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2.1 Overview of Data Market as a Whole ..........................................................................................................3 2.2 3GPP Evolution and Market Expectation .....................................................................................................3 2.3 LTE Modulation Technology Highlight .........................................................................................................4
2.3.1 OFDM Fundamental .....................................................................................................................................................................5 ................................................................................................................................................................7 2.3.2 SC-FDMA Fundamental
2.4 LTE Frame Structure ....................................................................................................................................8 2.5 LTE Resource Block Architecture ..................................................................................................................9 2.6 Reference Signal Structure ........................................................................................................................10 2.7 Timing and Sampling Architecture ............................................................................................................11
2.7.1 Normal and Extended Cyclic Prefix 2.7.2 Synchronization Channel .............................................................................................................................................12 ............................................................................................................................................................13
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2.8.1 FDD Uplink Control, Sounding and Demodulation Reference Signal Structure
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2.10 LTE FDD vs LTE TDD Main Features Comparison ......................................................................................21 2.11 LTE Channels Hierarchy Overview ............................................................................................................22
2.11.1 Physical Channel Modulation Schemes .....................................................................................................................................22 .............................................................................................................................23 2.11.2 Downlink Channel Functionality Breakdown 2.11.3 Uplink Channel Functionality Breakdown 2.11.4 Channel Functionality Description in Detail
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2.12.2 UE Procedure for Reporting Channel Quality Indication (CQI), Precoding Matrix indicator (PMI) and rank indication (RI) 2.12.3 System Information Bit Definition 2.12.4 Mobility Management
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2.13 Example of Peak Data Rate Calculation 3 LTE Frequency and Spectrum Planning
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3.1 Frequency Spectrum Overview - FDD ........................................................................................................30 3.2 Frequency Spectrum Overview - TDD ........................................................................................................30 3.3 Channel Bandwidth and Subcarrier Allocation ...........................................................................................31 3.4 Channel Arrangement ...............................................................................................................................32
3.4.1 Channel Spacing 3.4.2 Channel Raster ........................................................................................................................................................................32 ...........................................................................................................................................................................32 ...................................................................................................................................................33
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3.5.3 TDD Specific Frequency Planning Considerations 3.5.4 Frequency Band Selection 3.5.5 Cyclic Prefix Planning
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4.7 Summary of Variables inside Link Budget Tools 5 Interference and Guard Band Analysis 5.1 Overview
5.1.1 Basic Concepts
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5.3 Guard Band Requirement: LTE-FDD vs GSM/UMTS ....................................................................................79 5.4 GuardBand Requirement: LTE FDD vs LTE TDD ..........................................................................................79 5.5 Spectrum Refarming for LTE ......................................................................................................................80
5.5.1 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................................80 ..........................................................................................................................................................80 ........................................................................................................................................................81 5.5.2 GSM Spectrum Refarming 5.5.3 Introduction of Buffer Zone
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6.1 Definition of Capacity ...............................................................................................................................89 6.2 3GPP Services Classification ......................................................................................................................91 6.3 EUTRAN Capacity Limiting Factors ............................................................................................................91
6.3.1 Operating Frequency Band 6.3.2 RF coverage - RSRP .........................................................................................................................................................92 ....................................................................................................................................................................93 ............................................................................................................................................93 .................................................................................................................94
6.3.4 Signal Interference Noise Ratio and Adaptive Coding 6.3.5 Radio (Transmitter) Power Availability 6.3.6 Spectrum Bandwidth Availability
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6.3.7 Base Band Channel Card Processing Capacity 6.3.8 S1/X2 Capacity
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6.3.9 Application of Special Antenna Technologies (MIMO/BF/V MIMO) 6.3.10 Scheduling Mode
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6.3.12 UE Capability
6.3.14 Time Slot Allocation for Uplink and Downlink TDD specific 6.3.15 Cyclical Prefix Allocation
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6.4 S1 Bandwidth Dimensioning Procedure .....................................................................................................98 6.5 X2 Bandwidth Dimensioning Procedure ....................................................................................................99 6.6 Impact of Latency of X2 on Cell Throughput ...........................................................................................100 6.7 Inter Radio Access Technology Handover Considerations ........................................................................100 7 U-Net Simulation and Operation ............................................................................................................103
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................103 7.2 Simulation Process ..................................................................................................................................103 7.3 Creating Project ......................................................................................................................................104 7.4 Geographical Information .......................................................................................................................104
7.4.1 Quick Import Function .............................................................................................................................................................104 ....................................................................................................................................................105 7.4.2 Defining Coordinate Systems 7.4.3 Properties of Clutter Class
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7.5.4 Site, Cell and Transmitter Listing 7.5.5 Viewing Hidden Parameters 7.5.6 Propagation Model Selection 7.5.7 Clutter Related Modelling
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7.8.2 Simulation
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7.10 RF Cell Planning Optimization ...............................................................................................................152 7.11 U-Net Planning Case .............................................................................................................................154
7.11.1 Overview of Planning Area 7.11.2 Site Distribution .....................................................................................................................................................154 .....................................................................................................................................................................155 .................................................................................................................156
7.11.3 Parameter Configuration and General Assumption 7.11.4 Network Coverage Predictions 7.11.5 Network Capacity Simulation
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8.1 KPI Measurement Methodology ..............................................................................................................163 8.2 KPI Acceptance Procedure ......................................................................................................................163 8.3 Service KPIs and Network KPIs ................................................................................................................164 8.4 Cluster and Test Route ............................................................................................................................164 8.5 Proposed Key Performance Indicators .....................................................................................................165 8.6 Proposed KPIs for Final Acceptance (Stability Acceptance, Optional) .......................................................165 9 Network Planning Checklist ...................................................................................................................166
9.2.3 Frequency Band Refarming Requirement for LTE 9.2.4 Location of Customer Coverage Requirement 9.2.5 Highway and Tunnel Coverage Requirement
9.2.7 Terrain and Clutter Database Availability and Accuracy 9.2.8 Scheduler Selection
9.2.11 Call Model and SmartPhone Penetration Growth Considerations 9.2.12 Base Station Antenna and Other Co-siting Equipment Selection 9.2.13 Interference Protection and Isolation Requirement 9.2.14 Radio Related Equipment Selection
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9.2.15 Network and Spectrum Evolution Consideration 9.2.16 MIMO and Beam Forming Implementation 9.2.17 Cyclic Prefix Planning
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9.2.18 Understanding of Current Transmission Backhaul Network Capability 9.2.19 UE Distribution and Channel Model : Pedestrian vs High Mobility
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9.2.20 TDD Specific Uplink and Downlink Configuration 9.2.21 Power Boosting Configuration
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10.3.7 Upper Side Lobe Suppression 10.3.8 Polarization Mode 10.3.9 Down Tilt
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10.3.10 VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) 10.3.11 Port Isolation 10.3.12 Power Capacity
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10.3.17 Work Temperature and Humidity 10.3.18 Lightning Protection 10.3.19 Three-proof Capability
10.3.20 Camouflaged Antenna Scheme for Sites 10.3.21 Customized Camouflage 10.3.22 Outlook Camouflage
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11 References
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Figure below is the LTE uplink allocation structure from a time and frequency perspective.
II. Reducing the Impact by Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) Improvement of frequency spectral efficiency requires the reduction of Inter symbol interference (ISI). This is achieved by tighter frequency roll off and alignment of nulls and peaks between different frequencies.
III. Better Protection Against Frequency Fading Smaller subcarrier and resource block bandwidth increase robustness against frequency related fading
With this smaller carrier bandwidth, the frequency coherence bandwidth is much smaller than 3G systems while and correlation factor is much higher. As a result, it will also be much easier to implement scheduling algorithm based on Frequency Selective Scheduling to improve system throughput in the manner shown below.
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the signal is substantially larger than the average value. This high PAR is one of the most important implementation challenges that face OFDM, because it reduces the efficiency and hence increases the cost of the RF power amplifier, which is one of the most expensive components in the radio. The figure below shows the relationship between OFDM and SC-FDMA in LTE. The major difference between the downlink and uplink transmission scheme is that each subcarrier in the uplink carries information about each transmitted modulation symbol as shown in figure below, whereas in downlink each subcarrier only carries information related to one specific modulation symbol. As a result, the uplink power level due to SC-FDMA also need to be increased by 2~3dB to compensate for the extra noise due to more spreading.
The sampling rate in both FDD and TDD is the same and both technologies operate under a 1-ms sub-frame (TTITransmission Time Interval) and 0.5us timeslot definition. The first 3 configurations (0-2) for TDD can also be viewed as 5ms allocation due to repetition. The figure below shows a detailed relationship between rates and frame structure.
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Resource element is the smallest unit of resource assignment and its relationship to resource block is shown as below from both a timing and frequency perspective.
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As LTE is a MIMO based technology, it can have more than two transmit antennae and in order to avoid reference signals from the same cell interfering with each other, different antennae will be transmitting reference signal at different time and frequency and how these are allocated are shown below. As defined in the standard for TDD operations, the channel-sounding mechanism involves the UEs transmitting a deterministic signal that can be used by the eNodeB to estimate the UL channel from the UE. If the UL and DL channels are properly calibrated, the eNodeB can then use the UL channel as an estimate of the DL channel, due to channel reciprocity.
A quick summary of all the physical layer information for LTE is shown below.
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The key to making OFDM realizable in practice is the use of the FFT algorithm, which has low complexity. In order for the IFFT/FFT to create an ISI-free channel, the channel must appear to provide a circular convolution. Adding cyclic prefix to the transmitted signal to create a signal that appears to be just like circular convolution and this is done by copying the last part of each OFDM symbol to the front of each symbol with the length of a guard interval, to form a cyclic prefix (CP). Also, to prevent the guard interval from destroying the inter-sub-carrier orthogonality, the delay of each path should not exceed the guard interval where the number of waveforms within the integral time of the FFT is an integer
The cyclic prefix, although elegant and simple, is not entirely free. It comes with both a bandwidth and power penalty. Since redundant symbols are sent, the required bandwidth for OFDM also increases. Similarly, an additional symbol must be counted against the transmit-power budget. Hence, the cyclic prefix carries a power penalty of v dB in addition to the bandwidth penalty. In summary, the use of the cyclic prefix entails data rate and power losses. The wasted power has increased importance in an interference-limited wireless system, causing interference to neighboring users.
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Where L is the power used for non CP transmission. In the case where there is a large delay spread, e.g. due to large cell radius, an extended CP option can be used.
The figure below shows the location of PSS and SSS in LTE-TDD and the major difference from LTE FDD is that LTE TDD embedding the Primary Sync channel in the DwPTS so the location will not be affected by different DL/UL combination ratio
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2.8.1 FDD Uplink Control, Sounding and Demodulation Reference Signal Structure
The figure below shows the relative position of uplink control channels in the frequency domain in relation to the entire channel bandwidth. In summary, 1) PUCCH resources are located at the edges of the spectrum To maximize frequency diversity 2) Multiple UEs can share the same PUCCH resource block 3) PUCCH is never transmitted simultaneously with PUSCH from the same UE 4) Two consecutive PUCCH slots in Time-Frequency Hopping at the slot boundary
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The Figure below shows respective position of the uplink demodulation reference signal in FDD LTE uplink frame structure including sounding reference signal position.
For LTE TDD only, SRSs can be transmitted in an ordinary sub-frame or in UpPTS sub-frame to improve spectral efficiency. Normally, it uses UpPTS sub-frame.
The figure below shows a possible N Antennae + M input layers setup in spatial multiplexing
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As a result, a more accurate coding application can be applied to the communication with the UE. The figure below shows where the pre-coding function may exist in a N Antennae with M input layers
In mode 5 (Multi-user MIMO), different UEs are receiving downlink data from different antenna. As a result, the overall throughput per cell is increased.
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II. Transmit Diversity Matrix Using Two Antenna Ports The following matrix applies to input x is and y is the resulting output using a two antenna output configuration.
III. Spatial Multiplexing Matrix Using Four Antenna Ports with Cell-Specific Reference Signals
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IV. Transmit Diversity Matrix Using Four Antenna Ports The following matrix applies to input x is and y is the resulting output under a four antenna output configuration.
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One popular beam-forming algorithm is based on Direction of Arrival where the incoming signals to a receiver may consist of desired energy and interference energyfor example, from other users or from multipath reflections. The various signals can be characterized in terms of the DOA or the angle of arrival (AOA) of each received signal. Each DOA can be estimated by using EUTRAN signal-processing techniques as requested in 3GPP-TS 36-214. From these acquired DOAs, a beam-former extracts a weighting vector for the antenna elements and uses it to transmit or receive the desired signal of a specific user while suppressing the undesired interference signals. Ideally, the beam-former has unity gain for the desired user and two nulls at the directions of two interferers and can place nulls in the directions of interferers. The DOA-based beam-former in this case is often called the null-steering beam-former. The null-steering beam-former can be designed to completely cancel out interfering signals only if the number of such signals is strictly less than the number of antenna elements. Typically, there exists a trade-off between interference null and desired gain lost. Thus far, we have assumed that the array response vectors of different users with corresponding AOAs are known. In practice, each resolvable multipath is likely to comprise several unresolved components coming from significantly different angles. In this case, it is not possible to associate a discrete AOA with a signal impinging the antenna array. Therefore, the DOA based beam-former is viable only in LOS environments or in environments with limited local scattering around the transmitter.
