reduce
problems later/may help determine the
appropriate dose of medication};
3. advising people with defective genes about
having children/deciding whether to abort
affected fetuses;
4. thus reducing cost /burden to society;
5. reduces insurance premiums for people
without genetic defects;
6. to determine medical research priorities; 2
(iii) Any two from:
1. undue intrusion into people's lives by
government/infringement of {civil liberty/
human rights};
2. easier to cope if you don't know in
advance/prefer not to know/creates
needless stress;
3. implication for insurance premiums;
4. risk of discrimination;
5. pressure to have abortions/to avoid having
children;
6. cost too much/too much taxation;
Any one development mark in the context of
one of the points above from:
7. the benefits are not worth the risks /costs;
8. {health/l i fe} insurance too expensive fer
those at risk/people might have to declare
results of screening to get insurance;
9. lack of confidence in {government/
administrators} to keep data confidential/
data protection issues; 3
Total 8 marks
1
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Unit
1 (a) X- chlorophyll/eq;
Y- NADP/ NADP+/eq; 2
(b) 1. provides {H/electrons/eq};
2. reference to reduction;
(Accept reducing power, reducing agent)
3. GP is (reduced)/ eq;
4. to produce GALP/eq;
(/\low mpts as they can be appl ied to their
incorrect reduced Y)
5. during light-independent {stage/eq}!Calvin
cycle/eq; 3
(c) (i) 1 electrons return to chlorophyll (so there is
fluorescence);
2. carriers can not {accepttake up/eq}
electrons;
3. because electron carriers are reduced; 2
(ii) carriers avcilable again/electrons passed to
NADP/eq;
(Accept carriers have passed as
electrons idea)
(d) 1. NADP stays reduced /NADPH not used/eq;
2. because no GP {formed/available}/eq;
3. because RuBP cannot take up COeq;
4. because rubisco inactivated/eq;
5. (because NADPH not used) all electron carriers
reduced/path B blocked/eq;
6. (therefore mere) electrons {return to
chlorophyll/follow path A/eq}; 4
Total 12 marks
2 (a) 1. tree types can be identified from their pollen;
2. pollen only produced by {fully-grown/mature/
eq} trees;
3. trees need to {grow/eq} for a long time before
maturity/eq; 2
(b) (i) D
(ii) 1. reference to distributed across several
climatic zones;
2. reference to little fluctuation in the pollen
data from different ages; 2
(c) 1. climate has become warmer/eq;
2 reference to a change between 8700 and
6390 years ago;
3. {larch/spruce} were growing but died outeq;
4. (larch/spruce) are only found in boreal and
northern temperature regions (in present day);
5. (boreal and temperate regions) are cold
climates;
6. pine was not growing but has become
established rore recently;
7. pine is only found in southern boreal and
temperate regions (in present day);
8. (southern boreal and temperate regions) are
warmer climates; 5
(d) Award one mark for each of the following points.
1. idea that dendrochronology uses evidence
from {tree/annual} rings;
3
4
2. {density/thickness/eq} of rings changes with
climatic conditions/thicker ring indicates
warmer year; 2
Total 12 marks
mesosomes X
1 capsid
nucleic acid X
X

)
. cytoplasm X
ribosomes X
5
(b) (i) 1. Increase in number of new cases in Africa
and Europe;
2. Decrease in number of new cases in Asia
and South America;
3. Any relevant man1pulation of data; 2
(ii) More inodence of TB in the population/eq;
(Award one mark for each of the following
points in context to a maximum of two marks )
1. Ref. to opportunistiC infection;
2. HIV positive people have weakened
immune system;
3. A higher proportion of HIV positive people
are infected by TB; 3
(c) Two from
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1 . TB bacteria {mutate/become resistant to
antibiotics};
2. immigration from countries with high
incidence of TB;
3. increased travel;
4. increase in HIV infection;
5. lower rates of immunisation against TB; 2
Total 12 marks
{nutrient/eq} agar plate;
(ignore Petn dish)
{lawned/inoculated/spread/eq} with
bacteri u m/eq;
appl1cation of sample of antibiotic described
incubation described;
ref clear/inhibition zone;
(Max 4 if no safe work1ng)
Safe working -
ref aseptic technique/aspect of;
