State Archives of Assyria Bulletin Volume XVIII (20092010)

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2 SIEGE BATTLES Fabrice De Backer

Introduction This article will deal with how some particular tactics of the Neo-Assyrian army appear on the figurative evidence of the age.1 For the sake of clarity, some specific terms and abbreviations will be used in this paper, but only as a means to shorten the description of elements. The present author does not envisage any absolute or derivative link between the modern realities identified by these terms and the Assyrian ones; such connections are limited to the framework of this paper. It would be wonderful to have the genuine terms, organisational chart, and full texts of tactics written by the Assyrians, but these are hitherto are not known. For the reader not accustomed with the terms and abbreviations used in this paper, the author will quote passages of the previous articles where most of these can be found thus providing the full set of necessary definitions. These quotes will be referenced as such in the footnotes.

I. General Cautions To be sure, the artistic representations are sometimes approximate and the statements of lost parts sometimes too summary. Moreover, certain gaps of Neo-Assyrian figurative documentation bearing on the treatments previously described are to be underscored, in particular between Shalmaneser III and Tiglath-Pileser III (823746 BC), during the reign of Shalmaneser V (725722 BC), of Esarhaddon (680669 BC), and from the end of Assurbanipals reign until the fall of arrn (626610/609 BC).

1.

Abbreviations: AII = Ashurnasirpal II; SIII = Shalmaneser III; TPIII = Tiglath-Pileser III; SII = Sargon II; Se = Sennacherib; As = Assurbanipal.

266

FABRICE DE BACKER

II. Evolution of the Neo-Assyrian Siege-Battle Groups A siege battle will be here defined as a close, intensive encounter of at least two sides on a restricted area, around a fortified position, using a vast array of tactics and materials to overcome the other, and prevent one side's destruction by the opponent. The detailed study and the evolution of the Neo-Assyrian armys equipment, composition or tactics in a siege context will not be treated in this article, as it is dealt with elsewhere.2 Similarly, for more detailed study of the depictions of sappers, archers, siege-engines and basic tactics, the reader is referred to the authors previous papers.

III. Proposal for Some Typological Terms In this paper, the author will propose some typological definitions which may prove useful to quickly identify the kind of troops referred during the combat communications. As a means to depict some tactics of the Neo-Assyrian army, some pictographs will be used to symbolize the different Combat Groups according to their function. These icons are designed following the basic appearance of the soldiers standard equipment: shield, spear, bow, even slings, and specific vehicle: horse and chariots. These teams are all called Combat Groups for the simple reason that everything they did was under the direct threat of the enemy.3 a) Heavy Destruction Combat Group (HDCG)4 These soldiers are very rarely depicted as such, but some bronze bands of Shalmaneser III clearly show them devoted to the manning of the heavy means of destruction, like the battering-rams. It is plausible to surmise that these soldiers were seasoned warriors, for the handling of such siege-engines surely needed a bit of practice and coordination.5 The term heavy is used to identify the heavy level of armour, and larger amounts of soldiers required to perform the relevant tasks, rather than to merely man an escalating ladder.

2. 3. 4. 5.

De Backer 2010.The author is very grateful to Prof. F.M. Fales, who was President of the Dissertation Committee (Strasbourg, Dec. 2010), for reviewing and correcting the English text of this article. Mayer 1995, 461. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XIII, 1; XXIV, 1; SIII: King 1915, pl. XX, Bd. IV. 2; pl. L, Bd. IX. 3; TPIII: Barnett 1962, pls. V, XXXII, XL; SII: Albenda 1986, pls. 96; 136; 138; Se: Barnett 1998, pls. 152; 328; 349. In this respect, see also De Backer forthcoming a.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

267

Fig. 1. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Heavy Destruction Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; Right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

b) Heavy Insertion Combat Group (HICG) 6 These soldiers are hardly depicted as such, most often on top of the siege-towers like the slingers, archers or stone-throwers, from Ashurnasirpal II to Shalmaneser III only. These soldiers should also have been hardened warriors, with a high troop morale, since this type of mission presumably took a very heavy toll of casualties on the attacking force, for the approach, and the protection, of its position in the midst of enemy lines.