The table below summarizes the difference between the two technologies.
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Reference Signal (RS) Cell specific RS UE-specific RS MBSFN RS Synchronization Signal (SCH) Primary Synchronization Signal (P-SCH) Secondary Synchronization Signal (S-SCH) SCH used for: Symbol synchronization Frame synchronization Cell-ID determination
BCH indicates: Basic L1/L2 system parameters Downlink system bandwidth Reference-signal transmit power Multi-media Broadcast over a Single Frequency Network (MBSFN)-related parameters Number of transmit antennas HARQ resource allocation Control region is 1-3 OFDM symbols at the beginning of each subframe, composed of control channel elements (CCEs) 4 Res = Resource element group (REG) 9 REGs = 1 CCE PCFICH Physical Control Format Indicator Channel # of OFDM symbols of control region PHICH Physical Hybrid ARQ Channel ACK/NACK signalling PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel Scheduling UL power control
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2.12.2 UE Procedure for Reporting Channel Quality Indication (CQI), Precoding Matrix Indicator (PMI) and Rank Indication (RI)
As stated in TS 36-213, the time and frequency resources that can be used by the UE to report CQI, PMI, and RI are controlled by the eNodeB. For spatial multiplexing, the UE shall determine a RI corresponding to the number of useful transmission layers. For transmit diversity RI is equal to one. A UE in transmission mode 8 is configured with PMI/RI reporting if the parameter PMI-RI-Report is configured by higher layer signaling; otherwise, it is configured without PMI/RI reporting. CQI, PMI, and RI reporting is periodic or a-periodic. A UE shall transmit periodic CQI/PMI, or RI reporting on PUCCH as defined hereafter in sub-frames with no PUSCH allocation. A UE shall transmit periodic CQI/PMI or RI reporting on PUSCH as defined hereafter in sub-frames with PUSCH allocation, where the UE shall use the same PUCCH-based periodic CQI/PMI or RI reporting format on PUSCH. A UE shall transmit a-periodic CQI/PMI, and RI reporting on PUSCH if the conditions specified hereafter are met. For a-periodic CQI reporting, RI reporting is transmitted only if configured CQI/PMI/RI feedback type supports RI reporting. Figure below shows which channels will be used for different CQI reporting scenario
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Figure 3-1 LTE FDD Spectrum Allocation The most popular commercial LTE bands are 2.6GHz (Band 7), AWS (Band 4) and 700MHz (Band 12) while momentum is being built up also for 1800MHz (Band 3) as well as Public Safety spectrum (Band 14) According to 3GPP TS 36.104 V9.4.0 (2010-06), Band 6 is no longer applicable and Band 15 and Band 16 are listed as Reserved.
It is worth noting that around the 2.3GHz band (Band 40), there is a significant frequency spectrum overlap (100MHz) between LTE TDD with WiMAX. To many WiMAX operators currently in this frequency band, it is an ideal opportunity to evolve their network back into the mainstream LTE technologies.
The channel edges are defined as the lowest and highest frequencies of the carrier separated by the channel bandwidth, i.e. at FC +/- BWChannel /2.
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Figure 3-4 Definition of Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Bandwidth Configuration for one E-UTRA carrier
Figure 3-5 Visualizing the Relationship between Channel Bandwidth, NRB and Transmission Bandwidth Configuration
Downlink FDL_low [MHz] 2110 1930 1805 2110 869 875 2620 925 1844.9 2110 1475.9 729 746 758 734 860 875 791 1495.9 1900 2010 NOffs-DL 0 600 1200 1950 2400 2650 2750 3450 3800 4150 4750 5010 5180 5280 5730 5850 6000 6150 6450 36000 36200 Range of NDL 0 - 599 600 - 1199 1200 - 1949 1950 - 2399 2400 - 2649 2650 - 2749 2750 - 3449 3450 - 3799 3800 - 4149 4150 - 4749 4750 - 4949 5010 - 5179 5180 - 5279 5280 - 5379 5730 - 5849 5850 - 5999 6000 - 6149 6150 - 6449 6450 - 6599 36000 - 36199 36200 - 36349 FUL_low [MHz] 1920 1850 1710 1710 824 830 2500 880 1749.9 1710 1427.9 699 777 788 704 815 830 832 1447.9 1900 2010
Uplink NOffs-UL 18000 18600 19200 19950 20400 20650 20750 21450 21800 22150 22750 23010 23180 23280 23730 23850 24000 24150 24450 36000 36200 Range of NUL 18000 - 18599 18600 - 19199 19200 - 19949 19950 - 20399 20400 - 20649 20650 - 20749 20750 - 21449 21450 - 21799 21800 - 22149 22150 - 22749 22750 - 22949 23010 - 23179 23180 - 23279 23280 - 23379 23730 - 23849 23850 - 23999 24000 - 24149 24150 - 24449 24450 - 24599 36000 - 36199 36200 - 36349
Downlink FDL_low [MHz] 1850 1930 1910 2570 1880 2300 2496 3400 3600 NOffs-DL 36350 36950 37550 37750 38250 38650 39650 41590 43590 Range of NDL 36350 - 36949 36950 - 37549 37550 - 37749 37750 - 38249 38250 - 38649 38650 - 39649 39650 - 41589 41590 - 43589 43590 - 45589 FUL_low [MHz] 1850 1930 1910 2570 1880 2300 2496 3400 3600
Uplink NOffs-UL 36350 36950 37550 37750 38250 38650 39650 41590 43590 Range of NUL 36350 - 36949 36950 - 37549 37550 - 37749 37750 - 38249 38250 - 38649 38650 - 39649 39650 - 41589 41590 - 43589 43590 - 45589
NOTE: The channel numbers that designate carrier frequencies so close to the operating band edges that the carrier extends beyond the operating band edge shall not be used. This implies that the first 7, 15, 25, 50, 75 and 100 channel numbers at the lower operating band edge and the last 6, 14, 24, 49, 74 and 99 channel numbers at the upper operating band edge shall not be used for channel bandwidths of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz respectively.
Application scenario Limited application scenario in urban and suburban environment without impacting QoS/QoE. Possible application in highly isolated rural scenario where users are also highly scattered
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Advantage High spectral efficiency and high throughput per site. Easy to deploy. No special scheduling algorithm required Disadvantage High level of interference especially on cell edge area Low throughput on cell boundary and lower QoS/QoE for users on boundary area. Coverage control of cells becomes an important factor in achieving a high throughput level
Figure 3-8 SFR 1*3*1 Downlink frequency division scheme Under this configuration, each sector will only use one of the sub-sections, also known as the primary band, which 1/3 of the entire carrier bandwidth, to serve the cell edge users. As a result, the interference level between sectors can be reduced, thereby enhancing the throughput of those users. For those users location near the center of the cell, the other 2 sections, which is the remaining 2/3 of the carrier bandwidth, also known as the secondary band, will be used to serve these users. The figure below depicts the actual layout
Application scenario Recommended configuration to satisfy high traffic and high site density requirement. Best results will require the introduction of Inter Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) Advantage Reduce inter-cell interference under a high site density deployment. Improve cell edge user throughput and quality of experience.
Figure 3-10 Uplink-Downlink Pilot Time Slot and Guard band Configuration Schemes
Lastly, for TDD to work properly, all cells must be operating in time synchronous mode to avoid any extra interference being introduced to the network. IEEE 1588v2 implementation is recommended and will help to ensure the integrity of time synchronization within the LTE TDD network.
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Figure 3-12 Cell Coverage Comparison (UL@128kbps) between various frequency bands
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Figure 3-13 Cell Coverage Comparison (DL@1024kbps) between various frequency bands
frequency band. The figure below just some 1 example of what customer may do with multiple technologies and their evolution in different frequency band. It is the responsibility of the radio planner and account managers to work with customer to determine the best combination to meet their interest.
SingleSON Solution Benefits: SingleSON brings synergized automation for GSM, UMTS and LTE It can remarkably reduce operational cost and improve efficiency, better user experience.
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This chapter will focus on the RF link budget itself and radio transmission model. System simulation will be described in Chapter7.
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PDP # of Paths
Table below shows possible variation of received power in multi-path fading environment under the various extended delay spread conditions listed below Extended Pedestrian A Model - EPA
Excess tap delay [ns] 0 30 70 90 110 190 410 Relative power [dB] 0.0 -1.0 -2.0 -3.0 -8.0 -17.2 -20.8
Excess tap delay [ns] 120 200 230 500 1600 2300 5000
Relative power [dB] -1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -3.0 -5.0 -7.0
A separate high speed train model is also defined and the Doppler shift trajectory is shown in the diagram below.
The assumption for this model is where Ds/2 is the initial distance of the train from eNodeB, and Dmin is eNodeB Railway track distance, both in meters; V is the velocity of the train in m/seconds.
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Indicate K1 and K2 in the line-of-sight condition. Indicate K1 and K2 in the none-line-of-sight condition. Indicates a coefficient related to Effective height of Transmitter. Indicates a coefficient related to diffraction loss. Method of calculating diffraction includes. 0-No Diffraction Do not count the diffraction loss. 1-Deygout This diffraction algorithm calculates the diffraction of a maximum of three obstacles. 2-Epstein-Peterson This calculation method is the same as Deygout, except that the method for calculating the height of obstacles is different. 3-Deygout with correction Correct the distance based on the Deygout calculation method. 4-Millington This diffraction algorithm calculates the diffraction of only one obstacle. Other parameters Indicates a coefficient related to the propagation distance and the effective height of the transmitter. Indicates a coefficient related to the receiver height. Indicates a coefficient related to clutter loss.
Method
K5 K6 Kclutter
I. Free Space Model Free space indicates an ideal, even, and isotropic medium of space. When electromagnetic waves are transmitted in this medium, no reflection, refraction, scattering, or absorption occurs. Propagation losses are caused only by the energy spread of electromagnetic waves. Satellite communication and microwave line-of-sight (LOS) communication are typical examples of free space propagation. In certain conditions, the antennae of the base station and terminal can be mounted at any height. In this case, LOS communication between the base station and the terminal is implemented. If a clear line of sight (CLOS) exists between the transmit antenna and receive antenna, then path loss complies with the free space model. The propagation losses in the free space model are as follows: PL = 32.4 + 20log(d ) + 20log( f ) Where, d indicates the distance between the terminal and the base station. The unit is km. f indicates the carrier frequency. The unit is MHz. The preceding formula does not consider the impact of ground reflection, and thus often underestimates propagation loss. This model is applicable to the scenario when the antennas of the base station and terminal are mounted at considerable height and CLOS exists between the base station and the terminal. II. Cost231-Hata Model Cost231-Hata model can be used in macro cells as the propagation model. The application range is as follows: Frequency band: 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz Base station height: 30 meters to 200 meters. The base station must be higher than the surrounding buildings. Terminal antenna height: 1 meter to 10 meters Distance between the transmitter and receiver: 1 km to 20 km The Cost231-Hata model can be expressed by the following formula: Total = L - a(Hss) + Cm L = 46.3 + 33.9 lg( f ) - 13.82 lg(HBS) + (44.9 - 6.55 lg(HBS)) lg(d ) Where, f indicates the working frequency of the system. The unit is MHz. HBS indicates the height of the base station antenna. The unit is m. HSS indicates the height of the terminal antenna. The unit is m. d indicates the distance between the terminal and the base station. The unit is km. a(hss) indicates the terminal gain function. This function is related to the antenna height and working frequency of the terminal and the environment. The value of Cm depends on the terrain type. The values of Cm in the standard Cost231-Hata are as follows: In large cities: Cm = 3 (as defined in Urban - large city in the related protocol)
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In medium-sized cities: Cm = 0 (as defined in Urban small city in the related protocol) In suburban areas: Cm = -2(log( f /28))2 - 5.4dB (as defined in Urban Suburban in the related protocol) In rural open areas: Cm = -4.78 (lg( f ))2 + 18.33 lg( f ) -40.94 (As defined in Rural (open) desert in the related protocol) In highways: Cm = -4.78 (lg( f ))2 + 18.33 lg( f ) -35.94 (As defined in Rural (quasi-open) countryside where the terminal is unobstructed for 100 meters in the front in the related protocol) Since some of the working frequencies of the LTE networks are 2.3 GHz and 2.6 GHz have exceeded the band range of the standard Cost 231-Hata model, that is, 150 MHz to 2000 MHz. Therefore, in the actual LTE system design, the standard Cost231-Hata model must be corrected based on the CW test result. According to the planning experience and actual CW test results in multiple scenarios, a set of Cm has been created in the experienced model. III. Standard Propagation Model (SPM) The standard propagation model is a model (deduced from the Hata formula) particularly suitable for predication in the 150MHz~3500MHz band over long distance (1Km<d<20Km) and is very adapted to GSM900/1800, UMTS, CDMA2000, WiMAX and LTE technologies. This model uses the terrain profile, diffraction mechanisms (calculated in several ways) and take into account clutter classes and effective antenna heights in order to calculate path loss. The model may be used for any technology; it is based on the following formula: LSPM = K1 + K2 log (d )+ K3 log (H Txeff)+ K4 Diffractio nLoss + K5 log (d )log (H Txeff)+ K6 H Rxeff + K cluttrt f (clutter) Where: K1 K2 d K3 HTxeff K4 Diffraction loss K5 K6 HRxeff KClutter f(clutter) Constant offset (dB) Multiplying factor for log(d) Distance between the receiver and the transmitter (m) Multiplying factor for log(HTxeff) Effective height of the transmitter antenna(m) Multiplying factor for diffraction calculation, K4 has to be a positive number Losses due to diffraction over an obstructed path(dB) Multiplying factor for log(d)log(HTxeff) Multiplying factor for HRxeff Mobile antenna height (m) Multiplying factor for f(clutter) Average of weighted losses due to clutter
The standard propagation model can be used for propagation model calibration through CW (Continuous Wave) test by using simulation tools- GENEX U-Net.