Petn dish not completely sealed;
low temperature of incubation below 30C; 5
Total 5 marks
5 (a) 1. fixed/constant area;
2. reference to sampling;
3. valid comparisons possible;
4. easy so can be repeated; 2
(b) 1. sampling along changing conditions/
environmental gradient;
2. systematic sampling /random sampling does
not show distribution/eq; 2
(c) 1. more coverage by plants in 5/converse;
2. more organic matter in 5/converse;
3. more species in 5/converse;
4. different species present;
5. credit figures (e.g. 3 times more plants, 2.4g
more matter, 17 more species); 3
(d) 1. d1fferent communities at different distances;
2. few species near beach;
3. reference to pioneer species;
4. organic matter (increase with distance from
beach);
5. consequence of increased organic matter (e.g
increased water holding, mineral content);
6. suited to more species further from beach;
7. reference to competition;
8. few dominant species;
9. (might be) climax community/mature
community; 5
Total 12 marks
(a) 1. {calcium ions/Ca2+} released from sarcoplasmic
reticulum;
2. calcium (ions) binds to troponin;
3. (troponin) causes tropomyosin to move;
4. exposing (myosin) binding sites (on actin);
5. myosin head attaches to binding site/cross
bridge formation;
6. myosin head {moves/nods forward/eq};
7. rclcuse of ADP and inorganic phosphate;
8. actin slides over the myosin;
9. (ATP causes) myosin head to detach;
10 {ATP hydrolysis/ATPase}; 5
(b) 1. ref to prevention of release of
neurotransmitter from presynaptic membrane;
2. similar shape (to neurotransmitter);
3. {binds/blocks/fits 1nto} receptor on
postsynaptic membrane;
4. ref. to {sodium ion/Na+Jcation} channels/
hyperpolarisation/permanent depolarisation}
of postsynaptic membrane;
5. no nerve impulses/action potentials/
continuous action potential/eq;
6. inhibits acetylcholinesterase/breakdown
enzyme/(bungarotoxin) not affected by
breakdown enzyme; 3
Total 8 marks
2 (a) (i) 1. reference to oxygen (concentration)
decreasing/eq;
2. greater (decrease) when ADP is added;
3. (oxygen used to) convert ADP to ATP (in
respiration);
4. oxygen is needed for respiration/eq;
5. correct reference to oxidative phosphorylation;
6. reference to {ADP concentration/eq} is
limiting; 3
(ii) reduced NAD/NADH/NADH2; 1
(iii) cristae/inner membrane/stalked particle;
(iv) 1. hydrogen atoms split into protons and
electrons/eq;
2. electrons transferred along electron carriers/
a series of redox reactions/eq;
3. oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor/
water is formed;
4. {protons/eq} moved into intermembrane
space/eq;
5. {protons/eq} move (into matrix) down a
{concentration/electrochemical} gradient;
6. through stalked particles/ATP synthetase/eq;
7. correct ref. to chemiosmotic theory;
8. (ATP)formed by {phosphorylation of ADP/
oxidative phosphorylation }leq; 4
(b) (i) 1. correct reference to ATP (supplies energy)
for active transport/reference to sodium
potassium pump/eq;
2. sodium ions pumped out (of the axon)/
restores (membrane to) resting potential; 2
(ii) 1. correct reference to ATP (supplies energy)
for active transport/reference to sodium
potassium pump/eq;
2. (pumps sodium ions out) of inner segment/
maintains (more) negative charge inside the
membrane/eq; 2
Total 13 marks
3 (a) 1. to map (human) chromosomes/to find
where each gene is located on (human)
chromosomes;
2. to determine base sequence;
3. international project (about human genes); 2
(b) (i) 1. to warn people at risk to take precautions/
make lifestyle changes;
2. to plan medical provision (for the
individual);
3. to determine NHS priorities/eq;
4. to warn people when there is a risk that if
they have children they may have genetic
disorders;
5. will make it easier to develop {ways of
treating genetic deficiencies/gene
therapy}; 2
(ii) 1. may mean people put under (undue)
pressure to {have abortions/not have children};
2. may lead to discrimination over {obs/
insurance premiums};
3. may lead to (other ethically questionable)
developments such as 'designer babies'/
eugenics/immigration;
4. {stress/anxiety}-knowing something might
happen may cause psychological stress even if
it never happens in your lifetime/people may