Fig. 2. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Heavy Insertion Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

c) Tactical Destruction Combat Group (TDCG) These soldiers are represented using their dagger,7 torch,8 crowbar9 and pick10 throughout the period, from Ashurnasirpal II to Assurbanipal, and usually their activities are detailed as well, e.g. the opening of breaches in the facing of the walls. These soldiers had to be hard-core, high-profile, strongly motivated and extremely brave troops, since the best place to demolish the enemy defences is often at their base, which implies the constant threat of missiles, stones or other means of defence.11 The term tactical applied to this group means to identify the limited level of armour, and the limited amounts of soldiers, rather than the heavier number required to man the siege-engines.
6. 7. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XIII, 1; XXIV, 1; SIII: King 1915, pl. XX, Bd. IV. 2; pl. L, Bd. IX. 3. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIII, b; SIII: King 1915, pl. XXI, Bd. IV, 3; TPIII: Barnett 1962, 138; 140141; SII: Albenda 1986, pls. 126; 128; 136; 138; Se: Barnett 1998, pl. 54, no. 49a; 199, no. 278a; A: Barnett 1976, pls. XVI; XXXVI; LXX. 8. AII: Barnett 1962, pl. CXVIII; SIII: King 1915, pl. III, Bd. I, 3; XXXIX, Bd. VII, 3; SII: Albenda 1986, pls. 126; 128; 136; Se: Barnett 1998, pls. 206f., no. 282ab; A: Barnett 1976, pls. XXXVI; LXVI. 9. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIV, a; Barnett 1962, pl. CXVIII; SIII: King 1915, pl. XXI, Bd. IV, 3; pl. LXXIII, Bd. XIII, 12; TPIII: Barnett 1962, 138; 140141. 10. A: Barnett 1976, pl. XXXVI. 11. In this respect, see also De Backer 2006, 6386.

268

FABRICE DE BACKER

Fig. 3. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Tactical Destruction Combat Group with dagger. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 4. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Tactical Destruction Combat Group with torch. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 5. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Tactical Destruction Combat Group with crowbar. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 6. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Tactical Destruction Combat Group with pick. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

d) Tactical Insertion Combat Group (TICG)12 These soldiers are widely depicted, with various combinations of the full set of Neo-Assyrian armoury, at times including long coats of mail, and usually climbing the ladders to reach the top of the walls of the besieged city, from Ashurnasirpal II to Assurbanipal. These soldiers must have been hardened warriors, with a high morale and an elite status, since this type of mission presumably took a very heavy toll of casualties on the attack12. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIII, b; Barnett 1962, 172. SIII: King 1915, pl. III, Bd. I, 3; pl. IX, Bd. II, 3; pl. XIII, Bd. III, 1; pl. XXI, Bd. IV, 3; pl. LIII, Bd. IX, 6; pl. LXXV, Bd. XIII, 4. TPIII: Barnett 1962, 86f.; 111; 127. SII: Albenda 1986, pls. 100; 112. Se: Barnett 1998, pl. 64, 70a; 65, 70b; 66, 71a; 67, 71c; 71, 84; 76, 91; 270, 365a; 271, 365b; 272, 366; 273, 366b; 274, 365c; 456, 626a. As: Barnett 1976, pls. XVI; XXI; XXXVI; LXLXI; LXXLXXI.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

269

ing force, for the approach, and the protection, of its position in the midst of enemy lines.

Fig. 7. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Tactical Insertion Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

e) Building Engineers Combat Group (BECG)13 These soldiers are represented only on the reliefs of Sennacherib,14 although their products, the siege-ramps, are depicted throughout the period from Ashurnasirpal II to Assurbanipal. It is hard to believe that combatant forces were taken out and deployed to build such ramps, so chances are that many of the relevant workmen were either POWs, civilians or conscripts. This mass-labour force performed its building work under the cover of huge shields and siege-archer groups.15