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IV. Okumura-Hata Model The Hata Model for Urban Areas, also known as the Okumura-Hata model for being a developed version of the Okumura Model, is the most widely used radio frequency propagation model for predicting the behavior of cellular propagation in built up areas. This model incorporates the graphical information from Okumura model and develops it further to realize the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused by city structures. Okumura model was originally built into three modes, one for urban, suburban and open areas. The model for urban areas was built first and used as the base for others The Okumura Hata model also has two more varieties for propagation in Suburban Areas and Open Areas. The original Okumura model for Urban Areas is a radio propagation model that was built using the data collected in the city of Tokyo, Japan. The model is ideal for using in cities with many urban structures but not many tall blocking structures. The model served as a base for the Hata Model and the following assumptions apply to the use of Okumura Hata model. Frequency: 150 MHz to 1500 MHz Mobile Station Antenna Height: between 1 m and 10 m Base station Antenna Height: between 30 m and 200 m Link distance: between 1 km and 20 km. The traditional Okumura Hata model formula is shown below:
V. ITU Indoor Model The IEEE documents provide a propagation loss model in the indoor base station environment. This model is based on the Cost231 model. The expression of this model is as follows:
Where,
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indicates the propagation losses in free space. indicates the constant loss. indicates the number of walls in type i penetration. indicates the number of penetrated floors. indicates the loss brought by penetration through walls in i mode. indicates the loss of neighboring floors. indicates the experience parameter.
The value of Lc is often 37 dB. In normal indoor offices, the value of n is 4. For capacity calculations in moderately pessimistic environments, the value can be changed to 3. Table 4-2 Weighted average for loss categories
Loss category Typical floor structures (i.e. offices) Hollow pot tiles Reinforced concrete Thickness typ. < 30 cm Light internal walls Plasterboard Walls with large numbers of holes (e.g. windows) Internal walls Concrete, brick Minimum number of holes Description Factor (dB)
Lf
18.3
Lw1
3.4
Lw2
6.9
Caution: In an indoor cell, often the antenna height of the base station or terminal is not specified and the deviation of shadow fading in log-normal distribution is often 12 dB. VI. Ray Tracing Model The ray tracing model involves analyzing electric wave propagation by using the ray tracing method and obtaining the field strength of received signals through theoretical calculation. Some LTE network uses the higher part of the UHF band such as 2.3 GHz and 2.6 GHz. The wavelength of the radio wave is several centimeters. Therefore, obstructions in the propagation environment are often larger than the wavelength of the radio wave. In this case, the ray tracing method can be used to analyze wave propagation. In addition, geological information technologies allow you to identify each building in a city as a right prism in a high precision degree. Such a right prism is identified by the top coordinate of the polygon at the bottom and height. The basic idea of the ray tracing method is as follows: Determine the position of a transmission source. Identify all the propagation routes from the transmission source to each receive point, that is, the test point, according to the features and layout of the buildings on the 3D map. Determine reflection and diffraction losses based on the Fresnel equation and the geometrical or uniform theory of diffraction. In this case,
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the field strength of each route to each test point can be obtained. Perform the same point coherence stacking of field strengths of all routes to obtain the total received field strength of each test point. The ray tracing model is integrated in common commercial planning software. Simulation software GENEX U-Net uses a 3D ray tracing model. This model, however, requires highly precise (at least to within 5 meters) digital maps that contain 3D building information. The prediction accuracy of the model is closely related to the precision of the digital maps and accuracy of site engineering parameters, such as the antenna position, height, direction angle, and down-tilt angle. Due to the cost, the ray tracing model is used only in network planning in densely populated areas of large cities.
The link budget is only concerned with the scenario in which an outdoor transmitter is used and the signals penetrate only one wall. The propagation modes of electromagnetic waves are as follows: direct radiation, inverse radiation, diffraction, penetration, and scattering. In areas where no indoor distributed system is deployed, electromagnetic wave signals are obtained through diffraction and scattering. Therefore, the indoor penetration loss is related to the incident angle, building materials, terrain, and working frequency. Table below lists the penetration losses associated with typical buildings. Table 4-3 Typical building penetration losses
Typical Penetration Loss (dB) Frequency (GHz) 1.8~2.6 Concrete Wall 15~30 Brick Wall 10 Wooden Floor 5 Thick Glass Wall 3~5 Thin Glass Wall 1~3 Lift Door 20-30
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In the link budget, penetration loss values depend on the coverage scenario. Therefore, coverage target areas are classified into densely populated urban areas, common urban areas, suburban areas, rural areas, and highways. Table below lists the area classification principles. Table 4-4 Principles for classifying coverage scenarios
Scenario Name Description In this scenario, buildings are densely distributed, and the average building height exceeds 30 m. In certain areas, buildings are distributed in order. The distance between buildings is narrow and is not fixed. The average distance between buildings is 10 m to 20 m. Most streets that are not main avenues are narrow. These areas are densely populated. In this scenario, the average building height is about 20 m. The average distance between buildings is similar to the average building height. Such areas contain a certain amount of open spaces and greenery. In this scenario, the average building height is about 10 m. Buildings are scattered and the average distance between buildings is 30 to 50 m. The streets are wide. Such areas may contain much greenery and many open spaces. In this scenario, buildings are scarce. The average building height is about 5 m. Such areas are likely to contain vast open spaces, fields, greenery, and roads.
Suburban area
Rural area
The building penetration loss ranges from 5 dB to 40 dB. In link budget, if no actual test data in the target area is available, an assumed penetration loss value must be used. The final assumption is also highly dependent on local customer requirement. For example in sophisticated Asian Metropolis like Hong Kong, Singapore and Shanghai, the indoor coverage expectation will be very high, hence requiring a high penetration loss provisioning. On the other hand, in less developed market such as Africa and Latin America, customer expectation is lower so the penetration loss requirement can be reduced to reduce overall cost involved. During network planning, if no actual field testing data is available, refer to the penetration loss values listed in Table below. Table 4-5 Example of penetration loss
Scenario Densely populated urban area Common urban area Suburban area Rural area Penetration Loss 18 - 25 dB 15 - 18 dB 10 - 12 dB 6 - 8 dB
Figure 4-4 Connections of the antenna feeder system The formula for calculating the feeder loss according to the feeder type and length is as follows: Feeder loss (dB) = Feeder loss per 100 m (dB/100 m) feeder length (m)/100 The feeder loss per 100 meters is related to the frequency band. Table below lists typical feeder losses. Table 4-6 Typical feeder losses
Frequency (MHz) 450 800 900 1500 1800 2000 2300 1/2" 4.683 6.396 6.822 9.000 10.099 10.693 11.543 7/8" 2.644 3.594 3.861 5.129 5.693 6.089 6.624 5/4" 1.871 2.564 2.762 3.693 4.228 4.416 4.919
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If a base station is mounted indoors, the link budget must include the losses of all devices from the RF port of the base station to the antenna interface, including the indoor jumper, connector, main transmission feeder, combiners, splitters and the outdoor jumper. If the RRU of a distributed base station is mounted on the tower top, you need to consider only the loss of the outdoor 1/2" jumper. In this case, the total cable loss can be greatly reduced to approximately 0.5dB.
Figure 4-5 Relationship between dBi and dBd The relationship between antenna gain, horizontal beamwidth, and vertical beamwidth is as follows: G(dBi)=10*log[32000/(A*B)]. In this formula, A and B indicate the horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth. G indicates antenna gain.
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In LTE system, we often use 65 18-dBi directional antennas and 11-dBi omni-directional antennas as the antennas in base stations. Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7 show the antenna lobes of the 65 18-dBi directional antenna and 11-dBi omni-directional antenna.
Horizontal pattern
Vertical pattern
Horizontal Pattern
Vertical Pattern
Figure 4-8 Definition of Features on Horizontal & vertical patterns of directional antenna
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We recommend the 65 dual-polarized 18-dBi directional antennas for the base stations that are distributed in densely populated urban areas and common urban areas. The 90 or 65 directional antennas can be used for base stations in suburban areas. We recommend the 11-dBi omnidirectional antennas for coverage in rural areas, especially in isolated towns. The 33 horizontal beamwidth antennas can be used for highway coverage. The gain of such antennas can reach 21 dBi, which helps increase coverage radius. The antenna gains of the terminals in the LTE system vary. This results in a large difference in the coverage scopes of different terminals. However, the LTE terminal market is dominated by USB dongle at this stage and CPE antenna gain values will be based on final product availability. However, since CPE antenna is external, gain similar to those currently available in 3G/WiMAX product is expected.
Figure 4-9 Transmit Diversity and Spatial Multiplexing MIMO TS36.211 (fig 6.3-1)
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In the example above, a single data input stream is used to feed two separate antennae but it is equally possible to feed two different input data streams into this setup to provide higher data rate and it is the fundamental principle for Multiple Code Word (MCW) in LTE. Multi-antenna technology can improve system capacity and coverage without largely increasing cost. This is because the multi-antenna technology gives the following gains: power combining gain, array gain, space diversity gain, and interference reduction gain. In addition, the MIMO achieves a spatial multiplexing gain, which is mainly used to increase the system capacity. This section describes the various gains brought by the MIMO. 1. Power combining gain When multiple antennae (N) are used to transmit signals, N transmit channels are available. In this case, the total transmit power is equal to N times the transmit power from a single antenna signal transmission. As a result, a power gain of 10log(N) dB can be obtained. If a single antenna is used to transmit signals, you can also increase the transmit power. In this case, however, the requirements for the power amplifier are high, and implementation cost is complex and increased. 2. Array gain The array gain indicates an improvement in the average signal noise ratio (SINR) at the receive end when the total transmit power is the same. The array gain can be obtained through the coherent combining of various antenna signals. Various multi-antenna systems can obtain the array gain. That is, after the multi-antenna technology is used, the receiving SINR can be improved. 3. Space diversity gain Due to the fading nature of wireless channels, the signals in a single-antenna system suffer from deep fading. In a multi-antenna system, the distance between antennae is often large. This ensures that the signal fading of an antenna is independent. Therefore, the SINR fluctuation of the received signals after combining stabilizes, thus improving received signal quality. 4. Interference reduction gain In mobile cellular communications system, inter-cell interference cannot be ignored due to the frequency sharing and multiplexing nature both within and between cells. However, different from white noise, the interference signal is colored noise. You can combine the expected signals and suppress the interference signal through proper multiantenna spatial weight at the receiving end to improve the average SINR at the receiving end. This is the basis of Interference Reduction Combining feature. 5. Spatial multiplexing gain The spatial multiplexing gain indicates the improvement of data throughput or transmission rate when the transmit power and bandwidth remain unchanged. You can obtain a spatial multiplexing gain by transmitting multiple parallel data streams over the same time-frequency resources. The spatial multiplexing gain is used to increase system capacity.
required edge rate, the larger the cell coverage radius. This comes about due to the fixed power offered by UE (normally 23dBm) being spread evenly to the number of RBs involved in the modulation scheme assigned, assuming there is no power control (i.e. Downlink ICIC also disabled). Some of the factors that affect the edge rate in the LTE system are as follows: Uplink/downlink TDD proportion MIMO schemes chosen eNodeB Power Amplifier power (affect downlink only) Number of RB used at the sector edge Modulation mode (1 of 29 coding methods) Repeated coding times The formula for calculating the downlink cell edge rate is as follows: Cell edge rate_Phy = Number of Different data stream transmitted x Number of Resource Block assigned to user per frame x Number of available Traffic carrying Resource Element per Resource Block x Coding rate x Modulation model level / Duration of each frame - Where, Number of Resource Block Assigned (a single RB is the basic resource assignment level) reflects the number of resource blocks used by user at the edge of the sector. The smaller the number of resource blocks assigned, the lower the cell edge rate. In previous version of link budget tools, receive sensitivity of a base station is defined by the bandwidth of the RB which is 180 kHz. More recent version are using per subcarrier as basis of receiver sensitivity and the conversion value is simply 10log10(12). RB can be assigned down to a per TTI level (1 ms duration) Number of Different data stream transmitted is related to the number of data stream being simultaneously transmitted. Number can be ranging from 1 (SFBC) to 2 (MCW 2x2). In case of BF, the value should be 1 for single antenna port transmission mode 7 (port 7 or 8), and 2 streams for dual antenna port transmission mode 8 (port 7 and 8). Number of available Traffic carrying Resource Element per Resource Block indicates the number of RE available for each resource block. In FDD system, a maximum of 3 symbols (36 Res) can be consumed per frame (10ms) for control channel signaling purposes and there is at least 6 more extra RE can be used for Downlink Reference signaling per TTI (1ms). A minimum of 1 symbol (12 Res) will be required per RB for control signaling purposes. In TDD system, due to frequency sharing and time gap requirement for switching between uplink and downlink, 6 symbols equivalent (72 Res) will be the minimum overhead requirement per TTI. Coding rate indicates the volume coding rate of the channel code. For example, the volume coding rate of QPSK1/2 is 1/2, and the volume coding rate of 16QAM3/4 is 3/4. Modulation model level indicates the number of bits in the modulation mode. For example, the modulation mode levels of QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM are 2, 4, and 6 respectively. Duration of each frame indicates the frame size. As regulated by the protocols, the frame size in LTE networks is 10 ms. In the link budget, the settings of the uplink/downlink cell edge rates (in particular the uplink cell edge rate) will determine the final cell coverage radius. Hence, an understanding of edge coverage requirement is very critical from a network planning perspective. If Downlink ICIC is enabled, downlink power control must be enabled also (which is executed at 20ms intervals based on UE BER reported value) and edge rate calculation will be more complex and
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beyond the formula listed above. However, the cell edge data rate requirement will still be the single most important factor in any cell planning activities.
