Selecting process inputs that do not contain the pollutant or its precursors Operating the process to minimize generation

of the pollutant Replacing the process with one that does not generate the pollutant Using less of the product whose manufacture generates the pollutant Removing the pollutant from the process effluent

Substituting materials that perform equally well but discharges less harmful products to the environment eg: substitution of high-sulphur coal with low sulphur coal in power plants Changing to natural gas or nuclear energyexpensive, difficult to ship and store Alternative energy sources like wind or solar power

Automated operations, computerized process control and completely enclosed systems to reduce release of materials to outside environment Eg: municipal trash incinerators emit carcinogenic toxins. By adjusting the temperature of incineration, dioxin emissions can be prevented.

Corporations may be allowed to offset emissions by buying, selling and banking pollution rights from other factories. Emissions trading is a market-based approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants. A limit or cap is allocated or sold to firms in the form of emissions permits which represent the right to emit or discharge a specific volume of the specified pollutant. Firms are required to hold a number of permits (or allowances or carbon credits) equivalent to their emissions.

A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide. The total number of permits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to that level. Firms that need to increase their volume of emissions must buy permits from those who require fewer permits.

Emission trading is allowed under Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The countries commit themselves to limit or reduce their emissions of four greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons).

Aerosol hair sprays, deodorants, charcoal lighter fluid, gasoline-powered lawn movers etc. may be banned Clean-burning, oxygenated fuels or electric motors would be required for all vehicles. Encourage car-pooling Restrict parking lots

Using equipments that remove contaminants at the end of the manufacturing process The degree of pollutant removal-collection efficiency

Desulphurization of coal Inorganic sulphur in coal is removed by subjecting grounded coal to hydraulic washing. Sulphur free coal floats on the surface and is collected. Organic sulphur removed by passing hydrogen gas over fuel in presence of catalyst or by a microbial method using a strain designated as IGT-57.

Checking emission of oxides of nitrogen from coal- Coal conversion technology Checking the emission of nitrogen from automobile exhaust installing catalytic converters in the exhaust system-converted into harmless gases. Limitation- gasoline or petrol should be unleaded, lead poisons the catalyst.

Main source- incomplete combustion of all carbon containing fuels particularly in automobile engines, industrial furnaces and cigarette smoking. Catalytic converters in automobiles, catalytic burners in submarines and space flights.

Common source- powerhouses operating on coal. Installation of electrostatic precipitator in chimney- carbon particles attracted by charged electrodes-soot. Industrial filters

Factors: physical form of particulates (whether solid or liquid), particle size and size distribution, density and porosity of the particulates and particle shape( spheres, fibers or plates) Gravitational and inertial collectors- wet and dry scrubbers, gravity settling chambers and cyclone collectors. Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)- single and twostage units Filters woven and non-woven fabric, paper and fiber media

Use of hydroelectric power in place of power generation by coal. Use of nuclear power. Use of alternate energy sources for automobiles- CNG Use of electric vehicles powered by batteries.

 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act was enacted in 1981 and amended in 1987 to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in India. National ambient air quality standards based on health impact evolved (1982, 1994). Emission standards for air polluting industries developed for major industries Implementation of standards in 17 categories of highly polluting industries and other small/medium scale industries (stone crushers, brick kiln, re-rolling mills, etc.). Action plan implementation and pollution control in identified 24 problem areas.

Improvement in vehicular technology (Bharat-1, Bharat-2, CNG vehicles, 4 stroke engines, etc.)

Improvement in fuel quality -diesel with low sulfur content (0.25 in whole country and 0.05 in metro cities) Gasoline -lead phased-out throughout the country since 2000 Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate for all vehicles All commercial vehicles to operate on CNG in Delhi Air Quality Monitoring at National Level (295 stations spread over 93 cities) Air Quality Index for public Information Air Quality Data on TV channels and daily news papers for public awareness

Liu, D. H., & Liptak, B. G. (1997). Environmental Engineers' Handbook. New York: Lewis Publishers. Gairola, A., & Sharma, R. K. (2009). A Regulatory Framework for Control of Air Pollution in India - A Country Report. Ahluwalia, V. K., & Malhotra, S. (2006). Environmental Science. Noida: Ane Books India.