Fig. 8. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Building Engineers Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

f) Digging Engineers Combat Group (DECG)16 These soldiers are represented exclusively on the reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III, although their sapping duties are mentioned in texts throughout the period until Assurbanipal. These soldiers surely represented weathered, hardened, and moti13. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pls. XXIII, 2; XXIV, 1; Barnett 1962, pl. CXVIII. SIII: King 1915, pl. III, Bd. I, 3; pl. IX, Bd. II, 3; pl. XVI, Bd. III, 4; pl. XXI, Bd. IV, 3; pl LII, Bd. IX, 5; pl. LIII, Bd. IX, 6; pl. LXXV, Bd. XIII, 4. TPIII: Barnett 1962, pls. XXXVIIXXXVIII, LLII, LXILXII, LXXIX. SII: Albenda 1986, pls. 100f., 112. Se: Barnett 1998, pls. 55, 50a; 64, 70a; 66, 71a; 71, 84; 76, 91; 270271, 365a-b; 272273, 366a-b; 330331, 430a-c, 431c; 332333, 430a431a; 334335, 430bc, 431c; 349, 429c430c; 350, 430c; 351, 430c451c; 359, 448a; 374, 481ab; 375, 482a; 376, 482bc; 381, 488a; 471, 652; 502503, 691ab. As: Barnett 1976, pls. XVII, XXI, XXXVI, LX LXI, LXLXXI. 14. Se: Barnett 1998, pl. 374, 481a. 15. In this respect, see also De Backer 2010a, 125; forthcoming b; forthcoming c. 16. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIV, a; SIII: King 1915, pl. XXI, Bd. IV, 3.

270

FABRICE DE BACKER

vated troops, given the intrinsic difficulties in underground tunnelling.17 One might imagine that the majority of the workmen were conscripts, whereas the spearhead was composed of lite soldiers.18

Fig. 9. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Digging Engineers Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

g) Underground Insertion Combat Group (UICG)19 These soldiers are depicted without armour, and usually crouching in the tunnels to reach the other side of the walls of the besieged city, only in the reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II. These soldiers must have been hardened warriors, with a high morale and an elite status, since this type of mission presumably took a very heavy toll of casualties on the attacking force, for the approach, and the protection, of its position in the midst of enemy lines.

Fig. 10. Schematic appearance of a Neo-Assyrian Underground Insertion Combat Group. Left: seen from the side; right: seen from above. Drawing of the author.

h) Assault Combat Group (ACG)20 This type of Combat Teams clearly appears from the time of Tiglath-Pileser III on until the end of the Neo-Assyrian period. Being always part of the point and leading elements of attacks, either in pitched battles or during sieges, theses soldiers were protected with light armour, like crest helmets, circular breast- and back-plates or wide, and, sometimes, diagonal belts covered with square elements for the archers. Light archers like the Itueans and Qurreans are usually accompanying them, in pairs, slightly behind them or flanking them side as full-fledged members of these Combat Groups.21
17. 18. 19. 20. 21. In this respect, see also De Backer 2007a, 4564. Mayer 1995, p. 441f. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIII, b. De Backer 2007b, 74, figs. B1B2. Reade 1972, 106.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

271

Fig. 11. Composition of a Neo-Assyrian Combat Group as depicted on the visual sources from the 9th and 8th centuries BC, as seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 22: Schematic description showing the composition of a Neo-Assyrian Combat Group as depicted on the visual sources from the late 8th and 7th centuries BC, as seen from above. Drawing of the author.

i) Armoured Assault Combat Group (AACG) (Fig. 11)22 This type of Combat Team is usually based on pairs of combatants formed by a spearman / shield-bearer and an archer, both wearing various types of heavy personal protection, like conical helmets and armour. They mainly appear during the reign of TiglathPileser and towards the end of the Neo-Assyrian period. j) Armoured Support Combat Group (ASCG) (Fig. 11)23 This kind of Combat Team is usually based on pairs of combatants formed by an archer and by a spearman / shield-bearer, bearing heavy armour and helmet. Various shapes of shields are borne, although consistently of one type. k) Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group (HASCG) (Fig. 11)24 This is a slight variant of the previous one, insofar as two different types of shield were borne by the attendants of the archers. These soldiers were often deployed during the sieges of cities, but also for the pitched battles, as may be seen in Shalmaneser IIIs bronze bands.