not believe test is reliable/people may not
want to know;
5. {civil rights/personal freedom}-who should
decide who should have genetic tests:;
who decides who deserves very expensive
treatment on the NHS?;
6. data protection issues-who will have access
to genetic information about individuals; [this
marking point could be a development of
marking point 2] 3
Total 7 marks
4 ('' 1. evaporation of water (in sweat);
2. (evaporation) has a cooling effect I eq;
3. appropriate {reference to I description of}
latent heat; (2)
(b) (l) 1. temperature dropped {from 0 to 15
minutes I when in the bath};
2. increased {from 15 to 25 minutes I when
sitting on the chair};
3. lowest {at 15 minutes I when 'he got out
of bath'};
4. credit a m2nipulated change in
temperature; (3)
(b) (ll) 5 to 10 minutes:
1. temperature of water lower than body
temperature i eq;
2. heat lost by onduction (to water);
15 to 25 minutes:
3. increased me:abolism I shivering I eq;
4. generates heat I eq; (3)
Total 8 marks
5 (a) ` calculation; 2. answer(= 92.9%); (2)
(b) ` (as cycling speed increases) more carbon
dioxideproduced;
2. {carbon dioxide I low pH} stimulates breathing
I eq;
3. increased need for oxygen I eq; 2)
6 (a) (i) pyruvate/pyruvic acid;
(ll)1. (stage) 1;
Total 4 marks
2. (stage) 3;
2
(b) (l) a {series/seqLence/eq} of (chemical) reactions/
each step is controlled by an enzyme/product
of one reaction is the substrate for the
next/eq;
(ll)matrix of a mitochondrion;
(c) (stages) B, C, D (and) F;
Total 6 marks
7 (a) (i) values between 0.4 to 0.55 x 12; =values
between 4.8 and 6.6dm3 min-1; 2
(|i)values between 1 .1 and 1.3 x 36 =values
between 39.6 and 46.8dm3 min-1;
increased by about 6 times/increase of
between 33.0 and 42.0; 2
(b) (i) heart rate x stroke volume or volume of
blood pumped out of the heart in 1 minute. `
(il)As the minute volume increases the tidal
volume (volume of oxygen breathed in)
increases; increased diffusion of oxygen into
blood (or muscle);
increase in cardiac output increases volume of
oxygenated blood reaching muscles; 2
1c:al7 marks
Unit . Comprehension
practice todel answers
a Temperature receptors in the skin and hypothalamus
detect the rise in temperature (1) and cause an
increase in the volume of sweat produced (1 ). The
sweat evaporates from the surface of the skin taking
heat energy away from the body ,`). This cooling can
continue as long as the person is able to replace the
water and salt lost due to the increased sweating (1)
(Max. 4 marks)
b Inuit with short stocky bodies are at a selective
advantage ,`)because they have a lower surface area
to volume ratio (1) and will therefore lose less heat to
their surroundings.
(Max. 2 marks)
c Sufferers of cystic fibrosis have a CFTR protein
channel does not work (1) As a result less water
moves from cells into sweat glands (1) so the sweat
ends up with a higher concentration of salt than
normal that can be detected in the sweat test (1)
(Max. 2 marks)
d Marathon runners will generate a lot of heat during
the race because of the high rate of respiration ( 1)
However, at the end of the race there will be less air
flow over the body ( ``so less 5weat may evaporate
;`)This may cause the core te11perature to rise (1)
resulting in a heat stroke.
(Max. 3 marks)
e Porcine stress syndrome was noticeably similar to
malignant hyperthermia (1 ). They were therefore
able to identify the human gene for malignant
hyperthermia through com par son to the identified
gene for porcine stress syndrome (2).
(Max. 2 marks)
f Aspirin blocks the synthesis of prostaglandins (1) and
therefore reduces fever in the body , 1 ). This could be
a problem because a rise in body temperature may
help to kill bacteria (1) and increase the activity of
macrophages (1) in the non-srecific immune system,
reducing the effectiveness of the body's response to
the infection.
(Max. 3 marks)
g Ca2+ ions are released into the sarcoplasm (1) from
the sarcoplamic reticulum (1) i1 response to a nerve
impulse arriving at the neuromuscular junction (1).
Ca2+ ions attach to troponin (1) causing tropomyosin
to move, exposing myosin binding sites on the actin
filaments (1 ). This allows myosin to join to actin ,`)
starting the contraction of the muscle.