Channel state information that is required includes: Fast fading channel coefficient Direction of arrival (DoA) of signal CQI information Channel state information can be obtained by different way, including: Feedback from receiver Estimation from reverse link assuming channel reciprocity (particularly true for TDD) As it is based on a multiple transmit configuration, this feature can significantly improve downlink system throughput and coverage performance and also provide good user experience by offering higher data rates. The main drawback here is there is also the requirement of either 4 (4x4) or 8 (8x2) transmit path from the eNodeB side which could make this more expensive to implement. There are two type of beam forming mode defined by 3GPP, Mode 7 (Rel 8) and Mode 8 (Rel 9). Mode 7 supports only single data flow so it can mainly improve coverage but Mode 8 can support multiplexing dual data stream as well which means it can improve both throughput and coverage.
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Figure 4-11 Impact of the slow fading margin on system reliability The difference found in the slow fading is reflected by the standard deviation of slow fading. The standard deviation of slow fading shows the distribution of the radio signal strength at different test points at similar distances from the transmitter. This spread of values approximate to the standard deviation of the signal strength at different test points from similar distances. The standard deviation of slow fading varies with the geological form. The value ranges from 5 dB to 12 dB. In plain areas, such as rural areas and open areas, the standard deviation of slow fading is lower than that in suburban and urban areas. Standard deviations requirement in Dense Urban area with highly integrated building layout and deeper indoor coverage requirement is even higher than typical urban environment. Table below lists the typical standard deviations of slow fading in different geological locations. Table 4-7 Typical example of standard deviations in slow fading
Scenario Densely populated urban area Common urban area Suburban area Rural area Standard Deviation of Slow Fading 10dB 8dB 6dB 6dB
The slow fading margin can be obtained based on the cell edge coverage probability and standard deviation of slow fading. The formula for calculating the edge coverage probability is as follows: Edge coverage probability = 1 - Q( Slow fading margin Standard deviation of slow fading )
The slow fading margin can be obtained through the following formula: Slow fading margin = Q-1(1 - Edge coverage probability) Standard deviation of slow fading
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The edge of coverage probability of a cell is based on area coverage probability. Suppose that the area coverage probability of a cell is PCov. Use this probability to try the edge coverage probability PEdge for multiple times. If the area coverage probability of the cell is PCov' = PCov the obtained edge coverage probability PEdge of the cell is the actual edge coverage probability of the cell.
then remove the interferer from the received signals. In comparison, Maximum ratio combining (MRC) do not make use of the spatial characteristics of the interference when calculating antenna weighting. So in cases where there are only a small number of dominating interfering sources, IRC can provide more improvement than MRC especially when there are a reasonable number of receive antennae for IRC to execute the compensation. Conversely, if there are a large number of equal power signals arriving at the receive antennae, the gain of IRC over MRC is not as significant. IRC is implemented in the baseband processing module (WBBP) of NodeB. It can reduce the interference impact of the neighboring users in the uplink. Therefore, IRC can increase the uplink users throughput significantly and hence improves the users experience.
When Uplink IRC is used, simulation has shown a maximum SINR gain of 7dB can be achieved over traditional MMSE interference reduction method. By outperforming Maximum Ratio Combining and MMSE receivers, IRC can enhance network coverage and provide better QoS for cell edge users.
Alternatively, reliability of information transmission can also be boosted not by radio transmission power but by adjusted to a lower modulation level (MCS adjustment).
Type of MIMO multi-antenna technology used (At this stage, default is 2T2R) Design target area coverage probability. (Operator dependent ranging from 90 to 95%) The antenna in a base station is mounted at a height of 30 meters. The terminal antenna is mounted at 1.5 meters high. The Cost231-Hata model that is amended based on planning experience is generally used as the propagation model. Below listed are some of the critical and selectable parameters from the Link Budget tool Duplex Mode: Option Frequency division duplex (FDD)/ Time division duplex (TDD). TMA used: Yes/No TMA Gain: 12dB/24dB Morphology: Dense Urban/Urban/Suburban/Rural/Highway Channel Model: EPA, ETU, EVA, High Speed Train (HST) Frequency (MHz): Frequency used in this system (700, 800, 850, 900, 1500, AWS, 1800, 2100, 2300, 2600) Bandwidth: 1.4M, 3M, 5M, 10M, 15M, 20M MIMO Scheme: Separately settable for Downlink (1x2, 2x2 SFBC, 4x2 SFBC+FSTD) and Uplink (1x2, 1x4, 1x8). Please Note, In a AxB configuration, A is always refers to the transmit function of the device DL/UL Cell Edge Rate (kbps): Setting in accordance to the actual customer requirements DL/UL Edge MCS: Total of 29 Coding selection that can be chosen separately for DL and UL. As UL normally is the weakest link due to limited UE power, We recommend UL MCS coding of QPSK 0.25 at the Edge as UE power is shared across only 8 RBs for best Maximum path loss results against other MCS. DL/UL Target Load: Target customer loading should be provided here separately for Downlink and Uplink so the desired interference margin can be incorporated into the link budget. Common values are 30%, 50%, 70% and 100% Propagation Model: Option include Cost231-Hata (Classic), Cost231-Hata-Huawei, Okumura Hata (Classic), Okumura Hata-Huawei, SPM, Cost231-Micro (Classic) and Cost231-Micro-Huawei. Further information is available in the Propagation Model section below eNodeB Total Transmit Power: Customer configuration specific, referring to per TX path transmit power value. Typical value is either 43dBm (20W) or 46 dBm (40W). Further information can be seen in the following sections. However, please refer to detailed eNodeB configuration guide for final detail. eNodeB cable loss: Value is dependent on cable configuration at customer site (0.5dB for RRU) vs 3dB (standard cable length) or more (extended length) for RFU based configuration UE Transmit Power: Typical value is 23dBm +/- 2dB for a Class 3 unit. The minimum transmit power by this UE is -40dBm according to 3GPP TS 36.101. Actual UE power can be reduced by the modulation used. UE Antenna Gain: Typical value is 0dB in the absence of any external antenna
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LTE Link Budget Morphology Duplex Mode User Environment Channel Bandwidth (MHz) Channel Model MIMO Scheme Cell Edge Rate (kbps) Tx Max Total Tx Power (dBm) Allocated RB Subcarrier Power (dBm) Tx Antenna Gain (dBi) Tx Cable Loss (dB) Tx Body loss (dB) EIRP per Subcarrier (dBm) Rx SINR (dB) Rx Noise Figure (dB) Receiver Sensitivity (dBm) Rx Antenna Gain (dBi) Rx Cable Loss (dB) Rx Body loss (dB) Target Load Interference Margin (dB) Min Signal Reception Strength (dBm) Path Loss & Cell Radius Penetration Loss (dB) Std.of Shadow Fading (dB) Area Coverage Probability Shadow Fading Margin (dB) Pathloss Propagation Model eNodeB/UE Antenna Height (m) Frequency (MHz) Cell Radius (km)
Uplink Dense Urban FDD Indoor 20 ETU 3 12 256 23 4 6.19 0 0 0 6.19 -2.52 2.5 -132.26 18 0.5 0 50.00% 0.87 -148.89 20 11.7 95.00% 9.48 125.6 Cost231-Hata 30 2600 0.29
Downlink
22 SFBC 1024 46 24 15.21 18 0.5 0 32.71 -3.39 7 -128.63 0 0 0 70.00% 3.67 -124.96 20 11.7 95.00% 9.48 128.18 1.5 2600 0.34
The link budget is based on only theories, and can neither ensure the capacity nor coverage reliability of the actual network. The coverage target and requirements also vary with different network requirement and the respective assumptions. As a result, the link budget result varies greatly, depending on the different input parameters. Therefore, to design the link budget that reflects the requirement of a particular network, the designer must discuss with the operator to determine the value of each input parameter in the link budget.
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Link budget also assumes a uniform landform, simple terrain, ideal site locations, and even subscriber distribution. System simulation covers detailed landform distribution, actual site location, terrain type, and subscriber distribution. Hence, the link budget result serves ONLY as the theoretical calculation result. The calculated coverage radius is used for reference in simulated site distribution. The detailed coverage planning must be completed through system simulation. For a given coverage area, the number of planned base stations will depend on the system simulation result.
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Figure 5-1 Spurious interference Blocking Interference Receivers usually work in linear areas. When a strong interference enters a receiver, it may also overdrive the receiver to work in non-linear state or even worse, in saturation mode as the out of band suppression ratio of the receiver may
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be limited. This type of interference is called blocking interference. Generally, blocking interference is generated by a strong interference signal out of the receive band that makes the receiver work in saturation state and then reduces the gains. In addition, the interference signal may mix with the local oscillator signal and then generate the interference in the intermediate frequency (IF). Blocking interference can reduce the receiver gains and increase the noise.
Figure 5-2 Blocking interference Inter-Modulation Interference When multiple strong signals with different frequencies enter a receiver at the same time, the inter-modulation product at the receiver is generated by the signals by the front end due to the non-linear circuit of the receiver. Unfortunately, the frequency of the inter-modulation product drops into the useful frequency band of the receiver and generates the inter-modulation interference. When a strong signal is reflected back from the transmitting end of a transmitter back into the transmitter, this signal, together with the transmitted signal of the transmitter may also generate some inter-modulation products because of the non-linearity of the transmitter. When multiple signals with different frequencies transverse across conductors at the same time, the inter-modulation product is generated because of the non-linearity of the metals.
Figure 5-3 Inter-modulation interference Because of the non-linearity of the receiver and the limitation of out of band suppression, multiple harmonic waves are generated on the received signal. When two strong interference signals are received at the same time, the frequency
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combination such as 2f1-f2 and 2f2-f1 of the two strong interference signals may drop into the band of the receiver and then generates interference. The capability to resist inter-modulation is a feature of the receiver. If you want to eliminate the inter-modulation interference by installing a filter, you need to install a receive filter in the interfered system. ACS Adjacent channel selectivity (ACS) is a protection index to determine the capability of a receive filter. ACS refers to the capability to receive the power of the local in band channel when the interference signal from the adjacent frequency exists. ACS is the ratio of the receive filter attenuation on the assigned channel frequency to the receive filter attenuation on the adjacent channel(s). Hence, ACS is the ratio of the receive filter loss on the designated channel to the loss on the adjacent channel.
ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage power Ratio (ACLR) is measure of transmitter performance and it is defined as the ratio of the transmitted power to the power measured after a receiver filter in the adjacent RF channel. Alternatively, it can be referred to as the ratio of the average power on the designated frequency point to the average power on the adjacent channel. ACLR represents the suppression capability of the transmit filter to the adjacent channel. As shown in the figure below, ACLR is the dB value of C (total transmit power of the designated frequency point) subtracting D (total in-band leakage power of the adjacent channel). The adjacent channel may be used by the same system or a different system. The bandwidth is determined based on the system in the adjacent channel. ACLR was also formerly called Adjacent Channel Power Ratio and ACLR is specified in the 3GPP standard.
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ACIR It is difficult to separate ACLR and ACS because they coexist; therefore, ACLR and ACS are usually considered together. The result of the consideration is Adjacent Channel Interference Ratio (ACIR) and ACIR is the ratio of the total power transmitted from a source (base station or UE) to the total interference power affecting a victim receiver, resulting from both transmitter and receiver imperfections. The formula is as follows:
The interference in the adjacent channel affects both the system coverage and system capacity. When near-far effect exists, interference from the adjacent channel greatly affects the system coverage, and may even cause the dead zone.