22. De Backer 2007b, 75, figs. B3B4. 23. De Backer 2007b, 75, figs. B5B6. 24. De Backer 2007b, 75, figs. B7B8.

272

FABRICE DE BACKER

l) Long-Range Support Combat Group (LRSCG) (Fig. 11)25 These Combat Teams are most commonly formed by the spare archers and by the slingers during the siege. m) Fast Assault Combat Group (FACG) (Fig. 11)26 This type of Combat Team is usually based on pairs of combatants formed by a spearman / shield-bearer and an archer, both mounted on horseback, as depicted down to the time of Shalmaneser III included. From the age of Tiglath-Pileser III onward, and until the end of the Neo-Assyrian period, only one spearman or archer on horseback is attested. Since they represented an elite class, due to the many skills required by combat on horseback, they quite probably also served as dismounted infantry when required. n) Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group (HAC/ACG) (Fig. 11)27 This type of Combat Team is based upon the crew manning a chariot, formed by the driver, the archer, and one or two spearmen / shield-bearers. Despite the many opinions in present literature on the decreasing role of chariot warfare during the 8th and 7th centuries BC, there is absolutely no reason to believe that the chariots did not continue to be employed as heavy charge weapons, as fast elevated artillery platforms and as command vehicles.28 As some Neo-Assyrian depictions show, and in conformity with the doctrine of many armies still today (applied to tanks), the chariot can either be used as a moving armoured machine-gun, providing fire support and cover assistance to the accompanying infantry, or as a self-standing offensive element.29 o) Front In brief, a front is where the two armies meet for an armed encounter. Thus there can be multiple fronts for two opposing armies, if they are engaged on different sides of the same battleground. p) Rank (Fig. 12) Neo-Assyrian visual data often display the soldiers in ranks, with each group composed of a vertical line of people, one alongside the other. While this arrangement may depend on the artistic conventions of the time to depict perspective, there is in point of fact no reason to rule out this type of positioning on the horizontal plane during combat situations.
25. 26. 27. 28. 29. De Backer 2997b, 75, figs. B9B10. De Backer 2007b, 75, figs. B11B12. De Backer 2007b, 76, figs. B13B14. Scurlock 1997, 506. Schneider 2005; Headquarters, 27 September 1988.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

273

Fig. 12. Some useful terms used in this paper with the meaning intended by the author exhibited on the schematic of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group, as seen from above. Drawing of the author.

q) File (Fig. 12) Neo-Assyrian visual data often display the soldiers in file, with each group composed of a horizontal line of people, one behind another. While this arrangement may depend on the artistic conventions of the time, there is in point of fact no reason to rule out this type of positioning during combat situations. r) Flanks (Fig. 12) These are the right and left sides of a Combat Group and its most vulnerable sectors. In practice, during a direct confrontation, each soldier can only employ the weapon he carries in the hand facing the side of the attack, i.e. either spear or shield, while in the case of a frontal attack he can put both on them to use. This also explains why any military unit in a combat situation needs flankers: to annul or delay the enemy attack while the unit rotates to face the opponent with both weapons facing the direction of the attack itself.

IV. Military Doctrine There are two essential means to besiege a city: blockade and breakthrough. While both solutions rely on the encirclement of the enemy city as the main step towards its capture, their great difference has to do with the time factor.30 A blockade of an enemy settlement is effected by surrounding the area and awaiting an outcome, usually trying to avoid casualties. This tactic implies a long interval of time, which might entail a lack of vital support for one of the two sides: either due to a fault in the supplying lines of the besieger, or to the end of the food reserves of the besieged. On the other hand, a breakthrough in the enemy defences implies questions of time, supplies, geo-political circumstances at home and abroad, and amount of troops. This solution is usually chosen to overcome the time factor, but often leads to heavy casualties. Both these tactics were
30. Ephal 2009, 78.