(Max. 4 marks.)
abiotics
absolutist view
abundance
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
adrenaline
13, 15,22,85,90
54,67
12-15,22-4,88,90
10
93
aerobic respiration
AIDS
45-9,56,58,80
32,35
16-17, 22-3, 25, 91
16,22
10-11,17,22,30-1,92
allele
allele frequency
amino acids
anaerobic respiration
antagonistic pairs
antibiotics
46-7,56,80
44-5
23,34-6,38,42, 73,92
32-4,36
33-4
33
8,18-19,22,26,91
24
50
62-5, 74
antibodies
antigen
antigen presenting cell
atmosphere
atrazine
atria
axon
bacteria
bactericidal
bacteriostatic
biofuels
biomass
biotics
blood
bones
brain stem
Calvin cycle
cancer
capillaries
capsid
carbohydrates
carbon
carbon cycle
carbon dioxide
81,90-1
cardiac cycle
23,26,32-9,42, 72-3,84,92
34,36,38
34,36,38
19,22,91
12-13,26
13,15,22,90
32,37, 50-2,54-5,57,61,66,72
44,53
66, 70
10-11
32-3,54,68,77-8
32,45, 57
42
8-10,24,47
11,19,26,90
18-19,22,26-7,91
8-11,18-19,21-2,26,40,46-9,56,
50-1,58-9
cardio\ascular disease 50-1
cellulose 11-12
cerebellum 66,74,94
cerebral hemispheres 66
cerebrum 66
chcmiosmosis 48-9, 56
chemoreceptors 51,59
chlorophyll 8-9,22,24,100
chloroplast 9, 11, 22.24
chromatography 28
circulation 57
climax community 13, 22
coenzyme 48-9,81
conclusions 17,21,87,89
condensation 46
conferences 17,22
consumers 12-13,90
copper
24-5
correlation
cortex
cytoplasm
18,54,56,68,84,88
51,65-7,70,75
11,30,42,44,46,48,62,93
Darwin, Charles 17
data 9,14-15,17-19,21-2,28,39,41-3,47,56,76,
84-9,91
debate
decay
decomposition
deforestation
degenerate code
dendrites
dendrochronology
depolarisation
depression
diabetes
diastole
21, 54
26-7
12,26-7,36
91
31,36
62
18,22,41
94
70-1, 74
54, 72, 78
50-1
diffusion
disease
distribution
DNA
dopamine
49,62,94
32-7,50,54-5,68,70-3,75,77-8,92
12-15,20,22-3,40-1,43,62,84,87,90
11,16-17,28-32,36,55-6,72-3,92
drugs
70, 75
55,67-8,70-2,74,92
ecosystems 12. 22
electrode
28, 78
electron 9-11, 22, 24, 40-1, 45-6, 48-9, 56-7, 59, 78,
90,93
electrophoresis
entomology
36
27
environment 12-13, 16, 52, 60, 67-8, 73-4, 77
enzyme 10,20-1,23,26-8,32-5,38-9,47-8, 56, 64,
71-2,80
eukaryotic cells
evidence
evolution
exercise
experiment
fats
fermenters
fbres
flexors
forensics
fossil fuels
gametes
gastrointestinal tract
11
17-19,22,36,41,54,85,86
15-17,22,36,72,91
45,50-6,58-9,79,81,86
9,21,69,85-6,89
12
72
44-5,56-7
44
27,30-1,34-6,39
19,91
16
34
gene mutations 16
genetics 17,23,25,31-2,36,68, 72-4,77,82,94
genital tract 34
genomics
global warming
glucose
glycogen
glycolysis
glycoproteins
granum
17
18-22,91
8,10-13,46-7,49,56
45, 47,93
45-9,56,59,80,93
32
11
graphs
greenhouse effect
greenhouse gas
gross primary productivity
growth rates
79, 81, 85,87
18-19
18
12, 25
21
habitat
habituation
health
heart
hepatitis C
herbivores
histogram 87
HIV
homeostasis
hormones
hybrid sterility
hydrogen
hydrolysis
hyperthermia
hypothalamus
hypothesis
immune system
immunity
infection
insulin
interferon
introns
invertebrates
investigation
87,89
isolation
isotopes
joints
journals
Krebs cycle
laboratory
lactic acid
larvae
ligaments
13-16,22
69,74,94
42, 54, 58, 71
50-2,54-6,58,66,77-8
38
12,90-1
32,35-9,42
52-3,56-7,61,93
51-2,54-6,61,74
16
8-9,10,22,48-9
45-7
53,82
52-3,57,66,74,93
84-5,87-9
32-3,35,37,39,54-5
27,30-1,34-6,39,92
27,30-9,42,54,59, 71,82
72
32,36,38-9
28
21,69
21,28-9,38-9,43,69,78-9,84-5,
16,22,91
9
44, 51,53-4,59
17,84
47-9,56,59,80,93
light-dependent reactions