As shown in the preceding figure, when the terminal in system A enters system B, the interference power of system B to system A is even greater than the useful power of system A. Therefore, the dead zone occurs, where the terminal cannot access the network. In the uplink, the limiting design factor is the UE transmitter, which will dominate the uplink interference. The reason is that ACLRUE << ACSBS, which implies that uplink ACIR ACLRUE. Thus, in an uplink simulation, it is essentially the UE ACLR performance that is simulated. In the downlink, the limiting design factor is the UE receiver, which will dominate the downlink interference. The reason is that ACSUE << ACLRBS, which implies that downlink ACIR ACSUE. A downlink simulation will thus essentially be a simulation of UE ACS performance. OFFSET/BW/GB Figure below is the relationship of the Offset (frequency offset value), BW (channel bandwidth) and Guard Band.
For LTE, sensitivity is calculated on per subcarrier rather than the entire channel allocation as in GSM, WCDMA or WiMAX because it is the basic bandwidth that needs to be demodulated by each UE. In actual component implementation level, receivers IF bandwidth and noise coefficient are affected by the specific circuits and can never reach the theoretical value or optimum value from a pure analog circuitry perspective. Assume that the external receive intra-frequency spurious interference has the feature of the quasi-white noise, the influence of the interference to the system is that the interference adds to the original equivalent noise of the system and then raises the receive noise level of the system. Table 5-1 lists the receive background noise rise level due to the presence of the external interference at level specified. Table 5-1 Increase of background noise due to the presence of interference levels
Original system noise level / new interferer level (dB) Total noise level in system (compared with before) after new interferer is included (dB) Decrease of system receive sensitivity (dB)
20 0.04 0.04
16 0.1 0.1
12 0.37 0.37
10 0.4 0.4
9 0.5 0.5
6 0.97 0.97
3 1.76 1.76
0 3 3
In general, the new total interference increase from original due to extra interferer can be represented by: 10.log(1+10^(P/10)) P = new interferer level compared to the original level in dB. Assume that the original noise level of the system is 1 w: 1. The interference level is 0 dB lower than the original noise level of the system, that is, the interference level is also 1 w. The total noise level of the system is (1 + 1 = 2 w). Therefore, after the system is interfered, the total noise level increase is as follows: 10 log (2 w/1 w = 2) = 3 dB. 2. The interference level is 3 dB lower than the original noise level of the system, that is, the interference level is 0.5 times of the original noise level (1/103/10 = 0.5), that is, 0.5 w. The total noise level of the system is 1 + 0.5 = 1.5 w. Therefore, after the system is interfered, the total noise level increase is as follows: 10 log (1.5 w/1 w = 1.5) = 1.76 dB. 3. The other values are calculated in the similar way: As shown in the preceding table, when the original receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 0.4 dB, the allowed interference level must be 10 dB lower than the original receive noise level of the system. When the original receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 0.1 dB, the allowed interference level must be 16 dB lower than the original receive noise level of the system. When the interference level is equal to the original receive noise level of the system, the receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 3 dB. In the broadband system, the allowed interference level is generally 6 dB lower than the original receive noise coefficient of the system. Therefore, the original receiver sensitivity of the system decreases by 1 dB.
congestion, network coverage and capacity. How to reduce or eliminate interference is one of the key tasks in network planning and optimization. The decrease of sensitivity is the most direct influence of interference, which results in the decrease of coverage radius. Table 5-2 lists the relationship between the decrease of sensitivity and the decrease of coverage radius (calculated based on the classic propagation model Okumura-Hata, with the eNodeB antenna height of 30 m). Table 5-2 Relationship between the decrease of sensitivity and the decrease of coverage
Decrease of Sensitivity (dB) 0.4 1 2 3 5 10 Decrease of Coverage Radius 3% 6.37% 12.33% 17.91% 28.03% 48.21% Decrease of Coverage Area 6% 12.33% 23.14% 32.61% 48.21% 73.17%
Scenarios (a) and (c) described above clearly indicate inter-carrier interference. Implementation of time synchronization equipment such as IEEE 1588v2 as discussed in Chapter three will help to resolve most of the asynchronous systems problem.
Figure 5-9 Interference due to Propagation Difference To resolve this problem in LTE TDD system, a longer guard band period can be selected between DwPTS and UpPTS as discussed in Chapter 3.5. For FDD system, the delay in propagation can be resolved by using a smaller Cyclic Prefix of 6 (Extended CP) instead of 7 (Normal CP). The CP is a copy of the end of a symbol inserted at the beginning. If this guard period is longer than the delay spread in the radio channel, the inter-symbol interference can be completely eliminated if each OFDM symbol is cyclically extended into the guard period (by copying the end of the symbol to the start to create the cyclic prefix). By sampling the received signal at the optimum time, the receiver can remove the time domain interference between adjacent symbols caused by multi-path delay spread in the radio channel. Cyclic prefix lengths for the downlink and the uplink are shown in the figure below. In the downlink case, f represents the 15 kHz or 7.5 kHz subcarrier spacing. The normal cyclic prefix of 144 x Ts protects against multi-path delay spread of up to 1.4 km. The longest cyclic prefix provides protection for delay spreads of up to 10 km.
The interference scenarios can be classified into the following four types: eNodeB->UE, UE->eNodeB, eNodeB>eNodeB, and UE->UE, as listed in Table 5-3 Please note the TDD system can be either WiMAX or LTE TDD Table 5-3 TDD/TDD interference classification
Interference Scenario (1) (2) (3) Interference Type eNodeB->UE eNodeB->eNodeB UE->UE UE->eNodeB Risk Normal Severe Severe Normal Victim Link DL UL DL UL
Table 5-4 Impact of UE->UE interference to the network coverage Monte Carlo Spread
Downlink Coverage Probability Guard Band (MHz) 0 Frequency Band 2.5 G No Interference from Other System 98.6% With Interference from Other System 98.2%
Figure 5-13 Co-Site GuardBand (MHz) between LTE Carrier of different Bandwidth &GSM
LTE1800 eNodeB supports the compact bandwidths by strict filer and RB punching. Compact bandwidths for 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz are supported. Compact bandwidth configuration helps operators make full use of anomalous frequency bands and reduce the waste of frequency fragment. Compact bandwidth need not to accord with standard bandwidth; Compact bandwidth produces higher throughput and better user experience. Compact bandwidth is completely transparent to UE and has no impact to R8/R9 UE. 148Mbps downlink speed rate in trial test with 20MHz LTE bandwidth for LTE1800.
Figure 5-16 Buffer Zone for LTE and GSM Co-existence Deployment
The final implementation will certainly be more complex due to coverage variations, traffic requirement, interRAT as well as possible frequency planning arrangement but buffer zone concept will remain a feasible option for LTE and GSM co-existence.
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Figure 5-17 Co-location Antenna Configuration for LTE 2.6G and GSM 900/1800MHz
Figure 5-18 Co-location Setup for LTE 2.6G and GSM 900/1800MHz with RCU and TMA
The following Configuration is not recommended due to the extra component requirement and addition insertion loss introduced.
Figure 5-19 Co-Location Configuration Not Recommended for LTE 2.6G and GSM
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II. Same Frequency and Same RFU Co-Location The example below shows possible configuration of eNodeB when both GSM and LTE are operating at 1800MHz and the two technologies are sharing the same RF output (e.g. Single RAN configuration)
Figure 5-20 Co-location Setup for LTE/GSM 1800MHz with RCU and without/with TMA
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III. Physical Spacing Requirement Physical distance is the separation between the outer physical casing (not from the center of antenna) with both antennae being placed perfectly flat and parallel. Based on field measurement results, a horizontal separation of 0.5m or vertical separation of 0.2m between antennae can meet the isolation requirement for co-locating LTE at 2.6G with GSM900/DCS1800.
OR
Figure 5-21 Antenna Physical Configuration Recommendation under LTE/GSM Co-location
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IV. Different Frequency and Different RFU Co-location V. Antenna Feeder Solution Proposal If same frequency and same RFU Co-Location, we recommend share feeder and two-port antenna; If same frequency and different RFU Co-Location, we recommend different feeder and co- four port antenna; If different frequency and different RFU Co-Location, we recommend different feeder and co- four port antenna.
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Figure 5-23 Antenna Isolation due to LTE TDD and WiMAX Co-location
Figure 5-24 Physical Separation due to LTE TDD and WiMAX Co-existence but not co-located
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The aim of LTE capacity dimensioning is to obtain the PS throughput supported in the network based on the bandwidth available and channel condition of each user. A high level summary for capacity planning process and input requirement is listed in the diagram below:
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Most of these parameters are similar to those used for 2G/3G network dimensioning and by carefully considering the contribution of all these parameters, network planning engineers can determine which customer service level can be met. Nevertheless, the arrival of smart phone, which has completely different behavior compared to feature phones, is going to add a new level of challenges to planning engineers. They frequently changes state between "idle" and "connected", its fast dormancy feature forces the terminal to switch to an "idle" state every six to eight seconds in order to save battery power, and the service heartbeat mechanism periodically communicates with the application server. According to signaling statistics of operator S in Singapore, one smart phone creates 14 times the signaling load of a feature phone. In addition, the increasing popular level of applications like twitter will hasten the evolution of customer behavior and
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traffic model in the next few years. Average subscriber usage at busy hour has rapidly increased from the low 10kbps (since R99/1xRTT) to be in the mid to high 30kbps right now.
From a EUTRAN design perspective, how customer chooses the proportion and combination of these different services will be translated into bits per second requirement for the customer network. Although the dynamic nature of E-UTRAN capacity limiting factors listed below will affect the final user throughput and capacity, it is essential that the network is dimensioned properly in the design stage to reduce the impact of services offer booking and short term surges in services due to unexpected events.
Operating Frequency band RF Coverage - RSRP Impact of Interference on Capacity Signal Interference Noise Ratio and Adaptive Coding Radio (Transmitter) Power Availability Spectrum Bandwidth Availability Channel Card (LPPB) Processing Capacity S1/X2 Capacity Application of Special Antenna Technologies (MIMO/BF/Virtual MIMO) Scheduling Mode Actual Cell Site Placement in Relation to Traffic UE Capability User Traffic Mix and Call Modeling Time Slot Allocation for Uplink and Downlink TDD specific
when it comes to capacity planning. The frequency propagation and penetration characteristics will determine the number of sites that need to be built in order to cover the designated area chosen by the Operator. This in turn will decide the final capacity that can be offer for commercial services. The figure below gives a high level view of the likely difference in coverage strength offered by the different major frequency band currently chosen for LTE deployment.
With its shorter coverage range, 2.6GHz is more likely to be used and is best suited for urban environment which also demand higher capacity within a smaller area. On the other hand, 800MHz is more likely to be used for rural applications due to the more extended coverage (e.g. Germany white spot wireless DSL project)
number of users increase. At the same time, the per user throughput also decrease as the number of users in the cell increases due to resources sharing. This clearly identifies interference control (either through cell coverage control, Downlink ICIC or efficient power control) as the most important factor in cell capacity protection.
In addition, We offer a separate antenna related technology in uplink, which is focusing on capacity improvement. This feature is called Uplink Virtual MIMO and it achieves uplink throughput by allocating same RB for different uplink users. Uplink Virtual MIMO can increase overall uplink spectral efficiency and hence increasing the overall uplink throughput. It is similar to a feature called CSM for WiMAX. The network will carefully select two users with the following characteristics: Highly uncorrelated in the Uplink Offer the best capacity improvement to the cell after combining Highest Max PFair output when the 2 users are combined together These selection criteria will allow users with the most uplink data need and most uncorrelated to be chosen first. Since those two users are highly uncorrelated, they can be easily removed from each others overall signal.
algorithm can bring the following benefits: 1) Flexible selection for the scheduling algorithm 2) Flexible configuration for QoS priority parameters 3) Strong QoS guarantee mechanism for different services 4) Optimal tradeoff among throughput, fairness, and the QoS We advanced scheduling algorithm includes Basic Scheduling, Enhanced Scheduling and VoIP Semi-persistent Scheduling.
6.3.12 UE Capability
It is important to remember that the composition and penetration of various UE types will also have an impact on the final achievable cell throughput level. A high concentration of relatively low end UEs will result in low resources utilization efficiency, thereby bringing down the overall cell throughput. This will certainly be depending on when the network is launched, pricing model of Operators as well as UE vendors as well as the form factors of UE offered at the time. The figure below summarizes the capability of UEs by their category. E.g. only Cat-5 UE can support 64QAM on uplink initially and will affect user uplink throughput.
6.3.14 Time Slot Allocation for Uplink and Downlink TDD specific
The time division nature of LTE TDD will also require radio engineers to consider how time slots are shared between uplink and downlink based on both customer input as well as commercial users usage pattern between uplink and downlink in that country. This will have a direct impact on the EUTRAN capacity. There are 7 time sharing configuration between Uplink and Downlink in LTE TDD as defined by 3GPP. They are shown in the figure below and in summary, they are (DL : UL) - 1:3 or 2:2 or 3:1 or 2:1 or 7:2 or 8:1 or 3:5
Besides time sharing configuration, there is also a need to define how uplink and downlink pilots are configured based on the Guard band requirement. The guard band duration is also a direct result of propagation delay requirement due to the designated cell coverage radius. Inadequate guard band provisioning will result in direct interference between users within the same cell due to difference in signal delay arrival. 3GPP has defined 9 different guard period configuration schemes for Operator to choose. They are listed in the figure below.