274

FABRICE DE BACKER

depicted on the Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs, were described in the Neo-Assyrian written sources, and left traces in the contemporary landscape traces which are to some extent still visible nowadays. For the sake of this article, only the basic breakthrough tactics used by the Neo-Assyrians will be treated.31

V. Combos and Motions Following the Phase of the Combat An examination of the Neo-Assyrian evidence relating to specific siege tactics shows at least seven combinations of different kinds of troops, within different reigns and in the light of the evolution of warfare during this period. Finally, it seems very obvious that these phases and movements, activities and tactics mainly relied upon the orders and circumstances encountered. The main phases are the following ones: Recon, Encirclement, Probe, Approach, Attack, Exploitation, Breach of the enemy lines, Final Combat. The last three of the above-mentioned phases have been for the moment kept to the essential; they are foreseen for a later study.32 a) Phase 1: Recon Before setting up a siege, the area must be reconnoitred as much as possible, so as to be able to use and manipulate the terrain to ones own advantage.33 This, in the NeoAssyrian period, could only be done by sending parties of scouts, patrols and flankers. The second part of such an activity lies in the setting up of observation posts and lookouts around the besieged area, in order to control the enemy and prevent possible counter-attacks. In this type of mission, chariots and horse are employed to cut supply lines, occupy key points as bridges or straits or entice the enemy for a fight outside the walls. This asset of the chariotry, although depending on the type of terrain, might be one of the reasons why in some depictions the chariots seem to besiege a city alone.34 Light infantry comes in handy as well, to occupy the heights around the target, and spy it. b) Phase 2: Encirclement Once the terrain is well known, the besieging army can start to come and dig in, holding key areas such as the sources of water, lines and sources of supplies and possible ways of escape. Care must be taken not to spread out the troops too thin, thus making them vulnerable against a possible counter-attack, or to the opposite contracting them, which
31. Further data are nowadays gathered by colleagues, and a synthesis is attempted by the present author in his Ph.D. Dissertation (De Backer 2010). 32. This is the topic of the authors current Ph. D. Dissertation (De Backer 2010). 33. Mayer 1995, 464. 34. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pl. XXIII, 2; SIII: King 1915, pl. LII, Bd. IX, 5.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

35

275

would allow the enemy to receive supplies / reinforcements or to escape. One possible theoretical scenario for the encirclement of a city would be to set the cavalry or the light infantry first in front of the city gates, then reinforce them by chariots, later on with the arrival of the full army, so the commanders have time to assign places in the perimeter to their units. But we have no information whether this array was actually ever adopted. c) Phase 3: Probe Even when a city is well surrounded, bad surprises may still be in store for the besiegers; this may lead the latter to probe different points of the enemy defensive perimeter. While this probe may take the shape of small skirmishes, or full circles around the city to scout for weak points, the attacker must keep some assaulting parties ready, in case the defenders should attempt to prevent the probe and make a sortie. Surely this task was the charge of the horsemen and chariots, sometimes depicted on the rear of the spearmen on the siege scenes in the Neo-Assyrian bas-reliefs. d) Phase 4: Approach When the attacker has decided where to strike, he has to reach the chosen point without suffering too many casualties, with the highest speed and silence possible, so as to keep the element of surprise for as long as possible. This is surely the phase in which the Neo-Assyrian siege redoubts come into action, in order to provide covering fire for the advancing parties and to divert the enemys attention at the same time.36 e) Phase 5: Attack There are three main ways to enter a defensive perimeter: breaking through it, reaching the fortifications at their top height, or passing under the fortifications. e.1) Through the Defensive Perimeter The first way to get in a defensive position is to break through the fortifications, which can be roughly achieved in two main ways, specific stratagems and treason being excluded: using light or strong means. e.1.a) Light Means: Dagger/Torch/Pick Attack against the Gate/Wall/Tower of the City These are the tactics most often depicted in the Neo-Assyrian reliefs for the destruction of the fortifications of the besieged city. They imply rapidity, stealth and the avoidance of excessive causalities.
35. Ephal 1997, 49. 36. De Backer 2007b, 80, figs. B27B28.