light-independent reactions
limpets
39,42,69,85-6
46-7
26,39
44,54
9-11, 22, 24
8-11. 22, 47
14,23
lipids
lipoproteins
liposomes
locus
lymphocytes
lysozyme
macrophages
magnetic resonance
medulla
mesosomes
metabolism
methane
microbes
microorganisms
mitochondria
10-11,22
93
72
28
33
32,34,36
32-3,35-6
71, 74
51-2,58,66,74
32,42
46
18-19,22
34,73,92
20,34, 74
45,48-9,57, 59,78,93
motor neurones
MRI scans
mRNA
60,66, 74,78
71, 74,92-3
30-1
27,44-5,47,51, 54,56-61,66,70, 75,78-9
16-17,22-3,31,35
17, 35, 91-2
muscles
mmation
mutations
myelin sheath
myofbrils
myogenic
myoglobin
myosm
natural selection
nature
nerve impulse
nervous system
net primary productiYity
neuromuscular
neuromuscular junction
neurone
neurotransmitter
nitrate
nitrogen
nodes of Ran vier
nucleic acids
nucleus
nurture
nutrients
obesity
62
44
SO, 56
45
44-5,58-9
16
68
45,62-4,74,78
32, 52,60,67,69-71, 74,76
12,22,25
44-5, 78
44-5, 78
44,60,62-6,68-71,75-6
61,64-5,69-71,74-5,94
11, 15
13,26
62
10-11,22,42,92
30-1,55,62
68
15, 26
54
optic nerve
60, 65, 67
organelles 1 1, 62
organisms 10,14-17,20,22-3,26-8,32,34-6,46-7,
72-4,90
osteoporosis
oxidation
oxygen
54
9,48-9
8-9,15,22,46-9,55-7,71,78-9,81,90
parasites
Parkinson's disease
pathogens
peer review
peptide
phagocytosis
phenology
90-1
70-1, 74-5
34-6, 54,92
17,22
30
32, 36
21
9-10,15,46-7,78,80,90
10,47-9,56,90,93
8, 11
60
phosphate
phosphorylation
photolysis
photoperiodism
photophosphorylation
photoreceptor
photosynthesis
phototropism
9,22
60-1,64,76
8-13,19,21-2,24,26,40,47,90-1
pioneer species
plasmids
politics
pollen
polymerase
polypeptide
polysaccharides
population
potassium
predators
60-1.93
13
32
21
18,22,40-1,84,91
28-9,36,55
30-1,92
10,22
16,23,25,27,38,43
15,26,47,62-4,94
57,90-1
I
l
I
w
promoter
55
prosthesis
53
proteins 11-12,17,28,30-3,35-6,38-9,44-5,55,62,
71, 73, 92, 94
pupae 39
pupil 60-1,74,76
pyruvate 46-9,55,57
quadrat 14-15, 23, 43, 91
receptors 64
reduction 8-10,48,67,70
reforestation 19,22,91
relativist vievv 54, 67
reproduction 16, 35, 92
research 17,20-1,67-8,74,82, 84,89
respiration 8, 10-13, 22, 25-7, 45-9, 52, 56-8, 78, 80,
90,92
respirometer
retina
ribosome
rigor mortis
risk assessment
saltatory conduction
sarcolemma
sarcoplasm
sarcoplasmic reticulum
schizophrenia
Schwann cells
science
scientists
sensory neurones
seres
serotonin
skeletal muscle
47,63
60,64,67, 74, 76,78
30-32,42,92
27
35,85
62
44
44
44-5
68,77,94
62. 74
21,28-9
17, 21, 26,29, 77,89
60
13
70-1
44,56
15 solar energy
speciation 16-17,22,9'
13-17,20.23,27,35,39-41,43,73,86,91
51,56,81
species
spirometer
starch
stimuli
stroma
succession
Sun
survival
symptoms
synapse
11-12
64,67,69
11
13,22,27,43
18
16-17
32,35-7,54,68, 70-1
44,61,64-7,69-71,74-5,78
technology 29, 53, 56
temperature 15, 18.20-2,27, 29,36-7,39, 47,51-3,
56-7,78-9,85,90-1
tendons
testosterone
thermoreceptors
thylakoid membranes
topography
toxins
transcription
transect
translation
trees
tropomyosin
44
55
52,57
11
15
34
30-1,36,55-6
14-15, 23, 43
30
13,17-18,29,40-1,91
45
troponin
tuberculosis
\'agus nerYe
variation
1sodilation
ventilation
\en tricles
viruses
\is ion
Wilberforce, William
woodland
45
32,42
51
16-17
57
51-2,56,59
50-1
32-3,36,39,42, 72
94
17
13,15,90
l
I
I
J
PEARSON
T 0800 579579
F 0870 8505255
myorders@pearson.com
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ISBN 978-1-84690-599-5
.II 1,11 II,