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Figure 6-10 Uplink-Downlink Pilot Time Slot and Guard band Configuration Schemes
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In general, the traffic on S1 interface is divided into two different plane, the control plane, which uses SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) developed by IETF for the purpose of transporting various signaling protocols over IP network, and the user plane, where GPRS tunneling protocol for user plane (GTPU) is adopted as the tunneling method.
Average service rate and packet size per handover Signaling overhead in control plane of X2 interface The throughput on X2 is negligible compared to that on S1. Similar to the S1 control plane throughput calculation, the throughput of X2 is estimated to be 3% of the throughput on S1 in order to simplify the dimensioning process.
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Although LTE capable terminal is required to rescan for LTE network after 6 minutes, this rescanning could be hindered by any active connections to UMTS/GSM during this period. The final delay period could also depend on individual UE manufacturers rescanning algorithm. Different Inter-RAT handover algorithms are listed below:
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Simulation Process 1. Create a simulation project. 2. Import mapsset the coordinate system. 3. Import site parameters. For existing sites, directly copy and paste the site parameters. For new sites, default parameters are automatically set but need adjustment. 4. Import the antennae of the eNodeB and terminal. 5. Set network parameters. 6. Set the Transmitter table. 7. Set the parameters of the eNodeB equipment. Set the Feeder Equipment. Set the eNodeB Equipment. Set the User Equipment. 8. Set the Transmitter global parameter. 9. Set the Clutter Classes parameter (standard square deviation of shadow fading). 10. Set the parameters of propagation models (including the propagation models for different geographic types). 11. Set the Predictions global parameter. Service setting. 12. Set the parameter of the traffic model. 13. Set prediction parameters. Terminal setting. User Profile setting. Environment setting. Set the Frequency Band. Mandatory. Mandatory. Mandatory, select one from two. Mandatory, select one from two. The antenna of the eNodeB is mandatory and that of the terminal is optional. Mandatory. Mandatory. Optional. Optional. Mandatory. Mandatory. Mandatory. Mandatory. Optional. Mandatory. Mandatory. Monte Carlo simulation setting. Monte Carlo simulation setting.
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3. Select LTE and then click OK. The LTE U-Net project is created. 4. Click on the toolbar or choose File>Save. The Save As dialog box is displayed.
5. Select the storage directory and name of the project from the Save Project File dialog box and save the file, as shown below.
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Maps related information can then be imported individually via highlighting each of the following
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Display of Coordinate Systems can be changed after importing either Clutter or Height information into the project. It can be changed by calling up the Map Setting function in the following way
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Parameter Code Name Indicates the code of the clutter class. Indicates the clutter class.
Description
Height
Indicates the average height of the clutter. Unit: m. Statistics that indicates height of the clutter above the ground. Indicates the height that above the DTM map if the DTM map is imported. Functional when the SPM model is used and not functional when the Cost-Hata model is used. The standard deviation is used to calculate the shadow fading margin. Unit: dB. Value range: 4-10 dB. The standard deviation is used to calculate prediction items. If it is not C/I prediction, the standard deviation of Model is used. Indicates the indoor loss of each clutter class. The indoor loss is used when buildings exist. The value is consistent with that of the Estimation tool, with a common value of 8-20 dB. If the indoor coverage is considered when estimating, indoor penetration loss should be considered.
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Field Name Channel Width (MHz) Start channel Last channel Excluded channels Frequency (DL) (MHz) Frequency (UL) (MHz)
Description Indicates the frequencies and has no impact on the calculation. Channel bandwidth. Indicates the bandwidth of each sector. The first channel that can be used, number normally starting from 0 (or any positive number). Related to the frequency width and channel bandwidth. The last channel that can be used. The channels between the first channel and last channel that cannot be used. Indicates the start frequency. Indicates the start frequency in the time division duplex (TDD) mode and the downlink start frequency in the frequency division duplex (FDD) mode. Indicates the FDD uplink start frequency.
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Description The default value is 30. The value range is from 0 to 231 Indicates the duplex mode. TDD (Time Division Duplex) or FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) mode.
A detail cell configuration layout will appear and numerous LTE specific parameters will appear.
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III. Setting MCS Parameter Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters Parameters/ Services/LTE/PUSCH MCS or PDSCH MCS]
Users can then set the value for each of the Uplink and Downlink MCS threshold separately. However, please doublecheck the default value in U-Net as it may differ from the actual requirement.
IV. Setting Reception Equipment Parameters Path: [Explorer / Data / Terminal / LTE / Reception Equipment]
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Users can then match the required MCS table accordingly to Uplink and Downlink table defined above through the selection tab shown below.
By clicking Cell reception equipment or Default UE reception equipment and then followed by clicking on MCS threshold, users can also view the MCS value format used in U-Net. V. Setting MIMO Configuration Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters] Set the number of Tx/Rx antennae per eNodeB transceiver here. Make sure all fields are displayed as well.
Path: [Explorer / Data / Traffic Parameters/Services/LTE/MIMO] Also set the number of Tx/Rx antennae per transceiver here for different services type
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Field Name Tx_Antennas Rx_Antennas SM_Supported SM_Gain (dB) Indicates the name of MIMO. Indicates the number of Tx antenna. Indicates the number of Rx antenna.
Description
All MIMO parameters must be set correctly in order to allow simulation to be performed correctly especially for MCS function.
Path: [Explorer / Data / Traffic Parameters/Terminals/LTE/MIMO] Set the number of Tx/Rx antennae per transceiver here for different terminal type
Then enable Space Multiplexing by checking the box under LTE Terminal folder. This will allow simulation to switch between SFBC and MCW where appropriate. Under U-NetV3R6 only downlink spatial multiplexing is enabled.
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Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters/Cell] To enable AMS (Automatic MIMO Switching), both the transceivers and terminals must have between 2 to 4 antennae in their configuration.
7.5.3 Equipment
Setting TMA Equipment Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters / Equipment / TMA Equipment]
Field Name Noise Figure Gain (UL) Loss (DL) Indicates the name of TMA equipment. Indicates the thermal noise of the equipment. Unit: dB. Indicate the reception gain. Unit: dB. Indicate the transmission losses. Unit: dB. Description
Setting Feeder Equipment Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters / Equipment / Feeder Equipment]
Field Name dB/100m Indicates the feeder name. Please refer to Chapter 4 for feeder loss at particular frequency. Unlike Atoll, it is better to include connector loss under jumper or miscellaneous loss as U-Net calculates cable loss by cable length. Description
Setting BTS Equipment Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters / Equipment / Site Equipment]
Field Name Noise Figure Description Indicates the Site Equipment Name, e.g. DBS 3900. Indicates the thermal noise parameter. The Default Noise Figure of U-Net is 2.3 dB.
The results should appear as below after importing file with correct format.
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By checking the corresponding box, the actual label will appear in an excel like table after the selection has taken place. Extra fields can also be added according to the users requirement
User adjusted propagation model can also be created by modifying the individual K parameters, diffraction method as well as effective height definition.
Drive test/CW data can be imported and then used for calibration which is performed in the following steps
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After choosing/creating an appropriate model for network design, this model can be assigned to each cell in the network accordingly within the Cell table Path: [Explorer / Network/ Transmitters / Cell /]
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Upon completion make sure the right selection is chosen under LTECell/Propagation Model
This will allow each clutter type to be assigned to an appropriate morphology type (Dense Urban/Urban/Suburban/ Rural) and saving the time needed for radio planner to assign different model for different cell.
Notes: Target Load/Target Iot for simulation, Actual Iot/Actual Load for coverage prediction
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I. Max Power The maximum power from the eNodeB by summing all the transmit paths. If eNodeB is a 2x20W configuration, the Max power is 46dBm. An eNodeB of 2x40W will be 49dBm II. RS Power This is the power allocated to the Reference signal and will be dependent on the bandwidth as well as the number of RE (15kHz) channel allocation. For example, if there is 2x20W at a 20MHz spectrum while Power Boosting (PB) = 1, then the RS power RSRE Power = 43dBm (20w) Log10 1200 (100 RB) + 3 (PB = 1) = 15.2dBm Since different RE will be used for RS at different antennae, U-Net is avoiding any uncertainty in UE RSRP measurement methods by providing only a single path RS power. It is likely the actual RSRP measured in the field be higher due to the implementation of downlink MIMO. III. PB Power Boosting with a range of [0, 1, 2, 3], this value is defaulted to be 1 and represent the number of extra RE used for the addition of Reference signal transmission.
IV. Other Channel to RS Power value of other channels such as PCFICH, PHICH, PDCCH, PBCH, SCH can all be offset against the Reference signal power.
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I. Target Load (UL/DL) The number of RB allowed to be used for Simulation of traffic in cell (out of all available RB). Normally, a value of 1 (100%) is given II. Actual Load (UL/DL) The number of RB allowed to be used for Prediction of traffic in cell (out of all available RB). Normally, a value of 1 (100%) is given.
III. Target IoT (UL) Increase in uplink interference level created by Simulation traffic. Typical value is 2-4dB which corresponds to the uplink interference margin in link budget. IV. Actual IoT (UL) Increase in uplink interference level used in Prediction. Typical value is 2-4dB which corresponds to the uplink interference margin in link budget.
During Simulation, U-Net will gather Target load (UL/DL) and Target IoT (UL) from the configuration information. Radio planner can then choose to commit the resulting values or not as the Actual Load and Actual IoT.
V. Neighbor load Impact estimation due to interference from Neighbor cell can be set under Properties function of a particular
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Prediction. Path: [Explorer / Operation/ Prediction]. If Neighbor load is not selected, Actual Load value of the neighboring sector will be chosen by U-Net in neighbor load calculation. Normally, Neighbor load value will be of 50 75%.
Before running the allocation, ensure the band and channel index shown below are selected
I. Channel Index Path: [Explorer / Network/ Transceiver / Cell /Normal Parameter] Value of Channel Index will determine the frequency reuse pattern. Under Single frequency reuse (1x1), all cells will be labeled as using Channel 0 only. With multiple frequency reuse (U-Net only support 1x3 currently), user can select N Channel index (N = 3 under 1x3) and frequency planning function will allocate different Channel to different cell.
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In U-Net, the first step is to select the frequency Reuse pattern, then select the Channel index that can be used for frequency planning before running the allocation. Upon completion, the frequencies will be allocated according to the table below. An example output is shown based on 1x3 selection where Channel 0 -2 are chosen.
II. Edge Frequency Style The style corresponds to the frequency pattern chosen and only applicable to (1x1). Basically, it shows which 1/3 part of the frequency has been chosen by Automatic frequency plan for the downlink and uplink of a particular sector. A graphically representation of style for downlink is shown below.
III. ICIC Switch Path: [Explorer / Network/ Transceiver / Cell /Advanced Parameter] ICIC function for Uplink and Downlink can be enabled separately for simulation.
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Various settings in Edge frequency Style, ICIC switch and Channel index will not affect the prediction results as these are mainly used for traffic simulation.
II. Schedule Policy Planning engineers can select between Proportional Fairness, Round Robin or Max C/I for scheduling policy. PF is the default and recommended policy.
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III. Max Schedule User Controls how many users can be scheduled within a single TTI (1ms) for uplink and downlink separately. Default value is 10. U-Net scheduler can simulation multiple TTI condition if the number of data transferring users (e.g. 30) exceed the max schedule users (e.g. 10).
Most common antennae categories are already included as part of U-Net standard tools without any need of new input. However, user may also need to configure special antennae due to customers requirement by incorporating data into the 4 tables under Antenna New option.
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Parameter
Description Indicates the antenna name. The naming rule of the U-Net antenna consists of the following four parts: Half power angle Antenna gain Electrical tilt Application frequency Indicates the antenna manufacturer Indicate the antenna gain. Unit: dBi. Indicates the mechanical tilt of the antenna. This parameter is not used in calculation.
Name
I. Horizontal Pattern
Description Indicates the horizontal or vertical beam figure of the antenna. Indicates the antenna angle. Value range: 0 359 Indicates the attenuation value of the current transmission angle. Unit: dB. Antenna gain of this angle is represented by: Antenna Gain() = Standard Gain Attenuation() The antenna angle is from 0 to 359, giving all angles and corresponding fading values.
Att. (dB)
Other Properties The U-Net defines three parameters for antenna data: Beamwidth, Max Frequency and Min Frequency. However, all these values are for labeling purposes only and dont affect prediction results
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Description Indicates the antenna vertical beamwidth. Indicates the maximum supported frequency. Indicates the minimum supported frequency.
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Description Indicates the name of the current transmitter. Indicates the name of the site to which the current transmitter belongs. Click this button to set the properties of the selected site.