276

FABRICE DE BACKER

First Rank. Tactical Destruction Combat Group. Function: destruction of the facing, the gate, or the battlements of the wall, using either picks, daggers and torches in order to weaken or to destroy the defences of the besieged. Second Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the first rank (TDCG), placed behind it in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close encounter with the enemy. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and TDCGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances. Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy element.

Fig. 13: The Attack with dagger of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 14. The Attack with a torch of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

277

Fig. 15. The Attack with a pick of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

Fig. 16. The Attack with a crowbar of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

e.1.b) Strong Means: Battering-Ram Attack against the Gate / Wall / Tower of the City It is obvious that this means require a far greater amount of time, supplies and materials, and so would have been avoided whenever possible.

Fig. 17. The Attack with a battering-ram of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the previous troops, HDCGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Heavy Destruction Combat Group. Function: destruction of the facing, the gate, the battlements and, eventually, parts of the rampart in order to weaken or to break through the defences of the enemy. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and HDCGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances.

278

FABRICE DE BACKER

Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy, important elements. e.2) Reaching the top height of the defensive perimeter In case of difficulty/failure to get through the fortifications, an attempt may be made to reach the upper level of such fortifications. This may be achieved using light, strong or heavy means. e.2.a) Light Means: Ladder Attack against the Wall of the City

Fig. 18. The Attack with a ladder of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the previous, TICGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Tactical Insertion Combat Group. Function: take foot on a part of the enemy defensive perimeter and hold it long enough to allow reinforcements to come and break through. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and TICGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to the orders and situations.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

279

Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding for the presence of other units (either friends of foes), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy, important elements. e.2.b) Strong Means: Siege-Tower Attack against the Wall / Tower of the City It is obvious that this means require a far greater amount of time, supplies and materials, and so would have been avoided whenever possible.

Fig. 19. The Attack with a siege-tower of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the previous, HICGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Heavy Insertion Combat Group. Function: take foot on the enemy defensive perimeter and invade it in order to take enough length to destroy cohesion in enemy defences and allow reinforcements to break through. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and HACGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances. Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of

280

FABRICE DE BACKER

other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy, important elements. e.2.c) Heavy Means: Ramp Attack against the Wall It is obvious that this means require a far greater amount of time, supplies and materials, and so would have been avoided whenever possible.

Fig. 20. The Attack with a ramp of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the following troops, BECGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Building Engineers Combat Group. Function: carrying soil on their back in baskets or bags, they build an ascending platform where there is none in order to allow friendly assault or destruction troops to reach a specific point in huge number and as soon as possible. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and BECGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances. Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

281

displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy element. e.3) Under the Defensive Perimeter When it comes to reach the enemy perimeter using the vertical flanks second part, the underground, the Neo-Assyrian used two different means: light and strong. Anyway, these last resort tactics demanded a huge amount of manpower, supplies and time, so they would have been avoided whenever possible. e.3.a) Light Means: Sap Attack against the Tower / Wall The first one, sapping, is based on the excavation of the enemy rampart or tower foundation, so as to provoke a crumbling by mining it.

Fig. 21: The Attack with a sap of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the following troops, DECGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Digging Engineers Combat Group. Function: dig a tunnel in order to get on the other side of the rampart by crossing its foundations so as to allow friendly assault or destruction troops to get in the enemy defensive perimeter. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and DECGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances. Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit.

282

FABRICE DE BACKER

Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy, important elements. e.3.b) Strong Means: Tunnel Attack against the Tower / Wall The second one, the tunnel, is an attempt to attain the inner side of the rampart through an underground tunnel .

Fig. 22. The Attack with a tunnel of a Neo-Assyrian Multi-Purposes Tactical Group during a siege. Left, seen from the side; right, seen from above. Drawing of the author.

