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Definition of the User Interface
Focus of the ergonomics Ergonomics 1is the study of the interaction between p...
From Nikola Gluvakov
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The design ofthe user interface requires consideration ofvarious psychological aspects ofhuman behavior. This report discusses thepsychological effects ofinterface components such as colour and visual objects. Other aspects which must be considered are the differentlevels ofproficiency users have. Also an interface must be built to suit the system for which it was developed, it should not addcomplication to the achievement ofsimple tasks since this impacts negatively on users.This report also covers the characteristics ofa good interface. It addresses issues ofconsistency, appropriateness ofdesign andtransparencyofdifferent types ofuser interfaces. Design guides for specific type s ofinterfaces as well as general guides for elements of the interface (for example forms, reports and dialogues) are discussed. A discussion on some ofthe consequences ofbad user interfacedesign is also included. This discussion shows how a badly designed user interface could lead to productivity losses. The methods andprocedures used in the actual design ofa user interface are covered. These are discussed in the context ofgeneral purpose as well ascustom made software. Here the role ofprototyping and the use ofdevelopment tools for generating user interface screens, are covered.This report also covers Information about user interface design in Trinidad and Tobago obtained byinterviewing professionals in the fieldofcomputer science. In Trinidad and Tobago, the majority ofnew software development is done for specialized software applicationsusing fourth generation languages. The options for the user interface are formulated on the basis ofthe requirements obtained from theuser at the analysis stage. As a result ofthe nature ofsoftware industry in Trinidad and Tobago, most user interfaces are developed in-house using screen and menu builders. Newer methods offormulating the user interface requirements, such as prototyping are not ingeneral use.User interfaces have evolved over time from the rudimentary command interpreter to the complex Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)available on systems today. Currently the developers oftoday's main User Interface Management Systems (UIMSs) have released newversions oftheir products which feature major changes in the user interfaces. With the improvements being made to audio and visualtechnologies, multimedia applications are becoming more common. Multimedia has had an effect on user interface development sinceinterfaces incorporating sound and animation as a standard feature are now being developed. This report discusses some ofthe designmethodologies adopted bysome ofthe developers ofUIMSs. The impact multimedia had on user interface design is also discussed aswell as what is expected from future user interface designs.
2.1 Definitionof a User Interface
The user interface ofa computer system is the component ofthe system which facilitates interaction between the user and the system.Thus, the user interface must enable two-way communication byproviding feedback to the user, as well as functions for entering dataneeded bythe system.
2.2 The Need for a User Interface
When the first computers were introduced in the 1950s, the only people who interacted with computers on a regular basis were highly-trained engineers and scientists in research facilities. The cost and size ofthese computers made their wide-spread use impractical. At thistime, communicating with the computer was a very complex task which required a detailed knowledge ofthe computer's hardware.Advances made in technology allowed computers to be made smaller and affordable. As a result ofthis, and the increase in productivitygained bycomputers, their use became more widespread. With various people from diverse backgrounds now using computers in
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http://members.tripod.com/the_packrat/ui_desgn.htmleveryday life, came the need for a user-friendly interface through which the average person could interact productivelywith a computersystem. This led to the development ofvarious types ofuser interfaces which catered for different types ofusers.
2.3 Types of User Interfaces
The major types ofuser interfaces are:1. Command-driven interfaces2. Menu-driven interfaces3. Direct manipulation interfaces (DMI)4. Special purpose interfaces.i.) Command-driven interfaces usually require the user to enter an explicit command which is then interpreted and executed bythesystem. The command must conform to the syntax rules defined by the system.ii.) Menu-driven interfaces provide the user with a list ofoptions and a simple method ofselecting between them. Such a method mayinvolve entering a single letter or a number which represents the option. Examples ofvarious types ofmenus include bar menus and pull-down menus.iii.) Direct manipulation interfaces (DMIs) presents users with a model oftheir information space and users can manipulate theirinformation bydirect action. Since these types ofinterfaces manipulate information by direct action, it is not necessary to issue explicitcommands to modifyinformation. The Graphical User Interface (GUI) is the most popular implementation ofa DMI. This type of interface makes use ofvisual objects to implement its model and the user can manipulate these objects via a mouse or another pointingdevice. User Interface Management Systems (UIMS) are implemented mainly as GUIs so that the interface governs the entire system andnot just a single application. GUI's are further discussed in section 4.3.3 later in this report.iv.) Special purpose interfaces are those which are used to control an embedded computer system (for example, an automatic bank machine). Such interfaces also control systems which combine the use ofa general-purpose computer with special hardware and softwarefor implementing the user interface.
3.1 The Power of Visual Communication
What people see influences how theyfeel and what theyunderstand. Visual information communicates non-verbally but very powerfully.This can be attributed to the emotional cues contained in visuals that motivate, direct or distract. This is shown by the way people tend todescribe graphic information with adjectives like "fresh", "pretty", "boring", "conservative" and "wild". The advertising industry has takenadvantage ofthis phenomenon for almost as long as publications have existed.A study conducted in the early stages ofthe Macintosh development compared a set oftasks performed on both the Lisa and a MS-DOSbased computer [11]. These tasks were actually more complicated on the Lisa, but the subjects in the test perceived them as being aseasier because the graphical interface made the tasks more fun. This is onlyone example ofhow visuals can motivate people.