Description Indicate the offsets of coordinates X and Y of the current transmitter relative to the site location. User can simulate a remote transmitter by setting this parameter.Equipment Allow user to fill in total loss or add individual component such as TMA separately Indicates the tower-mounted amplifier. Indicates the feeder type and will recall feeder table. Indicates the power allocation to the transmit equipment. Default value = 1 Indicates the transmit feeder length and the receive feeder length. The feeder loss is equal to the feeder loss per unit length multiplied by the total feeder length. Indicates the miscellaneous transmit loss and the miscellaneous receive loss. The U-Net software does not establish a loss model for each piece of equipment. You can define additional losses, such as combiner loss and power splitter loss.
Miscellaneous Losses
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III. LTE Cell Most of the critical parameters inside LTE cell table have been mentioned before and the content is shown here again.
Parameter Active
Description Indicates whether the current transmitter is activated. If Activate is selected, the current transmitter is activated. A transmitter not yet activated does not participate in any calculation. Main Antenna Selectable between High Speed, Low Speed and Highway Click this button to view and modify the properties of the Advanced Parameters, Neighborlist or Propagation Models related to this transceiver.
High Speed
Frequency Band
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Parameter Main Antenna Model 1st Sector Azimuth Indicates the transmitter antenna.
Description
Indicates the azimuth of the first sector for a N sector site. The U-Net software evenly allocates the azimuth of the transmitter according to the azimuth of the first sector and the number of sectors of the eNodeB.
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7.7.2 Environments
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Environment/Any environment type/ Properties] I. General
Parameter Name User Mobility Density Indicates the name of the environment type.
Description Indicates the user type. For details on the setting of the user type in User Profiles, please see in the section below. Indicates the mobility type corresponding to the user type. For details on the setting of the mobility type in User Profiles, please see in the section below. Indicates the user density in subscribers/km2.
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Description Indicates the user distribution weight corresponding to the clutter class. Indicates the proportion of indoor users corresponding to the clutter class. For indoor users, indoor loss is added during the simulation. The indoor loss per clutter class is user settable in the clutter properties. Please refer to 7.4.3 Properties of Clutter Class.
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Parameter Name Service Terminal Calls/hour Duration UL Volume (Kbytes) DL Volume (Kbytes) Indicates the name of the user profile.
Description Indicates the service used by the current user. Please refer details on the setting of Service to Services section Indicates the terminal of the current service. Please refer to Terminal section for setting detail Indicates the number of calls per hour. Indicates the duration of a call in seconds. Indicates the uplink user volume. Indicates the downlink user volume.
7.7.4 Terminals
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Terminals Profiles/Any Terminal type/ Properties]
Description Indicates the name of the current terminal type. Indicates the type of equipment used by the current terminal. Defined under Path: [Explorer/ Data/Traffic Parameters/ Terminals Profiles/Any Terminal type/ Properties]
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Parameter
Description Indicates the minimum transmit power allowed for the current terminal. During the simulation, the U-Net software calculates the transmit power of the terminal required to meet the current network QoS requirements. If the required transmit power of the terminal is lower than this value, the terminal transmits signals using this minimum transmit power. Indicates the maximum transmit power allowed for the current terminal. During the simulation, the U-Net software calculates the transmit power of the terminal required to meet the current network QoS requirements. If the transmit power of the terminal is greater than this value, the terminal is denied by the U-Net and limit the transmit power to Tx Max. Indicates the receive loss of the terminal. Indicates the noise figure of the terminal. Antenna Indicates the model of the terminal antenna. In general, this parameter should be left blank. Indicates the antenna gain of the terminal. Indicates the antenna technology used by the terminal. Indicates the number of transmit antennas and the number of receive antennas at the terminal side.
Min Power
Max Power
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7.7.6 Services
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Services/LTE/Any Services type/ Properties]
Description Indicates the service type, which can be set to Voice or Data. Indicates the GBR service. You can select the GBR service only after selecting Data. Indicates the priority of the current service. During the simulation, low-priority services are denied first when the cell resources reach the upper limit. 1 represents the lowest priority. Indicates the uplink/downlink activation factor. This parameter is required for only the CS services. Uplink: uplink activation factor. Value range is from 0 to 1. Downlink: downlink activation factor. Value range is from 0 to 1. Indicates the rate of the CS services. The unit is kbit/s. The values are 4.75, 5.15, 5.9, 6.7, 7.4, 7.95, 10.2, and 12.2. Indicates the uplink or downlink maximum throughput per service Indicates the uplink or downlink minimum throughput of the service. Indicates the average throughput requested by the service (using in creating a traffic map based on environment only). Indicates the uplink/downlink transmission rate. Uplink transmission rate. Value range is 0.01 to 1. Downlink transmission rate. Value range is 0.01 to 1. Indicates the block error rate. Value range is 0 to 100. This parameter is used to calculate the application layer throughput. Indicates the fixed uplink/downlink overhead, which is the length added to an encapsulated packet during the transmission at the MAC or RLC layer. Uplink: fixed uplink overhead. Value is 0 to 232. Downlink: fixed downlink overhead. Value is 0 to 232. Indicates the body loss, which is usually 3 dB for voice services and not considered for data services.
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Activity Factor
AMR Rate Max Throughput Min Throughput Average Throughput Transmission Efficiency IBER
Offset
Body loss
Parameter Map based on Environments (Raster) Map based on User Profiles (vectors) Map based on Transceiver Coverage
Description Indicates the traffic map based on environments. Indicates the traffic map based on user profiles. Indicates the traffic map based on the coverage.
I. Creating a Traffic Map Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Traffic Map/New Map] Simply select the Map type and hit Create Map II. Map based on Environments (Raster) Select the Environment type (DU/U/SU/RU) as discussed in previous section for a particular Polygon chosen to create Environment traffic map. The Environment type will have the user type and their density distributed according to clutter weighting defined under Environment.
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Parameter User profile Mobility Density Indicates the user profile. Indicates the mobility type.
Description
Description Indicates the name of the area/polyon to which the vector area belongs. Indicates the traffic density of the vector area in subscribers/km2.
IV. Map based on Transceiver Coverage Creating a Traffic Map The transceiver selected will be based on the Prediction Group chosen. A prediction group will only be created after a prediction has been carried out. So only transceiver that had prediction information attached will be part of any prediction group. Path for Predictions are: [Explorer/Operation/Predictions/] Setting the Properties of a Traffic Map Path: [Explorer/Geo/Traffic/Map based on Transmitters and Services & Map based on Transmitters and Services (#Users)/ Properties]
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Description Indicate the distribution ratios of terminals and mobility of the service or user. If the total ratio is not equal to 100%, the U-Net software automatically recalculates the ratios. Indicate the distribution weight and indoor distribution ratio of the service or user for different clutter classes.
The input here is the number of users for each service type
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Parameter Prediction Group Tx_ID LTEFTP (UL) LTEFTP (DL) LTE (UL) VideoConferencing LTE (DL) VideoConferencing LTEVoIP (UL) LTEVoIP (DL) LTE (UL) WebBrowsing LTE (DL) WebBrowsing Selects a coverage prediction group
Description Indicates the transmitter name, which is set in the properties of a single transmitter in the Transmitters folder. Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the FTP service. Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the FTP service. Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the video conferencing service Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the video conferencing service Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the VoIP service Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the VoIP service Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the Web browsing service Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the Web browsing service
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I. General information
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Resolution
Indicates the resolution of the prediction map. If the precision is not specified for a prediction, the default precision (50m) is used for the prediction. Otherwise, the precision specified for the prediction is used. In general, the prediction precision is the same as the map precision. Indicates the handover threshold of intra-frequency cells. This parameter is valid during the prediction of the counters Handover Area and Overlapping Zones Indicates the handover threshold of inter-frequency cells. This parameter is valid during the prediction of the counters Handover Area and Overlapping Zones. Indicates the area calculated in coverage prediction. Loading of Neighbour cells. Please refer to Load Setting section Indicates whether shadow fading is considered in the calculation Indicates the probability of cell edge coverage, ie, the probability that the receive signal strength is stronger than the specified threshold at the edge of a cell Indicates whether penetration loss is considered in the calculation Indicates whether frequency offset is considered in the calculation. If RS Shifting is selected during the prediction of the counter DL RS SINR, it indicates that the interference is calculated according to values of cell PCIs after the modulo operation is performed. If cell PCIs are not planned, only the interference on the RS is taken into consideration.
Intra-Frequency Handover (dB) Inter-Frequency Handover (dB) Polygon Neighbour load With Shadow Cell Edge Coverage Probability Indoor Coverage
RS Shifting
II. Advanced
Indicates the name of a frequency band Indicates the ARFCN corresponding to a frequency band
III. Condition
Parameter Parameter on the left of the inequality Parameter in the middle of the inequality Parameter on the right of the inequality Service Terminal Mobility Interferer Reception Threshold (dBm)
Description Indicates the lower limit of the predicted value. No calculation is performed if the value of the parameter in the middle of the equality is lower than this value. Indicates the method used for the current prediction. Indicates the upper limit of the predicted value. No calculation is performed if the value of the parameter in the middle of the equality is higher than this value. Indicates a service type Indicates a terminal type Indicates a mobility type Indicates the interference threshold
IV. Viewing Prediction Results User can review the results both statistically or in table format
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7.8.2 Simulation
Path: [Explorer/Operation/Simulations/]
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Traffic Map needs to be created prior to running simulations. Once it is ready, Planner can adjust the Source Traffic table as below.
Parameter Global Scaling Factor Select Traffic Maps Select Calculate Area
Description Indicates the scaling factor of user number. Number of users = Size x User density x Scaling factor of user number Indicates a traffic map to be selected. Indicates a calculation area to be selected.
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Parameter
Description Indicates the number of transmission time intervals (TTIs) within a snapshot. U-Net adopts the semi-dynamic simulation to obtain the instantaneous network information as per TTI within a snapshot. A larger TTI count allow better reflection of scheduling, therefore increases the precision of simulation results but requires longer calculation period. Indicates the shadow fading factor on the base station side. Indicates the uplink IoT convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a network is converged. Indicates the uplink load convergence threshold, which is use for checking whether a network is converged. Indicates the downlink load convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a network is converged. Indicates the uplink throughput convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a network is converged. Indicates the downlink throughput convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a network is converged. Indicates whether TTI Bundling is considered. Indicates whether the virtual multiple-input and multiple-output (VMIMO) is considered. Indicates whether interference rejection combining (IRC) is considered. Indicates whether hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) gain is considered. Indicates whether the location of user is fixed.
Number of TTI
Site Corr UL IOT Convergence Threshold UL Load Convergence Threshold (%) DL Load Convergence Threshold (%) UL Throughput Convergence Threshold (%) DL Throughput Convergence Threshold (%) TTI Bundling VMIMO IRC HARQ Fix User Position
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Individual users simulation results can also be seen by pointing the mouse on top of the user locations within the Simulation
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II. Simulation Results Various results can be obtained from the simulation results, including cell loading, IoT, and throughput results. Planners can then see the average value as well as the distributions of these results graphically.
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7.9.1 Profile
Purpose of this window is to display the terrain profile in relation to signal loss.
Description Indicates the transmitter. After you specify the transmitter, you can view the profile of the path from a point on the map to this transmitter. Choose to display either the path loss or the DL RSRP at the Cursor. User enter the required value and Margin needed will be displayed
7.9.2 Reception
Description Indicates the names and signal strength of all the cells available for the terminal at the Cursor location
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Description Indicates a simulation or a group of simulations, whose simulation results are used to simulate the current analysis environment. Indicate the type of the terminal, moving speed, service, and the permitted access carrier of the terminal represented by .
7.9.4 Result
This page displays the coordinates and altitude of the current cursor location, the class of clutter in the position where the terminal is located as well as list of cells from which signals can be received,the received signal strength and Clutter class
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Parameter RSRP FitnessWeight RS SINR Fitness Weight RS SINR Target Ratio Calculate Now
Description Indicates the weight of the RSRP performance counter of a cell. Value range is from 0 to 1. RS SINR Fitness Weight + RSRP Fitness Weight = 1 Indicates the weight of the RS SINR performance counter of a cell. Value range is from 0 to 1. RS SINR Fitness Weight + RSRP Fitness Weight = 1 Indicates the percentage of the downlink RS SINR that reaches the specified threshold in the selected calculation area. Indicates whether to perform the RF auto-planning immediately
Parameter
Description Indicates the size of a population, that is, the total number of individuals in a population. In U-Net, an individual represents the configuration combination of the RF parameters related to all the cells in a calculation area. Individuals of Population Size are calculated in each iteration and the greater the number of individuals, the more accurate the planning result is, but the longer time the calculation takes. Value range is from 10 to 40. Indicates the maximum/minimum downtilt angle. Value range is from -90 to 90. Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the downtilt angle.The value range is from 0 to 180. Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the downtilt angle. The value range is from -180 to 0. Indicates the step length at which the downtilt angle is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to 90. Indicates the maximum/minimum transmit power of the reference signal. Value range is from -32,768 to 32,768. Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the reference signal. Value range is from 0 to 32,768 Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the reference signal. Value range is from -32,768 to 0. Indicates the step length at which the reference signal is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to 32,768. Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the azimuth. Value range is from 0 to 360. Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the azimuth. Value range is from -360 to 0. Indicates the step length at which the azimuth is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to 360.
