Chapter 1: Introduction 1 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS Knowledge of engineering materials is an essential requirement for success of the industrialization process of any country. In fact, the various stages of human development have always been associated to the type of material in use for that particular civilization. Early man used stones for making hunting tools, and this civilization was called the stone age. The early used metals were in the form of copper and its alloys bronze and brass, and this civilization is known as the bronze age. It is believed that copper and tin ores were smelt in coal fires, refined and alloyed into bronze as early as 3500 BC. At this stage, man had acquired basic skills in metallurgical extraction of these metals, and two thousand years later, man was able to process iron ore into useful metal in Egypt and elsewhere during the iron age. Subsequent generations developed metal alloys with superior mechanical and physical properties to meet the growing demands of the industrialization process. Later, development of polymers and ceramics added to the growing range of engineering materials, to meet the challenges in the design of more sophisticated machines and processing systems. More and more of new materials continue to evolve as man seeks to improve comfort and efficiency, while at the same time man has to face the challenges of dwindling natural resources. Materials that we use are largely based on the pure sciences of chemistry and physics, obeying the laws of these basic sciences in their formation, reactions and combinations. All matter is composed of atoms bonded together in different patterns. Fig. 1.1 shows that all the materials we have can be classified as organic or inorganic. Organic materials contain the element carbon (and usually hydrogen) as a key part of their structure, and are usually derived from living things. Petroleum products are organic, because crude oil and coal are derived from plants and animals that died many years ago. Sand, rock, water, metals, and inert gases are inorganic materials. An engineer has a vast range of materials from which to select a material for a particular design. Materials can be classified into four groups: metals, ceramics and glasses, polymers, and composites. Figure 1.2 illustrates these classes of materials and their interaction. Each class consists of a wide range arising from variations in chemical composition, heat treatment, processing etc. Metals Metals and alloys, which include steel, aluminium, magnesium, zinc, cast iron, titanium, copper, nickel, and many others, have the general characteristics of good electrical and thermal conductivity, relatively high strength, high stiffness, ductility or formability, and shock resistance. They are particularly useful for structural or load - bearing applications. Although pure metals are occasionally used, combinations of metals called alloys are normally designed to provide improvement in a particular desirable property or permit better combinations of properties. Ceramics Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials which consists mainly of silicon chemically combined with non metallic elements such as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. They are normally processed and used at high temperatures. Ceramics, such as brick, glass, tableware, insulators, and abrasives, have poor electrical and thermal conductivity. Despite their good strength and hardness, ceramics have poor ductility, formability, and shock resistance. Although unsuitable for structural applications,

Chapter 1: Introduction 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ceramics posses excellent resistance to high temperatures and certain corrosive media, and have a number of unusual but desirable optical, electrical, and thermal properties.

Fig.1.1 In our universe, the elements are the building blocks for all materials

Fig. 1.2 The classification of engineering materials

Chapter 1: Introduction 3 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Polymers Polymers include rubber, plastics, and many types of adhesives. They are produced by creating large molecular structures from organic molecules, obtained from petroleum or agricultural products, in a process known as polymerization. Polymers have low electrical and thermal conductivity, have low strength, and are not suitable for use at high temperatures. Some polymers (thermoplastics) have excellent ductility, formability, and shock resistance, while others (thermosets) have opposite properties. Polymers are lightweight and frequently have excellent resistance to corrosion. Composite materials Composites are formed when two or more materials are combined to produce properties which cannot be produced by any single material. Concrete, plywood, and fibre-glass are typical examples of composite materials. With composites, one can produce lightweight, strong, ductile, high temperature -resistant materials that are otherwise unobtainable.

1.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS All engineering products utilize materials. The product demands for a material/materials with specific characteristics such that:(a) the material can be processed into the final product economically, (b) the products satisfy their functional purpose. To select the optimum material for an engineering application, the understanding of the material properties is essential. Table 1.1 is a summary of the different classes of properties that make a material suitable for any engineering application.

1.3 STRUCTURE-PROPERTY PROCESSING RELATIONSHIP There is a complex three part relationship between the internal structure, the processing of the material, and the final properties of the material. The internal structure constitutes atomic arrangement at one level, crystal structure at the next level, and phase type, size, and distribution at the other level.

Materials can be processed in different ways to produce the desired shape of the component. Metals can be processed by casting, joining (welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding), forming (forging, drawing, extrusion, rolling, bending), compacting tiny metal powder into a solid mass (powder metallurgy), or machining. Similarly, ceramic materials can be formed into shapes by related processes such as casting, forming, extrusion, or compaction, often while wet, and sintered at high temperatures. Polymers are produced by injection of softened plastic into moulds (much like casting), drawing, and forming. The method of processing used largely depends on the properties and structure of the material, as well as the shape and size of the final product.