3.2 Effects of Colour and Visual Objects
The retina ofthe human eye contains special cones which respond to stimulation byone ofthree primary colours, red, green, or blue-violet. Mixing ofthese colours and variations oftheir intensities can produce many other colours visible to the human eye. Modern colourphotographyand colour display technology use this same principle ofmixing three basic colours to produce all other visible colours.Colour can be described as having three physical properties which are hue, saturation (or chroma) and brightness. Hue is the name ofacolour, saturation is its intensity and brightness is where it would fall on a scale ofdark to light.Colour has emotional properties that helps to mould a person's opinion on something visual. Colours can be arranged to produce aharmonious effect, or theycan be arranged to produce an unpleasant effect. There are many theories which explain both the pleasing andharmonious arrangement ofcolours and those co-ordinations ofcolours which clash and are displeasing. These rules are however alwayssubject to an individual's personal taste. Some ofthe most respected rules are however described here. To make an element in a designstand out from its surroundings, a colour that is definitelylighter or darker than the surroundings should be chosen. Pleasing designs canbe made ofcolours ofthe same hue, ofdefinitelydifferent but neighbouring hues, or ofcomplementaryhues. Designs involving twocolours with opponent hues, for example red and green, should not be used because theyappear to vibrate as the eye tries to focus onthem. The use ofbright colours on large areas also produces an unpleasant effect since this use ofcolour tend to leave opponent afterimages on the retina [2].
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http://members.tripod.com/the_packrat/ui_desgn.htmlProper use ofcolour improves learning. This has been proven in various psychological tests [11]. If colours are well chosen and used incomputer applications, theyimprove marketability ofproducts and give an impression offriendliness. They also help reduce the learningcurve for these applications. If theyare poorly chosen, theycan severelyaffect usabilityand create a circus like appearance that canconfuse and irritate users.A metaphor, or analogy, relates two otherwise unrelated things. Metaphors are used in applications to develop the user's conceptualimage or model ofan application. Using metaphors that are familiar and real-world based allow users to transfer previous knowledge of their work environment to a particular application interface. The best known metaphor is the desktop metaphor where the screenrepresents a desktop and system entities are represented byfolders on that desktop.The use ofvisual objects can be made in order to implement a metaphor. A visual object is simply a representation (either verballydescribed or drawn) ofdifferent system entities or actions that can be performed. For example in the desktop metaphor, a folder is anobject representing a particular file. Visual objects that are represented pictorially are called icons. A folder is an icon in the desktopmetaphor. Icons allow users to easilyidentify different applications, files associated with different applications or system components.Visual objects that are three dimensional and animate also have a very powerful effect on users. Objects that animate and perform aparticular action after being acted on, give the user a feeling oftotal control over that action. An example ofsuch an object is the button. If a user clicks on a button via a mouse or another pointing device, he expects that button to be pushed in. If the button does not respond asthe user expects, the user thinks that something is wrong. That action ofanimating a button being depressed reassures the user that thesystem is functioning properly. The user gains a feeling ofcontrol in knowing that by pressing a single button or a combination ofbuttonsresults in a particular action being carried out by the computer.Overall, the advantages ofusing metaphors and colour in user interfaces are a reduction in learning time for an application, motivation of users to use the application and increased user confidence.
3.3 Types of Users and User Preferences
Many people use computers for many different reasons. These people range from those with little or no skills to those with a greatabundance ofcomputer knowledge. Some people who are new to computers are also afraid ofusing them for a variety ofreasons.Different types ofinterfaces are therefore needed to cater for all types ofcomputer users. A computer user should be able to effectivelyaccomplish anyrequired tasks without having to worry about anyinterface issues since this leads to a loss in productivity.Finding an interface to cater for a particular user depends largely on that user's preferences. For example an experienced user may preferto use a command driven interface whereas a not so experienced user may prefer to use a GUI. Command driven interfaces allow fasterinteraction with the computer and simplify the input ofcomplex requests. This is why most experienced users prefer them. Aninexperienced user however prefers a GUI environment because it is easier to use and adapt to. Inexperienced users are also attracted toGUI's because oftheir use ofcolours and visual objects which tend to hold their attention. Inexperienced users may also be overwhelmedbythe syntax ofthe commands theywill have to learn before theycan use a command driven interface.
4.1 Methods Used in Formulating the User Interface Design
There have been generally been two approaches in formulating the usabilityrequirements or the tasks which the user interface is expectedto perform. These are:1. The Methodological approach2. The Training approach
4.1.1 Methodological approach
This approach emphasizes the use ofgood methods or tools in the design ofthe user interface. This includes the use ofprototyping tools,iterative design techniques and empirical testing [1].
User Interface Prototyping
User interface prototyping involves the simulation ofthe proposed screen layouts and system responses before the actual implementation.It is usually performed early in the design process and is done regularly. This reduces uncertaintyand risk regarding interfaceperformance and ease-of-use. This technique is primarilyused in the design ofinterfaces for custom-made applications. Initially, in thedesign phase ofthe system development life cycle, rudimentary prototypes produced on word processors can be used, whereassubsequent prototypes could become progressively closer to the final product. Final implementation ofthe user interface occurs late in thedevelopment cycle so that it can receive the full benefit ofthe prototyping process.
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