First Rank. Armoured Support Combat Group and/or Heavy Armoured Support Combat Group. Function: offering covering fire and protection to the following troops, DECGs, behind the group in order to provide cover as soon as possible for the close-encounter with the enemy. Second Rank. Underground Insertion Combat Group. Function: cross the foundations of the wall so as to get in the enemy defensive perimeter or destroy part of it. Third Rank. Assault Combat Group and/or Armoured Assault Combat Group. Function: assisting the ASCG for the covering fire, protecting the ASCGs and DECGs against the risks of a close-combat situation and readiness to deploy, or attack, on the front or on the flanks of the whole unit, according to specific orders and circumstances. Fourth Rank. Long-Range Support Combat Group. Function: offering long-range skirmish fire to occupy the enemy while the units are advancing, as a whole or not, under the covering fire and protection of the ASCGs and ACGs. Fifth Rank. Fast Assault Combat Group. Function: offering supplementary covering fire to the point elements of the units, surveying the surrounding area for the presence of other units (whether friend or foe), protecting the rear, the flanks and command of the unit. Sixth Rank. Heavy Armoured Command / Assault Combat Group. Function: commanding the different components of the unit, surveying the area for the presence, status and displacements of other units, keeping in touch with the headquarters, even maybe sometimes sniping one or the other enemy, important elements.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

283

f) Phase 6: Exploitation Once the defensive perimeter of the enemy has been breached, and destroyed or in any case held, the besiegers send assault troops or reinforcements to press on, exploit the advantage and overcome the enemy on those points. This phase, as the two following ones, is quite similar to those of the succession of events in a pitched battle.37 Following Neo-Assyrian visual conventions, these moments were not depicted, as more symbolism and strength emanates from the depiction of the breakthrough in enemy defences. g) Phase 7: Breakthrough Breakthrough occurs when the enemy soldiers can no longer hold their positions, and then start to abandon and flee their posts. The breach in enemy defences is the most depicted event in the Neo-Assyrian figurative evidence for siege, along with the booty count, for understandable reasons.38 h) Phase 8: Final Combat The final combat represents the clearance of all those remaining areas where resistance is still encountered, and the arrival at the points of the city where the enemy authority is placed, in order to capture or to destroy it. At the same time, the final combat is aimed at the capture and / or the destruction of the enemy supplies and population.39

Conclusion According to the above reconstruction, all major siege tactics were based on a specific organization of the Neo-Assyrian troops, each Multi-Purposes Tactical Group being assigned to a sector of the surrounded perimeter, which also made the management of human resources more fluid and functional. This overall organization implied that the rear and the flanks of the besieging army had to be controlled by friendly units during the attacks, but also that the efforts and actions of the different groups against the objective required total coordination and mutual connection. The author has also suggested that the chariotry while being hardly depicted and later the horsemen were an essential component of any siege, as efficient and rapid means to prevent access and survey the enemy area before the arrival of the infantry and the remainder of the army.

37. De Backer 2007b, 69115. 38. An exhaustive analysis of these events figures in the present authors current Ph. D. Dissertation (De Backer 2010). 39. In this respect, see also De Backer 2009, 1350; 2010b, 393412.

284

FABRICE DE BACKER

This overall reconstruction also tends to underscore the possible existence of specialists as yet unidentified in the textual evidences as such, insofar as the building of a ramp or of a siege-engine and sapping activities required specific calculations, skills and the organization of the untrained labour forces. Consequently, one may surmise that the units were allotted their specific tasks according to their prior level of experience in warfare, and to their degree of loyalty as well. This would entail a comprehensive picture of the Assyrian army according to which distinctions of all kinds among the troops were present, and operational.40 Moreover, albeit with all due caution, one might suggest that many of the offensive techniques described above could be deployed at the same time on the same objective, so as to save time. This might perhaps explain, at least in part, some depictions in the bas-reliefs of Ashurnasirpal II where nearly all described tactics are depicted in unison.41

Figure 23: Schematic depictions of the Neo-Assyrian basic tactics for siege-battles. Drawing of the author.

Finally, this overall and very complex military organization doubtlessly required a certain amount of managers pertaining to the headquarters. This remains an interesting topic requiring a deeper analysis, with the aid of the administrative texts and the prosopography.