Chapter 1: Introduction 4 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The processing of a material affects its structure. A cast copper bar is very different from a formed one. The shape, size, and orientation of the grains is different. The cast structure has equiaxed and sometimes columnar grains that may contain voids due to shrinkage and gas bubbles, and also may have non metallic inclusions trapped within the structure. The formed material has elongated grains that may sometimes contain elongated nonmetallic particles and internal defects.
TABLE 1.1: PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS Economic Properties Price and availability Bulk mechanical properties Density Modulus and damping Yield strength Tensile strength Hardness Fracture toughness Fatigue strength Thermal fatigue resistance Creep strength

Bulk non-mechanical properties

Thermal properties Optical properties Magnetic properties Electrical properties Friction, abrasion and wear Oxidation and corrosion Ease of manufacture Fabrication, joining, finishing Appearance, texture, feel

Surface properties Production properties Aesthetic properties

1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON MATERIALS BEHAVIOUR The surroundings to which the material is subjected may also affect the structure-property-processing relationship. Loading The type of load cycle, and the speed at which it is applied may change the behaviour of the material. A material that possesses high yield strength may easily fail at lower loads if subjected to cyclic loading (fatigue) or impact. Temperature Changes in temperature may dramatically alter the material properties. The strength of most materials decreases as the temperature increases. Metals that have been strengthened by certain heat treatments may suddenly lose their properties when heated. Low temperatures may cause certain ductile metals to fail in a brittle manner even at low loads. High temperature can also lead to

Chapter 1: Introduction 5 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------changes in the structure of ceramics or cause polymers to melt or char. Atmosphere Most metals and polymers react with oxygen or other gases particularly at elevated temperatures. Metals and ceramics may catastrophically disintegrate or be chemically attacked, while others may be protected. Polymers often are hardened or my even depolymerize, char, or burn. steels may react with hydrogen and become brittle. Corrosion Metals are attacked by a variety of corrosive liquids. The metal may be uniformly or selectively consumed or may develop cracks or pits leading to premature failure. Ceramics can be attacked by other liquid ceramics, while solvents can dissolve polymers. Radiation High energy radiation, such as neutrons produced in nuclear reactors, can affect the internal structure of all materials, producing a loss of strength, embrittlement, or critical alteration of physical properties.

1.5 PRINCIPLES OF MATERIALS SELECTION The selection of a material for a particular application depends on several factors, as was summarized in Table 1. The designer may have to answer the following fundamental questions: Does the material selected meet the strength requirements for the functioning of the design? Is the material available at reasonable cost? Can it be processed to the desired design shape and specifications? Is the material safe to use? Will the material survive the environment in which it is expected to operate? Is it attractive? At the end of its useful life, can the material be recycled?

Materials selection is an important part in the decision making process at each stage of the design. There are many factors that may have to be considered in this selection process, but broadly, one starts with a broad range of materials, then narrows it down as some materials are eliminated. These factors may be grouped as follows:

(a) Physical factors: These include size, shape, and the weight of the material, while considering
the space available for the component. The way the particular component may have to be processed, such as heat treatment, is constrained by the size and capacity of your heat treatment plant. The weight of the material may add to the energy consumption in transportation systems, making lighter materials more preferable in transport systems such as aircraft and boats. The shape of the materials is dependent on the production process.

(b) Mechanical factors: These are factors used as design criteria to prevent mechanical failure,
such as the tensile strength, the yield strength, the modulus of elasticity, the fracture toughness, the impact strength, creep strength, bending strength, fatigue strength, plasticity, etc.

(c) Processing and Fabricability: It is important to know how the material will be processed or
fabricated to the desired shape and size. The designer ought to know whether the material will be cast, forged, machined, welded, etc., and determine also the heat treatment or finish processing required before the component is put to use. This includes consideration on how

Chapter 1: Introduction 6 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------the material is to be protected from environmental degradation such as oxidation and corrosion.

(d) Life of Component factors: Manufacturers have to take into account the expected life of the
component. These are usually dependent on the type of loading and the environment under which the component is operating. So in this group, factors to be considered include corrosion, oxidation, wear, creep, corrosion fatigue, ultraviolet exposure, and impact loading. Designers often develop life prediction models which are used to estimate the expected design life.

(e) Cost and Availability: We live in a market driven economy, hence it is essential not to ignore
the cost and availability factors, which are interrelated. Costs of transportation from the place of origin to the place of application may sometimes dictate against the use of a cheaper material that is not locally available. Sometimes, the customer may pay a higher cost if the number of units ordered are few, or when the items are non standard and thus demand special processing.

(f) Codes, Statutory and other factors: Codes are sets of technical requirements that are usually
imposed on the material or the component. These may be set by the customer, or are technical requirements of standardization bodies such as ISO, DIN, ASME, ASTM, SAE, BS, etc. Designers must be familiar with these standardization bodies, which in addition, provide for methods of testing and processing materials for particular applications. Statutory factors relate to local, state, and federal regulations about the materials and processes used or the disposal of the material. These relate to health, safety, and environmental requirements.

Chapter 1: Introduction 7 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------REVIEW PROBLEMS 1. 2. 3. Solid Al2O3 is strong, hard, and wear resistant. Why isn't it used to make sledge hammers? Polyethylene is an inexpensive, easily formed material. Why isn't it used to make paper clips? Classify the following materials as metals, ceramics, polymers, or composite materials: brass, reinforced concrete, rubber, sodium chloride, lead-tin solder, silicon carbide, epoxy, magnesium alloys, concrete, fibreglass, graphite. What mechanical and physical properties are of importance when selecting materials for the following applications? crankshaft for an automobile piping to transport hot gases and fluids in a refinery disposable beverage cans axle for an automobile filament in a light bulb windshield of an automobile pair of scissors screen of a television set Describe the type of materials processing techniques that might be used to produce the following products. automobile engine block brick paper clip wrench plywood plastic toy plastic water pipe steel transmission gear Would casting be a good way to form the following materials and products? aluminium, alumina (Al2O3), beryllium, silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten, glass, titanium, aluminium foil. Explain if casting is not a good choice.

4.

5.

6.