Population Size
Antenna Tilt Max or Min Value Antenna Tilt Max Range Antenna Tilt Min Range Tilt Step Size Reference Power Max or Min (dBm) Maximum Range Minimum Range Power Step Size Antenna Azimuth Max Range Antenna Azimuth Min Range Antenna Azimuth Step Size
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Clutter Name unclassified sea inland_water wetland barren grass/agriculture rangeland woodland forest village suburban dense_suburban urban dense_urban core_urban building_blocks industrial airport open_in_urban open
Area (sq.km.) 0 0.05 1.17 0 0 3.71 0 2.31 0 0 0 0.61 0.52 2.94 3.42 0.01 0.83 0.01 0.2 14.35
Percentage (%) 0.0 0.2 3.9 0.0 0.0 12.3 0.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 1.7 9.8 11.4 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.6 47.6
Name unclassified sea inland_water wetland barren grass/agriculture rangeland woodland forest village suburban dense_suburban urban dense_urban core_urban building_blocks industrial airport open_in_urban open
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The above coverage prediction plots show that in 95% of the planning area, DL and UL RSRP levels are higher than -115dBm, PDSCH SINR and PUSCH SINR levels are higher than -5dB, DL and UL MAC Peak Throughput levels are higher than 5Mbps. The network design leads to a good coverage situation.
% 0 0 0 0 80 20
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Clutter Class unclassified sea inland_water wetland barren grass/agriculture rangeland woodland forest village suburban dense_suburban urban dense_urban core_urban building_blocks industrial airport open_in_urban open
Weight 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
% Indoor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
II. Simulation Result Users are created randomly in the Monte Carlo Simulation. One of five Snapshots is presented in figure below. Part of the simulation result is presented in the table below.
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Site 403 403 403 405 405 405 4050 4050 4050 4051 4051 4051 4052 4052 4052
Transceiver 4031 4032 4033 4051 4052 4053 40501 40502 40503 40511 40512 40513 40521 40522 40523
Tx Power (dBm) 41.17 41.12 41.20 41.20 41.13 41.11 41.21 41.07 41.14 41.13 41.16 41.15 41.15 41.10 41.14
IoT(UL) (dB) 5.60 5.67 5.29 8.54 8.35 7.08 5.53 6.28 5.57 9.51 5.95 6.25 6.81 8.72 6.93
Load (UL) 0.89 0.94 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.85 0.90 0.93 0.95 0.91 0.92 0.98 0.99 0.99
Load (DL) 0.94 0.90 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.99 0.92 0.98 0.93 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.87 1.00
MAC Throughput (UL) (kbps) 22,750.17 20,597.09 28,958.01 23,103.69 15,406.92 20,397.32 24,937.39 22,811.09 26,540.54 14,012.50 14,103.35 17,009.39 20,963.90 20,852.64 30,605.76
MAC Throughput (DL) (kbps) 30,452.48 26,731.86 33,994.38 24,083.91 23,570.73 29,832.70 34,495.55 29,829.18 30,793.67 22,644.85 27,611.93 30,454.95 28,689.63 27,229.36 31,372.96
Cell throughput is the benchmark to evaluate the system capacity. The cell throughput statistics results (both downlink and uplink) are presented in the figures below. It shows that over 95% cells can reach over 15Mbps DL throughput and 10Mbps UL throughput in the target area. Cell capacity of this simulation case is good enough.
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KPI Architecture
The above KPI classification fully considers the customer experience and focuses on the Quality of Experience, providing a wide range of network KPIs to reflect network factors that are relative to the service quality, using industry standards as reference to define network counters and KPIs.
During the phase of preliminary acceptance before commercial launch, KPIs will be derived from the drive test analysis and stationary measurements, and this analysis and measurement are on the basis of cluster which constitutes a group of sites (20-40 sites). Statistics KPIs are not proposed and measured at this stage as the traffic is insufficient, statistics will not eligible statistical result without enough samples. After on-going optimization while the traffic keeps increasing after commercial launch, the final acceptance of the whole network performance on the basis of statistics will be implemented. However, the KPI values of statistics probably might not be same with those in drive test due to different calculations and considerations.
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clarified here if it has not be done so before any detail planning activities are to begin. It is also worth noting here although the bits/Hz value will not change with different frequency band (i.e. per cell capacity is bandwidth not frequency band dependent), the final capacity offer by the network will be different due to the coverage requirement. This is mainly because the final site count is more likely to be determined by coverage requirement and the capacity offered by the network is the product of site count x capacity per site.
penetration margin and slow fading margin in the link budget. If customer focus is just in covering dense urban area, it will be inappropriate to design a radio network with solid coverage everywhere (suburban/rural alike) where customer do not appreciate the value or return on their investment.
suburban usage, home DSL replacement package, shutting down of existing data network and migrating users to new LTE networks)
At certain cell site sectors, antenna orientation and tilt may need to be adjusted to avoid interference from external sources and existing customer network configuration may give hints in this direction. Although external interference sometimes could be unavoidable due to various reasons, ideally, radio engineers should choose a spectrum that is relatively clean in both the uplink and downlink for new LTE systems deployment. Finally, interference increase due to traffic loading is always an important consideration especially when subscriber number increases. Careful planning of location update border and coverage control remains two of the most important techniques in resolving this problem.
Radio engineer should also discuss with customer to ensure any sites needing extended coverage are addressed by using the Long CP configuration as discussed in Chapter 3 and 6.
factor will help to improve coverage perception and reduce cell site count as RSRP is always a major requirement from customer. However, once network traffic grows steadily, there will be a need to scale back power boosting as Power Boosting consumes extra RE that could have been used for traffic The higher the MIMO order, the more RE will be consumed More new sites are likely to be added to enhance coverage as well as capacity so Power boosting will indeed have a negative impact on coverage control in this situation.
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10.2.1 Frequency
Antennas can be classified as single-band antennas (narrow-band antennas), wide-band antennas, dual-band antennas, triple-band antennas, etc
10.2.2 Directivity
Antennas can be omnidirectional, sector or directive. Omni-directional antennas radiate roughly the same pattern all around the antenna in a complete 360 pattern. The most popular types of omnidirectional antennas are the dipole and the ground plane. Sectorial antennas radiate primarily in a specific area. The beam can be as wide as 180 degrees, or as narrow as 60 degrees. Directional or directive antennas are antennas in which the beamwidth is much narrower than in sector antennas. They have the highest gain and therefore used for long distance coverage. Types of directive antennas are the Yagi, the biquad, the horn, the helicoidal, the patch antenna, the parabolic dish, and many others.
Power capacity Impedance Third order intermodulation The mechanical specifications of antenna include: Dimensions Weight Number Input ports Port connector type (e.g. N or DIN) Wind load
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The antenna gain is relevant to the number of oscillator units, horizontal and vertical beamwidth.
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10.3.4 Beamwidth
The beamwidth is also called the half power beamwidth, including horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth. The horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth is the beamwidth between two points where the power is lower 50% (3 dB) than the maximum radiation power. The common horizontal beamwidth of eNodeB antennas includes 360, 90, 65, 60, and 33. The common vertical beamwidth of eNodeB antennas includes 6.5, 7, 10, 13, and 16.
Wherein, Ga: the antenna gain in the unit of dBi. : the vertical beamwidth in the unit of dBi. : the horizontal beamwidth in the unit of dBi. According to the previous formula, if you have known the antenna gain and horizontal, you can calculate the vertical beamwidth. For example, for an omnidirectional antenna, the gain is 11 dBi, the horizontal beamwidth is 360, so the vertical beamwidth is calculated as below:
Due to the deficiency of design and manufacturing process, the actual vertical beamwidth of omnidirectional antenna is
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usually smaller than the calculated result. The less difference between the two beamwidth, the better the antenna is designed.
Figure 10-3 Relation among antenna gain, vertical beamwidth, and horizontal beamwidth
According to the figure above, when the antenna gain is low, the vertical beamwidth and horizontal beamwidth are usually large. When the antenna gain is high, the vertical beamwidth and horizontal beamwidth are usually small. In addition, the antenna gain depends on the number of oscillators. The larger the number of oscillators, the higher the gain is and the larger the aperture of antenna (the effective receiving area) is. For an omnidirectional antenna, if the antenna gain increases by 3 dB, the antenna length will double. Therefore, the antenna gain is usually within 11 dBi.
the D/U ratio (the ratio of strength of useful signal to that of interference signal). The level of the first upper side lobe compared with main lobe shall be smaller than 18 dB. This is invalid to the antennas of macro cell eNodeB.
You can also represent the matching character of port with echo loss as below:
If the VSWR is 1.5:1, the RL is 13.98 dB. When the input impedance of antenna is not equal to characteristic impedance, the reflected and incident waves form standing wave after overlapping on the feeder. The ratio of the maximum adjacent voltage of standing wave to the minimum adjacent voltage of standing wave is the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). If the VSWR is over large, the communication distance will be shortened and the reflected power will return the transmitter. As a result, the power amplifier may be burnt and the communication system will work abnormally.
Loose connection Rusty or water filled connection Magnetic objects The intermodulation product interferes with communication systems, and especially the intermodulation products in the receiver band have severe impact on the receiving performance of system. As a result, there are strict requirements on the intermodulation feature of passive parts like connectors, cable, and antennas as below: Passive intermodulation index of connects: 150 dBc Passive intermodulation index of cable: 170 dBc Passive intermodulation index of antenna: 150 dBc
proceeds smoothly. The camouflaged antenna applies for urban site construction and coverage solutions for top grade residence area. There are no fixed modes and methods for antenna camouflage. The antenna camouflage changes to flexible forms in different scenarios. The antenna camouflage aims to hidden it in the environment. You can choose proper beautification modes according to the environment for actual installation. The following paragraphs focus on some antenna camouflage schemes. The antenna camouflage includes the following types: Customized camouflage Outlook camouflage Camouflage in special environment
Figure 10-7 Flat panel antennas camouflaged by advertising board and road sign
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11 References
3GPP Specification TS 36.101: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) radio transmission and reception 3GPP Specification TS 36.104: E-UTRA: Base Station (BS) radio transmission and reception 3GPP Specification TS 36.133: E-UTRA: Requirements for support of radio resource management 3GPP Specification TS 36.141: E-UTRA: Base Station (BS) conformance testing 3GPP Specification TS 36.201: E-UTRA: Long Term Evolution (LTE) physical layer; General description 3GPP Specification TS 36.211: E-UTRA: Physical channels and modulation 3GPP Specification TS 36.212: E-UTRA: Multiplexing and channel coding 3GPP Specification TS 36.213: E-UTRA: Physical layer procedures 3GPP Specification TS 36.214: E-UTRA: Physical layer; Measurements 3GPP Specification TS 36.300: E-UTRA and E-UTRAN: Overall description; Stage 2 3GPP Specification TS 36.304: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) procedures in idle mode 3GPP Specification TS 36.306: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) radio access capabilities 3GPP Specification TS 36.321: E-UTRA: Medium Acces Control (MAC) protocol specification 3GPP Specification TS 36.322: E-UTRA: Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol specification 3GPP Specification TS 36.323: E-UTRA: Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) specification 3GPP Specification TS 36.331: E-UTRA: Radio Resource Control (RRC); Protocol specification 3GPP Specification TS 36.401: E-UTRAN: Architecture description 3GPP Specification TS 36.410: E-UTRAN: S1 layer 1 general aspects and principles 3GPP Specification TS 36.420: E-UTRAN: X2 general aspects and principles V. Erceg, K.V.S. Hari, M.S. Smith, D.S. Baum et al, Channel Models for Fixed Wireless Applications, IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r1, 23 Feb. 2001 FCC: methods for predicting interference from response station transmitters and to response station hubs and for supplying data on response station systems. GSM/3G and LTE Market update: Global mobile Supplier Association, March, 2011 3GPP TSG RAN TSGR#3(99) 231 Technical Specification Group Meeting #3, Yokohama, 21-23 April 1999 Huawei Interference Analysis and Co-existence Training Huawei LTE Technology Overview and Introduction Training Huawei LTE InterRAT Handover Management Training Huawei TFR Solution and Performance Training Huawei Genex U-Net Operation Manual
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Consultant: Wang Tao Editors-in-chief: Liu Jinghai, Cheng Tangbai, Yang Bo Editors: Lin Guangpu, Dong Fei, Zhong Fanliang, Xu Haihong, Jin Keyou, Xie Guozhu, Li Guoyue, Gao Zhengwei, Zhao Yinghe, Zhang Fan, Hao Guangming, Zhou Dongfei, Ma Guotian, Hu Kangyan, Chen Qi, Wang Mingmin, Zhou Zhibing, Zhao Xinlei, Liu Yingwei, Fang Minxi, Liu Yadong, Fang Minghai, Xiang Rui Auditors: Lin Guangpu, Dong Fei, Ying Weimin, He Gang, Tan Zhu
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