40. Postgate 2000, 89107; Postgate 2001, 373388. 41. AII: Wallis-Budge 1914, pls. XXIII, a; XXXIV, b.

SOME BASIC TACTICS OF NEO-ASSYRIAN WARFARE 2: SIEGE BATTLES

285

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albenda P. 1986. Le palais de Sargon dAssyrie (Synthse 22, Recherche sur les civilisations), Paris. Barnett R. D. 1962. The Sculptures of Aur-Nasir-Apli II (883859 B. C.), TiglathPileser III (745727 B. C.), Essaraddon (682669 B. C.) from the Central and South-West Palaces at Nimrud, London. 1976. Sculptures from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (668627 B.C.), London. Barnett R. D., Bleibtreu E., et Alii 1998. The Sculptures from the South-West Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh, London. De Backer F. 2006. Notes sur les lanceurs de pavs, Ugarit Forschungen 38, 6386. 2007a. Notes sur certains sapeurs no-assyriens, Res Antiquae 4, 4564. 2007b. Some Basic Tactics of Neo-Assyrian Warfare, Ugarit Forschungen 39, 69115. 2008. Les catapultes no-assyriennes, in Ch. Cannuyer (ed.), Roland Tefnin in Memoriam. Interprtation, Mythes, Croyances et Images au Risque de la Ralit (Acta Orientalia Belgica XXI), Bruxelles, 197208. 2009. Cruelty and Military Refinements, Res Antiquae 6, 1350. 2010a. Neo-Assyrian Siege Redoubts: Some Issues, Historiae 7, 125. 2010b. Fragmentation of the Enemies in the Ancient Near East during the Neo-Assyrian Period, in A. Michaels (ed.), Ritual Dynamics. Usurpation Ritual. Vol. III: State, Power and Violence,Wiesbaden, 393412. forthcoming a. Notes sur les machines de sige no-assyriennes, in H. Neumann (ed.), Proceedings of the 52th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. Mnster, 1821 July 2006. forthcoming b. The Neo-Assyrian Siege-Archers: Some Remarks, in G. Wilhelm (ed.), Proceedings of the 54th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. Wrzburg, 2025 July 2008. forthcoming c. Notes on the Neo-Assyrian Siege-Shield and Chariot, in J. Sanmartn (ed.), Proceedings of the 56th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. Barcelona, 26th30th July 2010. forthcoming d. The Neo-Assyrian Siege Warfare (Lart du sige no-assyrien). Ph. D. Diss. Universit de Strasbourg / Universit Catholique de Louvain. Ephal I. 1983. On Warfare and Military Control in the Ancient Near Eastern Empires: A Research Outline, in H. Tadmor, M. Weinfeld (eds.), History, Historiography and Interpretation. Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures, Leiden, 88106. 2009. The City Besieged. Siege and Its Manifestations in the Ancient Near East (Culture and History of the Ancient Near East 36), Leiden. Headquarters, Department of the Army. 27 September 1988. FM 71-2 The Tank and Mechanized Infantry Battalion Task Force, Washington D.C. King L. 1915. Bronze Reliefs from the Gates of Shalmaneser King of Assyria B.C. 860825, London. Mayer W. 1995. Politik und Kriegkunst des Assyrer (Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palstinas und Mesoptamiens 9), Mnster.

286

FABRICE DE BACKER

Mcnab Ch. 2002. The SAS Mental Endurance Handbook, Guilford CO. Postgate J.N. 2000. The Assyrian Army in Zamua, Iraq 62, 89107. 2001. Assyrian Uniforms, in Th. Van Soldt (ed.), K. Veenhof Anniversary Volume (Uitgaven van het Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul 89), Leiden, 373-388. Reade J. 1972. The Neo-Assyrian Court and Army: Evidences from the Sculptures, Iraq 34, 90107. Schneider W. 2005. Panzer Tactics. German Small-Unit Armour Tactics in World War II, Mechanicsburg P.A. Scurlock J.A. 1997. Neo-Assyrian Battle Tactics, in R. Averbeck, M. Chavalas, G. Young (eds.), Crossing Boundaries and Linking Horizons: Studies in Honour of Michael C. Astour on His 80th Birthday, Bethesda, Maryland, 491517. Wallis-Budge E. 1914. Reign of Ashur-Nasir-Pal, 885860 B.C., London.